^S^ 


^ 


»r^.'>': 


J>           ^  -^  J»  JL^ 

.:>  :»-^~ 

^^*2>   " 

j>           ^•>->3ii> 

"»  :»<> 

=^'=i  - 

>       ^"^*^ 

-»    J'ja  " 

*        ::»*^^ 

SO  *y>T> 

^>»r>^ 

*         ^^^^^ 

'3>   ^>» 

Joa^   >. 

>  >     ^»>^i^ 

3>    joa 

-*>>3>  v^ 

■  >   ^-?i? 

*  :>jv> 

ji>i:>  "^ 

»  ^      ^>>r^ 

_»     »s> 

;»*>    < 

►  i>    ■  :>  ><  ?  - 

-*    Ju>.a 

^>':>  ~> 

»       ^>»  i   s; 

>.  >*3> 

J>>^  :> 

••*>      ^^-^'5 

►     j>>a»    - 

3>^:>    o   -: 

:|  ^^^ 

^^'  .    :>»>^ 

5!>>       :>>>^  < 

^'^v$ 

'X»'—  ^>>j>r^ 

?'    ■    »>W^ 

•  .>>:2> 

>»j  y 

?i^  /.  *^^  *"^ 

**■<  >.3a 

5^>  a    ->^^>V 

>>     *>     ^Oi> 

->>>::> 

:x  >  >.::> 

?^->>    >^^>: 

,r>  V3t» 

300  >3 

^''  *    >  >  >  > . 

^  '    ^^ 

;»  J  >- 

•5>^ 

•^o  ,  ^j  >3. 

-»  ■>  >:>j 

»:>>j  >     :>3  ,-,, 

-^     =^5^ 

.^  0  v^  - 

""^   ->-_jQ|^ 

R^'-*  -»      >:>  i:>. 

^>^^! 

; "  -^^:>i 

K>'  >    »      -,  .    .,      J 

=^  -*_*:* 

i  2>    : 

>■  j>.r» 

>-a>    : 

>  -:>>>a 

^is*  s: 

»     ^>  '>JB 

'-J»_::> 

.  ^..>:» 

>-3>:^ 

^:>>x*> 

i> 


::>    ' 


>;r:x^^^ 


>  jj>^ 


3^ 

J^  >>  > 

3>  ^ 

jj>  :>£>>- 


X35>  :Z>  -^, 


>__> 

>  -^^ 

>  ^ 

>i»: 

>r>:>    j>>3g> 

»>    >2X> 

3t>  ; 

>  32» 

Z»>- 

>  j3S» 

*3^ 

a3!>  ^ 

3>>: 

>   23» 

Jj*> 

>3>> 

:a>,> 

i3»^ 

S>J  > 

i»Ji: 

C»5  > 

£»  ^3 

:^j-> 

v>._U 

:>v> 

.^^ 

_:» 

►  :>? 

>  i>': 

:>  :>:z>  :^  »;>= 


>J5^  __:» 


~^ 

3» 

> 

>-*—- 

-  j:::* 

-J» 

_3 

»;! 

"^> 

3- 

^ 

::^ 

iJ> 

j?>:: 

^- 

_> 

»^_ 

^^=^'  ~ 

:»  ^. 

j> 

»^ 

-—^  ~i 

9  ' 

5-  - 

»  — 

^^ 

►  ^  ^  - 

»  _ — 

5  :^ 

»  ' 

-> 

3>    - 

:>  ^ 

-»  -• 

o> 

r)S> 

:>^> 

■o 

^» 

j>^_r> 

» 

■>:> 

^^ 

::>^ 

»   -^ 

J>. 

^ 

»>'  s»  :::«> 


THE 


EARTH    AND    ITS    INHABITANTS. 


EUROPE 


BY 

:h]lisee  reclhs. 

EDITED   BY 

E.  G.  EAYEXSTEm,  F.R.G.S.,  F.S.S.,  Etc. 


VOL.  I. 


GREECE,  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE,  RUMANIA,  SERYIA,  MONTENEGRO. 
ITALY,  SPAIN,  AND  PORTUGAL. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS  AND  MAPS. 


NEW     YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

1,   3,   AND    5    BOND     STREET. 

1883. 


UN1VFT?SITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  UBRAET 


COXTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introductory  Reuaess 1 

ECROPE. 
I.  Geographical  Importance        ...      5 
II.  Extent  and  Boundaries  ....       6 

III.  Xatcral  Ditisioss  and  Mountains  .        .       9 

IV.  The  Maritime  Regions     .         .         .         .13 
V.  Climate 16 

VI.  Inhabitants 18 

THE   MEDITERR.VXE.VX. 
I.  Hydrology         ......     23 

II.  Animal  Life,  Fisheries,  and  Salt-PaNS     .     28 

III.  Commerce  and  Navigation        .         .         .31 

GREECE. 

I.  General  AsPEcrs 36 

II.  Continental  Greece  .        .  .45 

lil.  The  Morea,  or  Peloponnesus  .         .        .56 

IV.  The  Islands  of  the  JJgean  Sea      .        .     C9 
V.  The  Ionian  Isles 75 

VI.  The  Present  and  Future  of  Greece       .     80 
VII.  Government  and  Political  Divisions       .     85 

TURKEY   IN'   EUROPE. 

I.  General  Aspects 87 

II.  Crete   and   the    Islands   of  the   Archi- 
pelago   90 

III.  Turkey  of   the   Greeks  (Tiiracia,   Mace- 

Do.viA,  and  Thessaly)  .         .         .         .98 

IV.  Albania  and  Epirus  .         .         .         .115 

V.  The  Illyrian   Alps,    Bosnia,  and  Herze- 

govina   126 

VI.  Bulgaria 131 


I 


VII.  Prfsext    Position     and     Prospects    of 

Turkey l.;5 

VIII.  Government  and  Administration  .  150 

Treaties  of  San  Stefano  and  Berlin     .  153 

RUMANIA 155 

SERVIA  AND  MONTENEGRO. 

I.    S^ERVIA 172 

II.  Montenegro 179 

ITALV. 

I.  General  Aspects 1S3 

II.  The    Basin    of   the   Po:   Piemont,    Lom- 

BARDY,    VeNETIA,    AND    EmILIA  .  .189 

III.  LiGCRIA    AND    the    RiVIERA    OF    GeNOA  .    230 

IV.  Tuscany 239 

V.  The   Roman    Apennines,  the   Valley    of 

THE    Tiber,    the    Marches,    and    the 

Abruzzos 257 

VI.  Southern  Italy  :  Naples  ....  2S6 

Vn.  Sicily 309 

The  ^'Eolian  or  Lipaiic  Islands        .         .  331 

The  .lEgadian  Islands     ....  334 

Malta  and  Gozzo    ....  335 

VIII.  Sardinia sys 

IX.  The  Present  and  Future  of  Italy  .        .  352 

X.  Government  and  Administration      .        .  358 

363 


CORSICA 


StAIN'. 
I.  General  Aspects      .... 
II.  The  Castiles,  Leon,  a:;d  Estbemadura 
III.  Andalusia 


370 
377 
394 


CONTENTS. 


IV.  Tiiy.  Medcterranean   Slope:    Mcrcia  and 

I 

VALENCrA 414   I 

V.  The  BALEAHtc  Islanks      ....  423 
VI.  The  Valley  of   the    Ebro:  Aracon  axi> 

Cataioxia 427 

VII.  Basque    Provinces,    Xavarra,    ani>    Lo- 

GRoSo 439 

VIII.    .'^AVTAXilER,    THE    ASTIKIAS,    AND    GaLICIA     .    44S   ( 

IX.  The  Present  and  Future  of  Spain  .         .  460 
X  Government  and  Administration      .         .  465  ! 


PAOB 

PORTrOAL. 

I.  General  A.^jpects 469 

II.  Northern     Porti-hal  :    the    Vallev.s    of 

the    MiNHO,    DoiRO,   AND   MoNDEGO  .   4'73 

III.  The  Valley  of  the  Tagus       .        .         .  482 

IV.  .Southern    Portugal:  Aleutejo   and   Al- 

GARVE 490 

V.  The  Present  and  Futire  of  Portugal  .  496 
VI.  Government  and  Administration  .  498 

INDEX 601 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAPS  PEIXTED  IX  COLOUES. 


1 .  Ethnographical  Map  of  Europe  . 
•J.  Turkev-in-Europe  and  Greece     . 

3.  The  Bosphorus  and  Constantinople 

4.  Ethnographical  Map  of  Turkey  . 


PAGE 

.  18 
.  85 
.  98 
.   US 


5.  Italy  . 

6.  The  Delta  of  the  Po 
7-  The  Bay  of  Naples 
8.  Spain  and  Portugal 


PAGE 

.  183 
.  210 
.  288 
.  365 


PLATES. 


Peasants  from  the  En\'irons  of  Athens  To  face  page  53 
Constantinople  and  the  Golden  Horn,  from  the 

Heights  of  Evub 99 

Albanians  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .118 

AVealthy  Amauts        .         .         .         .         .         .124 

Turkish  Muleteers  in  the  Herzegovina       .        .127 

Timova 133 

Bulgarians .......  138 

Mussulman  of  Adrianoplc,  and  Mussulman  Lady 

of  Prisrend  .......   147 

Wallachians  (Valakhs) 162 

Belgrade 174 

The  Pennine  Alps,  as  seen  from  the  Becca  di 

Nona  (Pic  Carrel),  10,380  feet     .        .        .195 

Venice 207 

The  Palace  at  Ferrara        ...  .228 

Verona 229 

Peasants  of  the  Abruzzos    .....  258 


Naples To  face  page  300 

Capri,  seen  from  JIassa  Lubrense        .         .         .  302 

Amalfi 304 

La  Valetta,  Malta 337 

Peasants  of  Toledo,  Castile  .  .  .  .390 
Roman  Bridge  at  Alcantara  .  .  .  .391 
Gorge  de  los  Gaitanes,  Defile  of  Guadalhorce  .  399 
Peasants  of  Cordova,  Andalusia  ....  406 
Gibraltar,  as  seen  from  the  "  Lines  "  .  .  .414 
Peasants  of  La  Huerta,  and  Cigarrera  of  Valen- 
cia         419 

TVomen  of  Ibiza,  Balearic  Isles  ....  425 

Monserrat,  Catalonia  .         .         .         .         .         .431 

Barcelona,  seen  from  the  Castle  of  Monjuich      .  437 
Gorges  of  Pancor':  s    .         .         ■         •         .         .440 
Los  Pas,-igC3        .         .  ■  •         •  447 

Oporto         .......  478 

Lisbon         .....•••  484 


Tl 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ILLrSTEATIOXS  IX  TEXT. 


EUROPE. 


FAr.R 

7 


1.  The  Natural  Boundary  of  Europe 

2.  The  Rtlicf  of  Europe 8 

.3.  Development  of   Coast-lines   relatively  to 

Area      .         .         .         .         .         .         .14 

4.  The  Isothermal  Zone  of  Europe .        .        .17 

THE  5IEDITEREANEAN. 


6. 

The  Depth  of  the  Mediterranean 

24 

6. 

The  Strait  of  Gibraltar 

26 

7. 

Principal  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean 

30 

8. 

Ste  imer  Routes  and  Telegraphs . 
GIUEECE. 

34 

9. 

Maixote  and  Si'AUTAS 

42 

10. 

Foreign   Element.?   in   the    Population    o 

f 

Greece 

44 

11. 

Mount  Pak.s-assv.'-,  a.mi  Delphi 

46 

12. 

Lower  Acamania        .... 

49 

13. 

Thermopyla;        ..... 

50 

14. 

Lake  Copais 

52 

1.5. 

The  Acuopolis  of  Athens 

54 

16. 

Athens  and  its  Long  Walls 

00 

17. 

Ancient  Athens 

56 

18. 

MoixT  Taygetis       .... 

58 

19. 

Lakes  Phcnca  and  Stj-niphalus   . 

60 

20. 

The  Plateau  of  Mantinea    . 

62 

21. 

Bifurcation  of  the  Gastuui  . 

63 

22. 

The  A'alley  of  the  Eurotas  . 

67 

23. 

Euripus  and  Clialeis    .... 

70 

24. 

Nea  Kainieni 

72 

2o. 

Corfu          

76 

26. 

The  Channel  of  Santa  Jlaura 

77 

27. 

Argostoli 

79 

TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

28.  The  Gorge  of  IIagio  Eu.mei.i.         .        .  91 

29.  Crete,  or  Candia 93 

30.  The  ^Egean  Sea 95 

31.  Geologicul  Jlap  of  the  Peninsula  of  Con- 

stantinople      99 

32.  The  Hellespont,  or  DurdancUcs  .  .105 

33.  Mount  Athos 108 

34.  MoiXT  OLV.MPIS 110 

35.  Mount  Olj-mpus  and  the  X alley  of  Tempe  111 

36.  Southern  Epirus 117 

37.  Subterranean  Beds  of  the  Affluents  of  the 

Narenta 1-28 

38.  Mount  Vitosh 132 


39.  Delta  of  the  Danube 137 

40.  Comp.arativc  Discharge  of  the  Mouths  of 

the  Danube 138 

41.  Conmicrcial    Highways    converging   upon 

Constantinople       .         .         .         .         .150 

42.  The  Turkish  Empire 151 


RUM.iXI.V. 

43.  The  Rumanians  . 

44.  The  Rivers  Shil  and  Olto    . 

45.  The  Danube  and  Yalomitza 


156 
153 
161 


46.  Ethnological  Slap  of  Jloldavian  Bessarabia  164 

47.  Buchauest 169 

SERVIA  ASD  MONTENEGRO. 

48.  Confluence  of  the  Danube  and  Save    .        .  1 74 

49.  Jlontencgro  and  the  Lake  of  Skodra  .         .   180 

ITALY. 

50.  Rome' and  the  Roman  Empire     .         .        .  186 

51.  Moste  Viso 189 

52.  Grand  Paradis 191 

53.  Plain   of    Debris    between    the   ^Ups   and 

Apennines 192 

54.  Slope  of  the  Valley  of  the  Po     .        .        .  193 

55.  Mud  Volcanoes  of  the  Northern  Apennines  194 
66.  Ancient  Glaciers  of  the  Alps       .        .        .  195 

57.  Serra  of  Ivrca  and  Ancient  Glacier  Lakes 

of  the  Dora 196 

58.  Ancient  Lakes  of  Vcrbaiio  .         .         .         .197 

59.  LakeComo 198 

60—62.  Sections  of  Lake  Corao         .        .        .199 

63.  Villa  Seiibelloxi 201 

64.  Beech  and  Pine  AVoods  of  Ravenna    .         .  203 

65.  Shingle  Beds  of  the  Tagliamento,  &c.         .  205 

66.  Old  Bed  of  the  Piave 206 

67.  Lagoons  of  A'enice 207 

68.  Colonies  of  the  Roman  Veterans         .        .  209 

69.  The  Po  between  Piacenza  and  Cremona      .  211 

70.  German  Comtnunes  of  Northern  Italy        .  216 

71.  MoxTE  Rosa 217 

72.  The  Lagoons  of  Comacchio         .         .        .  220 

73.  The  Fisheries  of  Comacchio         .         .         .221 

74.  Slouth  of  the  Adige  Valley         .         .         .223 

75.  The  Passages  over  the  ^Ups         .        .        .  224 

76.  The  Lakes  and  Canals  of  Mantua        •        .  227 

77.  Palmanova 229 

78.  Junction  of  the  Alps  and  Apennines   .         .  231 

79.  Genoa  and  its  Suburbs        ....  234 

80.  Genoa 235 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIOXS. 


81.  The  Gulf  of  Spezia     .... 

82.  The  Golfolino  of  the  Akno  . 

83.  Defiles  of  the  Amo     .... 

84.  Monte  Argentaro        .... 
8.5.  Val  (li  Chiana 

86.  The  Lake  of  Bientina  ... 

87.  The  Malarial  Regions 

88.  Florence   ..... 

89.  The  Harbour  of  Leghorn   . 

90.  The  Lake  of  Bolsena  .... 

91.  La  Montagna  d'Albano 

92.  Ancient  Lake  of  Fucino 

93.  Lake  of  Trasimeno     .... 

94.  C.4MPAGXA  OP  Rome    .... 
93.  Pontine  Marshes         .... 

96.  Ancient  Lakes  of  the  Tiber  and  Topino 

97.  C.\sc.ADEs  OF  Term     .... 

98.  The  Delta  of  the  Tiber 

99.  Pe.^s.vnts  of  the  Rom.^n  Campao  a  . 

100.  Rome 

101.  The  niUs  of  Rome      .... 

102.  Civita  A'ecchia    ..... 

103.  Yalleys  of  Erosion  on  the  AVestem  Slope 

of  the  Apennines  ..... 

104.  Rimini  and  San  Marino      .         .        '.         . 

105.  Monte  Gargano  ...... 

106.  Ashes  of  the  Campania       .... 

107.  Ebcptiox  of  Mount  Vesuvius 

108.  Educational  Map  of  Italy  .... 

109.  Pompeii      • 

110.  The  Marshes  of  Salpi  .... 

111.  Harbour  of  Brindisi  in  1871 

112.  Harbour  of  Taranto 

113.  Strait  of  Messina 

114.  Profile  of  Mount  Etna  .... 
11.5.  Lava  Stream  of  Catania  .... 
118.  Subsidiary  Cones  of  Mount  Etna 

117-  The  Macoalubas  and  Girgenti     . 

118.  Palermo  asd  Moste  Pellegrixo    . 

119.  Trapani  and  Marsala  .... 

120.  Syracuse 

121.  Temple  op  Concord  at  Gihgenti    . 

122.  Tlie  Central  Portion  of  the  iEolian  Islands 

123.  The  Mediterranean  to  the  South  of  Sicily  . 

124.  The  Port  of  Malta      .         .    '     . 

125.  The  Sea  to  the  South  of  Sardinia 

126.  Strait  of  Bonifacio 

127.  La  Giara    . 

128.  District  of  Iglcsias 

129.  Cagliari     . 

130.  Port  of  Terranova 

131.  !N'a^•igation  of  Italy 

132.  Commercial  Routes  of  Italy 

133.  Submarine    Plateau   between   Corsica  and 

Tuscany 


P.IGK 

FIG 

.  237 

134 

.  240 

135 

.  241 

.  243 

.  244 

.  245 

.  247 

.  252 

136. 

2.55 

137. 

260 

138. 

261 

139. 

263 

140. 

264 

141. 

265 

142. 

267 

143. 

269 

144. 

270 

145. 

271 

146. 

272 

147. 

276 

148. 

278 

149. 

281 

150. 

151. 

283 

152. 

285 

153. 

287 

289 

154. 

292 

155. 

297 

156. 

301 

157. 

305 

158. 

307 

159. 

308 

160. 

310 

311 

161. 

313 

162. 

314 

163. 

317 

164. 

324 

165. 

326 

166. 

328 

167. 

329 

168. 

332 

169. 

334 

170. 

336 

171. 

339 

172. 

340 

173. 

345 

174. 

348 

175. 

350 

176. 

351 

177. 

355 

178. 

356 

179. 

180. 

364 

181. 

PAGE 

134.  Profile  of  the  Koad  from  Ajaccio  to  Bastia  365 
iTiA 368 


SPAIN. 

.  Table-lands  of  Iberian  Peninsula        .         .  371 

.  Dehesas  near  Madrid 375 

,  Density  of  Population         ....  376 

.  Profile  of  Railway  from  Bayonne  to  Cadiz  379 

,  Sierras  de  Gredos  and  de  Gata    .         .         .  380 

Deflle  of  the  Tajo         ....  382 

Steppes  of  New  Castile       ....  384 

Salamanca  .......  388 

The  Alcazar  of  Segovia  .         .         .  389 

Toledo 390 

Madrid  and  its  Environs     ....  392 

Aianjuez     .......  394 

Basins  of  the  Guadiana  and  Guadalquivir  .  395 
The  Pass  of  Despen.vpekros    .         .         .  396 
The  Sierra  Nevada  ....  397 

The  Mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir  .         .         .399 

The  Steppes  of  Ecija 402 

Zones  of  Vegetation  on  the  Coast  of  Anda- 
lusia       403 

The  Mines  of  Huelva 406 

The  Alhambra  .         .         .         .         .         .  408 

Cadiz  and  its  Roadstead       .         .         .         .411 

Gibraltar 413 

Steppes  of  Murcia       .         .         .         .         .416 
The  P.tLM  Grove  of  Elche     .         .         .418 
ITie  Palm  Grove  of  Elche  and  the  Huertas 
of  Orihuela   . 


Ruins  of  the  Dyke  ab  .v 
Peasants  of  Mukcia 
The  Harbour  of  Cartagena 
The  Grao  de  Valencia 
The  Balearic  Islands  . 
View  of  Ibiza  . 
The  Pytiuses 
Port  Mahon 
The  Delta  of  the  Ebro 
The  Steppes  of  Aragon 
The  Environs  of  Barcelona 
The  Sand-banks  of  Mataro 
Andorra 
Jaizquibel  . 
Azcoitia  and  Azpeitia 
The  Environs  of  Bilbao 
St.  Sebastian 
St.  Sebastian     . 
Guetaria     . 
Guernica    . 
Pass  of  Reinosa  . 


E  Lo 


.  419 
.  420 
.  421 
.  423 
.  424 
.  426 
.  427 
.  428 
.  430 
.  435 
.  436 
.  440 
.  441 
.  443 
.  445 
.  447 
.  449 
.  450 
.  451 
.  452 
.  453 
.  454 


VUl 


LIST  OF  ILTXSTRATIOXS. 


no. 

182.  PefiBS  d»  Kuropa 

183.  Kias  of  Lii  Coruna  and  Fcrrol 

184.  Santofia  and  Santaudtr 

185.  Ovicdo  and  Gijon 

186.  ToWEK  or  IIehciles 

187.  Kia  de  Vigo 

1 88.  Hailroads  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula 

189.  Foreign  Commerce  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  460 

190.  Diagram  exhibiting  the  F.xteut  of  the  Cas- 

tilian  Language    . 


PORTUGAL. 

191.  Kainfall  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula 

192.  PouTucvESE  Types  (Peasants) 

193.  The  Valley  of  the  Limia,  or  Lima 

194.  Dunes  of  Aveiro 

19i5.  Oporto  and  the  Pais  do  Vinho    . 


PACE 

rto. 

.  456 

196 

.  4i8 

.  4C0 

197. 

.  462 

198. 

.  463 

199. 

.  464 

200. 

.  465 

201. 

insula  466 

202. 

e  Cas- 

203. 

.  467 

204. 

205. 

.  470 

206. 

•    ••''2 

20". 

.  475 

208. 

.  476 

.  478 

209. 

Sao  Joao  da   Fuz  and  tlie  Mouth  of   the 
Douro  .......  480 


CoiMliIiA 482 

The  Kstuary  of  the  Tejo  (Tagus)         .         .  483 

I'eniehe  and  tho  licrlingas           .                  .  485 

aiouth  of  the  Tejo 486 

Zones  of  Vegetation  in  Portugnl         .         .  488 

Castle  of  Pexha  he  Cixtha    .        .        .  489 

MoN-ASIEUY  or  THE  K.MCMTS  OF    ClIUlST  AT 

TliOMAK 491 

Estuary  of  the  Sado 4  02 

Serra   de    Monchique  and  Promontory  of 

Sagres  .......  493 

Geology  of  Algarve 4C4 

Faro  and  Tavira  .....  496 
Geographical   Extent   of    the    Portuguese 

Language     ......  497 

Telegraph  from  Lisbon  to  Kio  de  Janeiro .  498 


THE  EAETH  AND  ITS  IXHABITAXTS. 


IXTEODLX'TOEY  EEMAEKS.* 


UR  earth  is  but  as  an  atom  in  space,  a  star  amongst  stars.  Yet,  to  us 
who  inhabit  it,  it  is  still  without  bounds,  as  it  was  in  the  time  of 
our  barbarian  ancestors.  Xor  can  we  foresee  the  period  when  the 
whole  of  its  surface  will  be  known  to  us.  We  have  been  taught 
by  astronomers  and  geodesists  that  our  planet  is  a  sphere  flattened 
at  the  poles,  and  physical  geographers  and  meteorologists  have  applied  their 
powers  of  inductive  reasoning  to  establish  theories  on  the  direction  of  the  winds 
and  ocean  currents  within  the  polar  regions.  But  hitherto  no  explorer  has 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  extremities  of  our  earth,  and  no  one-  can  tell  whether 
land  or  sea  extends  beyond  those  icy  barriers  which  have  frustrated  our  most 
determined  efforts.  Thanks  to  the  struggles  of  indomitable  seamen,  the  pride  of 
our  race,  the  area  of  the  mysterious  regions  around  the  north  pole  has  been 
reduced  to  something  like  the  hundredth  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  but  in  the 
south  there  still  remains  an  unknown  region  of  such  vast  extent,  that  the  moon, 
were  she  to  drop  upon  our  planet,  might  disappear  within  it  without  coming  into 
contact  with  any  part  of  the  earth's  surface  already  known  to  us. 

And  the  polar  regions,  which  present  so  many  natural  obstacles  to  our 
explorers,  are  not  the  only  portions  of  the  earth  not  yet  known  to  men  of  science. 
It  may  be  humiliating  to  our  pride  as  men,  but  we  feel  constrained  to  admit  that 
among  the  countries  not  yet  known  to  us  there  are  some,  accessible  enough  as 
far  as  natural  obstacles  arc  concerned,  but  closed  against  us  by  our  fellow-men ! 
There  are  peoples  in  this  world,  dwelling  in  towns,  obeying  laws,  and  having 
customs  comparatively  polished,  but  who  choose  to  live  in  seclusion,  and  are  as 
little  known  to  us  as  if  they  wei'e  the  inhabitants  of  some  other  planet.  Their 
frontiers  are  closed  by  war  and  its  horrors,  by  the  practice  of  slavery,  by  religious 

•  Houzeau,  "  Histoire  d«  Sol  de  I'Europe." — C.irl   Ritter,  '•Europi." — Kohl,  "  Die  Geo^raphi^che 
Lage  der  Haupsladle  Europa's." 

vol..    I.  I 


2  TXTr.onucTonv  REMAnics. 

liiuaticisin,  and  even  commercial  jealousy.  AVe  have  heard  of  some  of  these 
peoples  bj'  vague  report,  but  there  are  others  concerning  whom  we  absolutely 
laiow  nothing.  And  thus  it  happens  that  in  this  ago  of  steam,  of  the  printing 
press,  of  incessant  and  feverish  activity,  wc  still  know  nothing,  or  very  little,  of 
the  centre  of  Africa,  of  a  portion  of  Australia,  of  the  interior  of  that  fine  and 
no  doubt  most  fertile  island  of  New  Guinea,  and  of  vast  table-lands  in  the  centre 
of  Asia.  ISiiy,  even  the  country  which  most  men  of  learning  love  to  look  upon  as 
the  cradle  of  our  Arj'^an  ancestors  is  known  to  us  but  very  imperfectly. 

As  regards  most  countries  which  have  been  visited  by  travellers,  and  figure 
more  or  less  correctly  upon  our  maps,  a  great  amoimt  of  furtlier  research  is 
required  before  our  knowledge  of  their  geographj'  can  be  called  complete.  Years 
will  pass  ere  the  erroneous  and  contradictory  statements  of  our  explorers  cen- 
cerning  tlicni  liavo  been  set  right.  A  prodigious  amount  of  labour  must  be 
performed  before  their  climate,  their  hydrograj^hy,  their  plants  and  animals,  can 
be  thoroughly  known  to  us.  3[inute  and  systematic  researches  have  to  bo 
conducted  to  elucidate  the  slow  changes  in  the  aspects  and  physical  phenomena 
of  many  countries.  The  greatest  caution  will  have  to  be  exercised  in  distinguishing 
between  changes  due  to  the  spontaneous  action  of  natural  causes  and  those  brought 
about  by  the  hand  of  man.  And  all  this  knowledge  we  must  acquire  before  wo 
can  boast  that  we  know  the  earth,  and  all  about  it ! 

Nor  is  this  ;;11.  Ly  a  natural  bent  of  our  mind,  all  our  studies  are  carried 
on  with  lefcrence  to  Man  as  the  centre  of  all  things.  A  knowledge  of  our  planet 
is,  therefore,  imperfect  as  long  as  it  is  not  joined  to  a  knowledge  of  the  various 
races  of  man  which  inhabit  it.  The  earth  which  man  treads  is  but  imperfectly 
known,  man  himself  even  less  so.  The  first  origin  of  races  is  shrouded  in  absolute 
darkness,  and  the  most  learned  disagree  with  reference  to  the  descent,  the 
amalgamation,  the  original  seats,  and  migratory  stages  of  most  peoples  and 
tribes.  What  do  men  owe  to  their  surroundings  ?  What  to  the  original  seats 
of  their  ancestors,  to  inborn  instincts  of  race,  to  a  blending  with  alien  races, 
or  to  influences  and  traditions  brought  to  bear  upon  them  from  beyond?  We 
hardly  know,  and  as  yet  only  a  few  rays  of  light  begin  to  penetrate  this  darkness. 
Unfortunately  our  erroneous  views  on  many  of  these  questions  are  not  due  solely 
to  ignorance.  Contending  passions  and  instinctive  national  hatreds  too  frequently 
obscure  our  judgment,  and  we  see  man  as  he  is  not.  The  far-off  savages  assume 
the  shape  of  dim  phantoms,  and  our  near  neighbours  and  rivals  in  the  arts  of 
civilisation  appear  repulsive  and  deformed  of  feature.  If  we  would  see  them  as 
they  really  are,  we  must  get  rid  of  all  our  prejudices,  and  of  those  feelings  of 
contempt,  hatred,  and  passion  which  still  set  nation  against  nation.  Our  fore- 
fathers, in  their  wisdom,  .said  that  the  most  dilBcult  thing  of  all  was  to  know 
one's  self.     Surely  a  comprehensive  study  of  mankind  is  more  difficult  still. 

We  are  thus  not  in  a  position  at  present  to  furnish  a  complete  account  of  the 
earth  and  its  inhabitants.  The  accomplishment  of  this  task  we  must  leave  to  the 
future,  when  fellow-workers  from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  will  meet  to  write 
the  grand  book  embodying  the  sum  of  human  knowledge.     For  the  present  au 


INTEODUCTOET  EEMAETv?:.  3 

individual  author  must  rest  content  with  giving  a  succinct  account  of  the  Earth, 
in  which  the  space  occupied  by  each  country  shall  be  proportionate  to  its  impor- 
tance, and  to  the  knowledge  we  possess  with  respect  to  it. 

It  is  natural,  perhaps,  that  each  nation  should  imagine  that  in  such  a 
description  it  ought  to  lie  accorded  the  foremost  place.  Every  barbarous  tribe, 
however  small,  imagines  itself  to  occupy  the  very  centre  of  the  earth,  and  to  be  the 
most  perfect  representative  of  the  human  race.  Its  language  never  fails  to  bear 
witness  to  this  naive  illusion,  born  of  the  very  narrowness  of  its  horizon.  The 
liver  which  irrigates  its  fields  is  called  the  "Father  of  "Waters,"  the  mountain 
which  shelters  its  camp  the  "^avel,"  or  "Centre  of  the  Earth;"  and  the  names 
by  which  primitive  races  designate  their  neighbours  are  terms  of  contempt,  for 
they  look  down  upon  them  as  their  inferiors.  To  them  they  are  "mute,"  "  deaf," 
"unclean,"  "imbecile,"  "monstrous,"  or  "demoniac."  The  Chinese,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  peoples  in  some  respects,  and  certainly  the  most  important  of  all 
as  far  as  mere  numbers  go,  are  not  content  with  having  bestowed  upon  their 
country  the  epithet  of  "  Flower  of  the  Centre,"  but  are  so  fully  convinced  of  its 
superiority  as  to  have  fallen  into  the  mistake  (very  excusable  under  the  circum- 
stances) of  deeming  themselves  to  be  the  "Sons  of  Heaven."  As  to  the  nations 
thinly  scattered  around  the  borders  of  their  "Celestial  Empire,"  they  know  them 
merely  as  "dogs,"  "swine,"  "demons,"  and  "savages."  Or,  more  disdainful  still, 
they  designate  them  by  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  and  speak  of  the 
"  unclean  "  tribes  of  the  west,  the  north,  the  east,  and  the  south. 

If  in  our  description  of  the  Earth  we  accord  the  first  place  to  civilised  Europe, 
it  is  not  because  of  a  prejudice  similar  to  that  of  the  Chinese.  No !  this  place 
belongs  to  Europe  as  a  matter  of  right.  Europe  as  yet  is  the  only  continent  the 
whole  of  whose  surface  has  been  scientifically  explored.  It  possesses  a  map 
approximately  correct,  and  its  material  resources  are  almost  fully  known  to  us. 
Its  population  is  not  as  dense  as  that  of  India  or  of  China,  but  it  nevertheless 
contains  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  population  of  the  globe  ;  and  its  inhabitants, 
whatever  their  failings  and  vices,  or  their  state  of  barbarism  in  some  respects,  still 
impel  the  rest  of  mankind  as  regards  material  and  mental  progress.  Europe,  for 
twenty-five  centuries,  has  been  the  focus  whence  radiated  Arts,  Sciences,  and 
Thought.  Nor  have  those  hardy  colonists  who  carried  their  European  languages 
and  customs  beyond  the  sea  succeeded  hitherto  in  giving  to  the  New  World  an 
importance  equal  to  that  of  "  little  "  Europe,  in  .spite  of  the  virgin  soil  and  vast 
area  which  gave  them  scope  for  unlimited  expansion. 

Our  American  rivals  may  be  more  active  and  enterprising  than  we  are — they 
certainly  are  not  cumbered  to  the  same  extent  b}'  the  traditions  and  inheritances 
of  feudal  times — but  they  are  as  yet  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  compete  with  us 
as  regards  the  totality  of  work  done.  They  have  scarcely  been  able  hitherto  to 
ascertain  the  material  resources  of  the  country  in  which  they  have  made  their 
home.  "  Old  Europe,"  where  every  clod  of  earth  has  its  history,  where  every  man 
is  the  heir  of  a  hundred  successive  generations,  therefore  still  maintains  the  first 
place,  and  a  comparative  studj'  of  nations  justifies  us  in  the  belief  that  its  moral 


A  INTRODUCTOEY  REMARKS. 

ascendancy  and  industrial  preponderance  will  rcnuiin  witli  it  i'oi'  many  years  to  cojnc. 
At  the  same  time,  we  must  not  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  equality  -will  obtain 
in  the  end,  not  only  between  America  and  Europe,  but  also  between  these  two  and 
the  other  quarters  of  the  world.  The  intermingling  of  nations,  migrations  which 
have  assumed  prodigious  proportions,  and  the  increasing  facilities  of  intercourse 
must  in  the  end  lead  to  an  equilibrium  of  population  being  estubli.shed  throughout 
the  world.  Then  will  each  country  add  its  proper  share  to  the  wealth  of  mankind, 
and  what  we  call  civilisation  will  have  "its  centre  everywhere,  its  periphery 
nowhere.' 

The  central  geographical  position  of  Europe  has  undoubtedly  exercised  a 
most  favourable  influence  upon  the  progress  of  the  nations  inhabiting  it.  The 
superiority  of  the  I']ur<)peans  is  certainly  not  due  to  the  inherent  virtues  of  the 
races  from  which  they  sprang,  as  is  vainly  imagined  by  some,  for  in  other  parts  of 
the  ancient  world  these  same  races  have  exhibited  far  less  creative  genius.  To 
the  happy  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  configuration,  and  geographical  position  the 
inhabitants  of  Europe  owe  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  the  earth  in  its  entirety,  and  to  have  remained  for  so  long  a  period 
at  the  head  of  mankind.  Historical  geographers  are,  therefore,  right  when  they 
insist  upon  the  influence  which  the  configuration  of  a  country  exercises  upon  the 
nations  who  inhabit  it.  The  extent  of  table-lands,  the  heights  of  mountain 
ranges,  the  direction  and  volume  of  rivers,  the  vicinity  of  the  ocean,  the  indenta- 
tion of  the  coast-line,  the  temperature  of  the  air,  the  abundance  or  rarity  of  rain, 
and  the  correlations  between  soil,  air,  and  water — all  these  are  pregnant  with 
efiects,  and  explain  much  of  the  character  and  mode  of  life  of  primitive  nations. 
They  account  for  most  of  the  contrasts  existing  between  nations  subject  to 
different  conditions,  and  point  out  the  natural  highways  of  the  globe  which 
nations  are  constrained  to  follow  in  their  migrations  or  warlike  expeditions. 

At  the  same  time,  we  must  bear  in  inind  that  the  influence  exercised  ujion 
the  history,  of  mankind  by  the  general  configuration  of  land  and  sea,  or  any 
special  features  of  the  former,  is  subject  to  change,  and  depends  essentially  upon 
the  stage  of  culture  at  which  nations  have  arrived.  Geography,  strictly  speaking, 
confines  itself  to  a  description  of  the  earth's  .surface,  and  exhibits  the  various 
nations  in  a  passive  attitude  as  it  were,  whilst  Historical  Geography  and  statistics 
show  man  engaged  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  and  striving  to  obtain  the  mastery 
over  his  surroundings.  A  river,  which  to  an  uncultured  tribe  would  constitute  an 
insurmountable  barrier,  becomes  a  commercial  high-road  to  a  tribe  further  advanced 
in  culture,  and  in  process  of  time  it  maj^  be  converted  into  a  mere  canal  of 
irrigation,  the  course  of  which  is  regulated  by  man.  A  mountain  range  frequented 
by  shepherds  and  huntsmen,  and  forming  a  barrier  between  nations,  may  attract, 
in  a  more  civilised  epoch,  the  miner  and  the  manufacturer,  and  in  course  of  time 
\\ill  even  cease  to  be  an  obstacle,  as  roads  will  traverse  it  in  all  directions.  Many  a 
creek  of  the  sea,  which  afforded  shelter  of  yore  to  the  small  vessels  of  our  ancestors, 
is  deserted  now,  whilst  the  open  bays,  which  vessels  dreaded  formerly,  have  been 
protected  by  enormous  breakwaters,  and  have  become  the  resort  of  our  largest  ships. 


INTEODrCTOEY  EEMAEKS.  •  5 

Innumerable  changes  such  as  these  have  been  effected  by  man  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  they  have  revolutionised  the  correlations  existing  between  man  and 
the  land  he  lives  in.  The  configuration  and  height  of  mountains  and  table-lands, 
the  indentation  of  the  coasts,  the  disposition  of  islands  and  archipelagos,  and  the 
extent  of  the  ocean — these  all  lose  their  relative  influence  upon  the  history  of 
nations  in  proportion  as  the  latter  emancipate  themselves  and  become  free 
agents.  Though  subject  to  the  condition  of  his  dwelling-place,  man  may  modify 
it  to  suit  his  own  piirpose ;  he  may  overcome  nature  as  it  were,  and  convert  the 
energies  of  the  earth  into  domesticated  forces.  As  an  instance  we  may  point  to 
the  elevated  table-lands  of  Central  Asia,  which  now  separate  the  countries  and 
peninsulas  surrounding  them,  but  which,  when  they  shall  have  become  the  seats  of 
human  industry,  wiU  convert  Asia  into  a  real  geographical  unit,  which  at  present 
it  is  only  in  appearance.  Massy  and  ponderous  Africa,  monotonous  Australia,  and 
Southern  America  with  its  forests  and  waterfalls,  will  be  put  on  something  like  an 
equality  with  Europe,  whenever  roads  of  commerce  shall  cross  them  in  all 
directions,  bridging  their  rivers,  and  traversing  their  deserts  and  mountain  ranges. 
The  advantages,  on  the  other  hand,  which  Europe  derives  from  its  backbone  of 
mountains,  its  radiating  rivei's,  the  contours  of  its  coasts,  and  its  generally  well- 
balanced  outline  are  not  as  great  now  as  they  were  when  man  was  dependent 
exclusively  upon  the  resources  furnished  by  nature. 

This  gradual  change  in  the  historical  importance  of  the  configuration  of  the 
land  is  a  fact  of  capital  importance  which  must  be  borne  in  mind  if  we  would 
imdcrstand  the  general  geograjjhy  of  Europe.  In  studying  space  we  must  take 
account  of  another  element  of  equal  value — time. 


EUROPE. 


I. — Geographical  Importance. 


X  the  geography  of  the  world  the  first  place  is  claimed  for  Europe, 
not  because  of  a  prejudice  like  that  of  the  Chinese,  but  as  a  matter 
of  right.  Europe  as  jet  is  the  only  continent  the  wliole  of  whose 
surface  has  been  scientifically  explored.  It  possesses  a  map  approx- 
imately correct,  and  its  material  resources  are  almost  fully  known  to 
us.  Its  population  is  not  as  dense  as  that  of  India  or  of  China,  but  it  nevertheless 
contains  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  population  of  the  globe  ;  and  its  inhabitants, 
whatever  their  failings  and  vices,  or  their  state  of  barbarism  in  some  respects,  still 
impel  the  rest  of  mankind  as  regards  material  and  mental  progress.  Europe,  for 
twenty-five  centuries,  has  been  the  focus  whence  radiated  Arts,  Sciences,  and 
Thought.  Nor  have  those  hardy  colonists  who  carried  their  European  languages 
and  customs  beyond  the  sea  succeeded  hitherto  in  giving  to  the  Xew  World  an 
importance  equal  to  that  of  '•  little  "  Europe,  in  spite  of  the  virgin  soil  and  vast 
area  which  gave  them  scope  for  unlimited  expansion. 

"  Old  Europe,"  where  every  clod  of  earth  has  its  history,  where  every  man 
is  the  heir  of  a  huudi'ed  successive  generations,  therefore  still  maintains  the  first 
place,  and  a  comparative  study  of  nations  justifies  us  in  the  belief  that  its  moral 
ascendancy  and  industrial  preponderance  will  remain  with  it  for  many  years  to  come. 
At  the  same  time,  we  must  not  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  equality  will  obtain 
in  the  end,  not  only  between  America  and  Europe,  but  also  between  these  two  and 
the  other  quarters  of  the  world.  The  intermingling  of  nations,  migrations  which 
have  assumed  prodigious  proportions,  and  the  increasing  facilities  of  intercoui"se, 
must  in  the  end  lead  to  an  equilibrium  of  population  throughout  the  world.  Then 
will  each  country  add  its  proper  share  to  the  wealth  of  mankind,  and  what  we  call 
civilisation  will  have  "  its  centre  everywhere,  its  periphery  nowhere." 

The  central  geographical   j'osition  of   Europe  has  undoubtedly  exercised   a 

most  favourable  influence  upon  the  progress  of  the  nations  inhabiting  it.     The 

superiority  of  the  Europeans  is  certainly  not  due  to  the  inherent  virtues  of  the 

races  from  which  they  sprang,  as  is  vainly  imagined  by  some,  for  in  other  parts  of 

1 


6  EUROPE 


tlio  ancient  wdrlil  these  same  races  have  exhibited  far  less  creative  genius.  To 
the  hajjpy  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  contiy:uration,  and  geographical  position,  the 
inhabitants  of  Europe  owe  the  honour  of  having  been  the  tirst  to  obtain  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth  in  its  entirety,  and  to  have  remained  for  so  long  a  period  at  the 
head  of  mankind.  Historical  geographers  are,  therefore,  right  when  they  insist 
upon  the  influence  whicli  the  configuration  of  a  coiintry  exercises  upon  tlie  nations 
who  inhabit  it.  The  extent  of  table-lands,  the  heights  of  mountain  ranges,  the 
direction  and  volume  of  rivers,  the  vicinity  of  the  ocean,  the  indentation  of  the 
coast-line,  the  temperature  of  the  air,  the  abundance  or  rarity  of  rain,  and  the 
coiTclations  between  soil,  air,  and  water — all  these  are  pregnant  with  effects,  and 
explain  much  of  the  character  and  mode  of  life  of  primitive  nations.  Tliej 
account  for  most  of  the  contrasts  existing  between  nations  subject  to  different 
conditions,  and  jjoint  out  the  natural  highways  of  the  globe  which  nations  are 
constrained  to  follow  in  tlieir  migrations  or  warlike  expeditions. 

II. — Extent  and   Boundabies. 

The  dwellers  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  must  have  learnt,  in 
the  coui-seof  their  first  warlike  and  commercial  expeditions,  to  distinguish  between 
the  great  continents;  for  within  the  nucleus  of  the  ancient  world  Africa  is 
attached  to  Asia  by  a  narrow  band  of  arid  sand,  and  Europe  separated  from  Asia 
Minor  by  seas  and  channels  difficult  to  navigate  on  account  of  dangerous  currents. 
The  division  of  the  known  world  into  three  distinct  parts  could  not  fail  to  impress 
itself  upon  the  minds  of  those  infant  nations ;  and  when  the  Greeks  had  attained 
a  state  of  maturity,  and  historical  records  took  the  place  of  m^-ths  and  oral  tradi- 
tions, the  name  of  Europe  had  prol)al)ly  been  transmitted  through  a  long  series  of 
generations.  Herodotus  naively  admits  that  no  mortal  could  ever  hope  to  Mud 
out  the  time  meaning  of  this  name,  be<]ueathed  to  us  by  our  forefathers ;  but  this 
has  not  deteired  our  modern  men  of  learning  from  attempting  to  explain  it. 
Some  amongst  them  consider  that  it  was  applied  at  first  to  Thrace  with  its  "  large 
plains,"  and  subsequently  extended  to  the  whole  of  Europe ;  others  derive  it  from 
one  of  the  surnames  of  Zeus  with  the  "  large  eyes,"  the  ancient  god  of  the  Sun, 
specially  charged  with  the  protection  of  the  continent.  Some  etymologists  believe 
that  Europe  was  designated  thus  by  the  Phrenicians,  as  being  the  country  of 
"white  men."  We  consider  it,  however,  to  be  far  more  probable  that  its  name 
originally  meant  simply  "the  West,"  as  contrasted  with  Asia,  "the  East,"  or 
"  countiy  of  the  rising  sun."  It  is  thus  that  Italy  first,  and  then  Spain,  bore  the 
name  of  Hesperia ;  that  Western  Africa  received  the  name  of  El  Maghreb  from 
the  Mohammedans,  and  the  plains  beyond  the  Mississippi  became  known  in  our 
own  times  as  the  ".  Far  West." 

But,  whatever  may  be  the  original  meaning  of  its  name,  Europe,  in  all  the 
myths  of  the  ancients,  is  described  as  a  Daughter  of  Asia.  The  Phoenicians  were 
the  first  to  explore  the  sliores  of  Europe,  and  to  bring  its  inhabitants  into  contact 
with  those  of  the  East.     When  the  Daughter  had  become  the  superior  of  her 


EXTENT  AND  BOUNDARIES.  7 

Jlotlier  in  civilisation,  and  Greek  voyagers  were  following  up  the  explorations 
begun  by  tbe  mariners  of  Tyre,  all  the  known  countries  to  the  north  of  the 
Mediterranean  -were  looked  upon  as  dependencies  of  Europe,  and  that  name,  which 
was  originally  confined  to  the  Thraco-Hellenic  peninsula,  was  made  to  include,  in 
course  of  time,  Italy,   Spain,  the  countries  of  the  Gauls,   and  the  hyperborean 

Fii;.  1. — The  Natural  Boundary  of  Europe. 

Scile  1  :  21,800,000. 


The  zone  of  depression  extending  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Obi  is  shaded.     The  darker  thading 

to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  shows  the  area  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

»=^  50  Miles. 


regions  beyond  the  Alps  and  the  Danube.  Strabo,  to  whom  were  known  already 
the  most  varied  and  fruitful  portions  of  Europe,  extends  it  eastward  as  far  as  the 
Palus  McEOtis  and  the  Tanais.* 

•  Modem  Sea  of  Azof  and  Eiver  Don. 


8 


EUROPE. 


Since  that  epoch  the  limits  between  Europe  and  Asia  have  been  shifted  by 
geographers  still  further  to  the  east.  They  are,  however,  more  or  less  cun- 
ventional,  for  Europe,  though  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  ocean,  is  in  reality 
but  a  peninsula  of  Asia.  At  the  same  time,  the  contrasts  between  these  two  parts 
of  the  world  fully  justify  scientific  men  in  dividing  them  into  two  continental 
masses.  But  where  is  the  true  line  of  separation  between  them  ?  ^lap-makers 
generally  adopt  the  political  boundaries  which  it  has  pleased  the  Russian 
Government  to  di-aw  between  its  vast  European  and  Asiatic  territories,  and  others 
adopt  the  summits  of  the  Ural  Mountains  and  of  the  Caucasus  as  the  boundary 

Fig.  2. — The  Relief  op  Euhopb. 

According  to  Houzeau,  Berghaus,  Kiepert,  Olsen,  and  others.     Scale  1  :  Bfi.ncm.non 


^Lind  up  to  650  feet  ahow  Sea  level 
\Sv9  leas  than  650 Itet  in  depth. 


m^laad  tfepresrtd  i^/dw/eve/cf  H«dittrra£f4a. 
E^^J*»  mar»  tjiaji  liOO  fvt  in  itejjUt 


between  the  two  continents  ;  and  although,  at  the  first  glance,  this  delineation 
appears  more  reasonable  than  the  former,  it  is  in  reality  no  less  absurd.  Tlie 
two  .slopes  of  a  mountain  chain  can  never  be  a.ssigiied  to  different  formations,  and 
they  are  generally  inhabited  by  men  of  the  same  race.  The  true  line  of  sepa- 
ration between  Europe  and  Asia  does  not  consist  of  mountains  at  all,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  of  a  series  of  depressions,  in  former  times  covered  by  a  channel  of  the 
sea  which  united  the  Jlediterranean  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  steppi's  of 
the  Manych,  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian,  and  to  the  north  of  the 
Caucasus,  are  still  covered  in  part  with  salt  swamps.  The  Caspian  itself,  as  well  as 
Tiake  Aral  and  the  other  lakes  which  we  meet  with  in  the  direction  of  the  Gulf  of 
Obi,  are  the  remains  of  this  ancient  arm  of  the  sea,  and  the  intermediate  re^vjns 
still  bear  the  traces  of  having  been  an  ancient  sea-bed. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  vast  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  configuration 


NATURAL  DIVISIONS  AND  MOUNTAINS.  9 

of  Europe,  not  only  during  more  ancient  geological  periods,  but  also  within 
comparatively  recent  times.  We  have  already  seen  that  a  vast  arm  of  the  sea 
formerly  separated  Europe  from  Asia  ;  it  is  equally  certain  that  there  was  a  time 
when  it  was  joined  to  Anatolia  by  an  isthmus,  which  has  since  been  converted  into 
the  Bosphorus  of  Constantinople  ;  Spuin  was  joined  to  Africa  until  the  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  invaded  the  Mediterranean  ;  Sicily  was  probably  connected  with 
Mauritania ;  and  the  British  Islands  once  formed  a  portion  of  the  mainland.  The 
erosion  of  the  sea,  as  well  as  upheavals  and  subsidences  of  land,  has  effected,  and 
still  effect,  changes  in  the  contours  of  our  coasts.  Numerous  soundings  in  the 
seas  washing  Western  Europe  have  revealed  the  existence  of  a  submarine  plateau, 
which,  from  a  geological  point  of  view,  must  be  looked  upon  as  forming  an  integral 
portion  of  our  continent.  Bounded  by  abyssal  depths  of  thousands  of  fathoms, 
and  submerged  one  hundred  fathoms  at  most  below  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  this 
pedestal  of  France  and  the  British  Islands  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  foundation 
of  an  ancient  continent,  destroyed  by  the  incessant  action  of  the  waves.  If  the 
shallow  portions  of  the  ocean,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  were  to  be 
added  to  Europe,  its  area  would  be  increased  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth,  but  it 
would  lose,  at  the  same  time,  that  wealth  in  peninsulas  which  has  secured  to  Europe 
its  historical  superiority  over  the  other  continents. 

If  we  supposed  Euroj)e  to  subside  to  the  extent  of  one  hundred  fathoms,  its 
area  would  be  reduced  to  the  compass  of  one-half.  The  ocean  would  again  cover  her 
low  plains,  most  of  which  are  ancient  sea-beds,  and  there  would  remain  above  the 
waters  merely  a  skeleton  of  plateaux  and  mountain  ranges,  far  more  extensively 
indented  by  bays  and  fringed  by  peninsulas  than  are  the  coasts  existing  at  the 
present  time.  The  whole  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe  would  be  converted 
into  a  huge  island,  separated  by  a  wide  arm  of  the  sea  from  the  plains  of  interior 
Russia.  From  an  historical  as  well  as  a  geological  point  of  view,  this  huge 
island  is  the  true  Europe.  Russia  is  not  only  half  Asiatic  on  account  of  its 
extremes  of  temperature,  and  the  aspect  of  its  monotonous  plains  and  interminable 
steppes,  but  is  likewise  intimately  linked  with  Asia  as  regards  its  inhabitants  and 
its  historical  development.  Russia  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  belonged  to  Europe 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  It  was  in  maritime  and  mountainous  Europe, 
with  its  islands,  peninsulas,  and  vallej's,  its  varied  features  and  unexpected 
contrasts,  that  modern  civilisation  arose,  the  result  of  innumerable  local  civilisa- 
tions, happily  united  into  a  single  current.  And,  as  the  rivers  descending  from  the 
mountains  cover  the  plains  at  their  foot  with  fertile  soil,  so  has  the  progress 
accomplished  in  this  centre  of  enlightenment  gradually  spread  over  the  other 
continents  to  the  very  extremities  of  the  earth. 

III. — Natiral  Divisions  and  Mountains. 

The  Europe  alluded  to  includes  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the  three 
Mediterranean  peninsulas,  and  constitutes  several  natural  divisions.  The  British 
Islands  form   one   of  these.       The  Iberian  peninsula   is   separated    scarcely  less 


10  EUROPE. 

distinctly  from  the  remainder  of  Europe,  for  between  it  and  Franco  rises  a 
most  formidable  range  of  mountains,  the  most  difficult  to  cross  in  all  Europe ;  and 
immediately  to  tbe  north  of  it  a  depression,  nowhere  exceeding  a  height  of 
6.50  feet,  e.\teiids  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
geographical  unity  of  Europe  is  represented  to  llio  lull  extent  only  in  tlie  system 
of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  mountains  of  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  Balkan 
peninsula  which  are  connected  with  it.  It  is  there  we  must  seek  the  framework 
of  continental  Europe. 

The  Alps,  whose  ancient  Celtic  name  probably  refers  to  the  whiteness  of  their 
snowj'  summits,  stretch  in  an  immense  curve,  more  than  600  miles  in  length, 
from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to  the  plains  of  the  Danube.  They  consist 
in  reality  of  more  than  thirty  mountain  masses,  representing  as  many  geological 
groups,  and  joined  to  each  other  by  elevated  passes ;  but  their  rocks,  whether 
they  be  granite,  slate,  sandstone,  or  limestone,  form  one  continuous  rampart  rising 
above  the  plains.  In  former  ages  the  Alps  wore  higher  than  they  are  now.  This 
is  proved  by  an  examination  of  their  detritus  and  of  the  str.'ta  disintegrated 
by  natural  agencies.  But,  whatever  the  extent  of  detrition,  they  still  rise  in 
hundreds  of  summits  beyond  the  line  of  perennial  snow,  and  vast  rivers  of  ice 
descend  from  them  into  everj'  upland  valley.  Looked  at  froni  the  plains  of 
Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  these  glaciers  and  snow-fields  present  the  appearance  of 
sparkling  diadems  encircling  the  mountain  summits. 

In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Alpine  system — that  is  to  say,  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  Mont  Blanc,  the  culminating  point  of  Euro]>e — the  average 
height  of  tlie  mountain  groups  gradually  increases  from  6,500  to  more  than 
13,000  feet.  To  the  east  of  Mont  Blanc  the  Alps  change  in  direction,  and, 
beyond  the  vast  citadels  represented  by  Monte  Rosa  and  the  Bernese  Oberland, 
they  gradually  decrease  in  height.  To  the  east  of  Switzeihmd  no  summit  exceeds 
a  height  of  13,000  fct,  but  this  loss  in  elevation  is  fully  made  up  by  increase  of 
breadth.  And  whilst  the  general  direction  of  the  principal  axis  of  the  Alps 
remains  north-easterly,  very  considerable  mountain  chains,  far  exceeding  the 
central  mass  in  breadth,  are  thrown  off  towards  the  north,  the  east,  and  the 
south-east.  A  line  drawn  across  the  true  Alps  from  Vienna  has  a  length  of  no 
less  than  250  miles. 

In  thus  spreading  out,  tlie  xilps  lose  their  character  and  aspect.  We  no  longer 
meet  with  grand  mountain  masses,  glaciers,  and  suow-fields.  Towards  the  north 
they  gradujilly  sink  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Danube;  towards  the  south  they 
branch  out  into  secondary  chains,  resting  upon  the  arched  plateau  of  Turkey. 
But,  in  spite  of  the  vast  contrasts  offered  by  the  true  Alps  and  the  mountains  of 
Montenegro,  the  Ilajmus,  the  Rhodope,  and  the  Pindus,  all  these  mountain  chains 
nevertheless  belong  to  the  same  orographical  system.  The  whole  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  natural  dependency  of  the  Alps ;  and  the  same 
applies  to  Italy,  for  the  chain  of  the  Apennines  is  nothing  but  a  continuation 
of  the  Maritime  Alps,  and  we  hardly  know  where  to  dravif  the  line  of  separa- 
tion   between    them.       The    Carpathians,    too,    must    be    included     among    the 


NATUEAL  DIVISIONS  AND  MOUNTAINS.  11 

mountain  chains  forming  part  of  the  system  of  the  Alps.  They  have  been 
gradually  separated  from  them  through  the  continuous  action  of  water,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  former  times,  the  semicircle  of  mountains  known  as  the 
Little  Carpathians,  the  Beskids,  the  Tutra,  the  Great  Carp  ithiaiis,  and  the  Transyl- 
vanian  Alps  was  joined,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  Austrian  Alps,  and  on  the  other 
to  spurs  descending  from  the  Balkan.  The  Danube  has  forced  its  way  through 
these  mountain  ramparts,  but  the  passages,  or  "gates,"  are  narrow;  they  are  strewn 
with  rocks,  and  commanded  by  what  remains  of  the  ancient  partition  ranges. 

The  configuration  of  the  Alps,  and  of  the  labyrinthine  mountain  ranges  branching 
off  from  them  towards  the  east,  could  not  fail  to  exercise  a  most  powerful  influence 
upon  the  history  of  Europe  and  of  the  entire  world.  The  only  high-roads  known 
to  birbariaus  are  those  traced  out  by  nature  herself,  and  they  were  consequently 
able  to  penetrate  into  Europe  only  by  sea,  or  through  the  vast  plains  of  the  north. 
Having  penetrated  to  the  westward  of  the  Black  Sea,  their  progress  was  first 
stopped  by  the  lakes  and  difficult  swamps  of  the  Danubian  valley ;  and,  when 
they  had  surmounted  these  obstacles,  they  found  themselves  face  to  face  with  a 
barrier  of  high  mountains,  whose  intricate  wooded  valleys  and  declivities  led  up 
to  the  inaccessible  regions  of  eternal  snow.  The  Alps,  the  Balkan,  and  all  the 
other  advanced  chains  of  the  Alpine  system  constituted  an  advanced  defensive 
barrier  for  Western  Europe,  and  the  conquering  nomad  tribes  who  threw  them- 
selves against  it  did  so  at  the  risk  of  destruction.  Accustomed  to  the  boundless 
horizon  of  the  steppes,  they  did  not  venture  to  climb  these  steep  hills — they 
turned  to  the  northward,  where  the  vast  plains  of  Germania  enabled  successive 
swarms  of  immigrants  to  spread  over  the  country  with  greater  ease.  And  as  to  the 
invaders,  whom  blind  rage  of  conquest  impelled  to  engage  in  the  defiles  of  these 
mountains,  they  found  themselves  caught  as  in  a  trap ;  and  this  accounts  for  the 
variety  of  nations,  and  of  fragments  of  nations,  whose  presence  has  converted  the 
countries  of  the  Danube  into  a  sort  of  ethnological  chaos.  And  as  the  debris 
carried  along  by  the  current  is  deposited  in  the  eddy  of  a  river,  so  were  these 
fragments  of  nearly  every  nation  of  the  East  accumulated  in  motley  disorder  in 
this  corner  of  the  Continent. 

To  the  south  of  this  great  mountain  barrier  the  migrations  between  Europe 
and  Asia  could  take  place  only  by  sea — a  high-road  open  to  those  nations  alone 
who  were  sufficiently  advanced  in  civilisation  to  have  acquired  the  art  of  building 
ships.  Whether  pirates,  merchants,  or  warriors,  they  had  raised  themselves  long 
ago  above  a  state  of  primitive  barbarism,  and  even  their  voyages  of  conquest  added 
something  to  the  stock  of  human  knowledge.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  difficulties 
of  navigation,  they  migrated  only  in  small  bodies.  At  whatever  point  they  settled 
they  came  into  contact  with  populations  of  a  different  race  from  their  own,  and  this 
intercourse  gave  birth  to  a  number  of  local  civilisations,  each  bearing  its  own  stamp, 
and  nowhere  did  their  influence  preponderate.  Every  island  of  the  Archipelago,  and 
every  valley  of  ancient  Hellas,  differed  from  its  neighbours  as  regards  social  con- 
dition, dialect,  and  customs,  but  they  all  remained  Greek,  in  spite  of  the  PhcEnician 
and  other  influences  to  which  tliey  had  been  subjei'ted.      It   is  thus  owing  to  the 


12  EUEOPK. 

configuration  of  the  mountain  cliains  and  coast-lines  that  the  civilisation  which 
developed  itself  jrradu:illy  in  the  Jloditerranean  countries  to  the  south  of  the  Alps 
was,  upon  the  whole,  more  spontaneous  in  its  nature,  and  offered  more  variety 
and  greater  contrasts,  than  the  civilisation  of  the  far  less  advanced  nations  ot  the 
north,  who  were  moving  from  pLice  to  place  on  vast  plains. 

Tlie  wide  range  of  the  Alps  and  of  their  advanced  chains  thus  separated  two 
distinct  worlds,  in  which  historical  development  went  on  at  a  different  rate.  At  * 
the  same  time,  the  separation  between  the  two  slopes  of  the  Alpine  system  was  by 
no  means  complete.  Xowhere  in  the  Alps  do  we  meet  with  cold  and  uninhabited 
plateaux,  as  in  the  Andes  and  in  Tibet,  whose  enormous  extent  forms  almost 
insurmountable  barriers.  The  Alpine  masses  are  cut  up  everywhere  into  mountains 
and  valleys,  and  the  climate  of  the  latter  is  sufficiently  mild  to  enable  man  to 
exist  in  tliem.  The  mountaineers,  who  easily  maintained  their  independence, 
owing  to  the  protei^ition  extended  to  them  by  nature,  first  served  as  intermediaries 
between  the  peoijles  inhabiting  the  opposite  lowlands.  It  was  they  who  effected 
the  rare  exchanges  of  produce  which  took  place  between  the  North  and  South, 
and  who  opened  the  first  commercial  high-roads  between  the  summits  of  the  moun- 
tains. The  direction  of  the  valleys  and  tlie  deeply  cut  mountain  pas.ses  even  then 
indicated  the  grand  routes  by  which  the  Alps  would  be  crossed,  at  a  future  period, 
for  the  purposes  of  commerce  or  of  war.  That  portion  of  the  Alps  which  lies 
between  the  mountain  masses  of  Savoy  and  of  the  Mediterranean  would  natu- 
rally cease  first  to  form  an  obstacle  to  military  expeditions.  The  Alps  there 
are  of  great  height,  it  is  true,  but  they  are  narrower  than  anywhere  else ;  besides 
which,  the  climate  on  the  two  opposite  slopes  is  similar,  and  assimilates  the  mode 
of  life  and  the  customs  of  the  people  dwelling  there.  Far  more  formidable,  as  a 
natural  barrier,  are  the  Alps  to  the  north-east  of  ^lont  Blanc,  for  they  constitute  a 
climatic  boundary. 

The  other  mountain  ranges  play  but  a  secondary  or  local  part  in  the  history  of 
Europe,  when  we  compare  tliem  with  the  Alps.  Still,  the  influence  which  they 
have  e.xercised  upon  the  destinv  of  nations  is  no  less  evident.  The  table-lands  and 
snow-fields  of  ihe  Scandinavian  Alps  form  a  wall  of  separation  between  Xorwegians 
and  Swedes.  The  quadrangular  mountain  fort  of  Bohemia,  in  the  centre  of  Europe, 
which  shelters  the  Chechians,  is  almost  entirely  enclosed  by  Germans,  and  resembles 
an  island  fictted  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean.  The  hills  of  Wales  and  of  Scot- 
land have  afforded  a  shelter  to  the  Celtic  race  against  the  encroachments  of 
Anglo-Saxons,  Danes,  and  Normans.  The  Bretons,  in  France,  are  indebted  to 
their  rocks  and  /ancles  for  the  fact  of  their  not  having  yet  become  wholly  French  ; 
whilst  the  table-land  of  Limousin,  the  hills  of  Auvergno,  and  the  Cevennes  con- 
stitute the  principal  cause  of  the  striking  contrast  which  still  exists  between 
the  inhabitants  of  Northern  and  of  Southern  France.  The  Pyrenees,  next  to 
the  Alps,  constitute  the  most  formidable  obstacle  to  the  march  of  nations  in 
Europe ;  they  would  have  remained  an  insurmountable  rampart  down  to  our 
own  time,  were  it  not  easy  to  pass  round  them  by  their  extremities  abutting  upon 
the  sea. 


THE  MARITIME  EEGIOXS.  13 

IV. — T}iE  Maritime  Regions. 

The  valleys  which  radiate  in  all  directions  from  the  great  central  masses  of  the 
Alps  are  admirably  adapted  for  imparting  to  almost  the  whole  of  Europe  a 
remarkable  unity,  whilst  they  offer,  at  the  same  time,  an  extreme  variety  of  aspects 
and  of  physical  conditions.  The  Po,  the  Rhone,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Danube 
traverse  coimtries  having  the  most  diverse  climates,  and  yet  they  have  their 
sources  in  the  same  mountain  region,  and  the  fertilis.'n ;;  alluvium  which  they 
deposit  in  their  valleys  results  from  the  disintegration  of  the  same  rocks.  Minor 
valleys  cut  up  the  slopes  of  the  Alps  and  of  their  dependent  chains,  and  carry 
towards  the  sea  the  waters  of  the  mountains  and  the  triturated  fragments  of  their 
rocks.  Running  waters  are  visible,  wherever  we  cast  our  eyes.  There  are 
neither  deserts,  nor  sterile  plateaux,  nor  inland  lakes  and  river  basins  such  as  we 
meet  with  in  Africa  and  Asia.  The  rivers  of  Europe  are  not  flooded  as  are  those 
of  certain  portions  of  South  America,  which  deluge  half  the  country  with  water. 
On  the  contrary,  in  the  scheme  of  her  rivers  Europe  exhibits  a  certain  degree  of 
moderation  which  has  favoured  the  work  of  the  settler,  and  fiicilitated  the  rise  of 
a  local  civilisation  in  each  river  basin.  Moreover,  although  most  rivers  are  suffi- 
ciently large  to  have  retarded  migration,  they  are  not  sufficiently  so  to  have 
arrested  it  for  any  length  of  time.  Even  when  roads  and  bridges  did  not  exist, 
barbarian  immigrants  easily  made  their  way  from  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  to 
those  of  the  Atlantic. 

But  Europe,  in  addition  to  the  advantages  due  to  its  framework  of  mountains 
and  the  disposition  of  its  river  basins,  enjoys  the  still  greater  advantage  of  possess- 
ing an  indented  coast-line.  It  is  mainly  the  contours  of  its  coasts  which  impart  to 
Europe  its  double  character  of  unity  and  diversity,  which  distinguish  it  amongst 
continents.  It  is  "one"  because  of  its  great  central  mass,  and  "diversified" 
because  of  its  numerous  peninsulas  and  dependent  islands.  It  is  an  organism,  if 
we  may  say  so,  resembling  a  huge  body  furnished  with  limbs.  Strabo  compared 
Europe  to  a  dragon.  The  geographers  of  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters 
compared  it  to  a  crowned  virgin,  Spain  being  the  head,  France  the  heart,  and 
England  and  Italy  the  hands,  holding  the  sceptre  and  the  orb.  Russia,  at  that 
time  hardly  known,  is  made  to  do  duty  for  the  ample  folds  of  the  robe. 

The  area  of  Eurojje  is  only  half  that  of  South  America,  and  one-third  of  that 
of  Africa,  and  yet  the  development  of  its  coast-lines  is  superior  to  that  of  the  two 
continents  taken  together.  In  proportion  to  its  area  the  coasts  of  Europe  have 
twice  the  extent  of  those  of  South  America,  Australia,  and  Africa ;  and  although 
they  are  to  a  small  extent  inferior  to  those  of  Xorth  America,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  arctic  coasts  of  the  latter  are  ice-bound  during  the  greater 
portion  of  the  year.  A  glance  at  the  subjoined  diagrams  will  show  that  Europe, 
as  compared  with  the  two  other  continents  washed  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  enjoys  the 
immense  advantage  of  possessing  a  coast-line  almost  wholly  available  for  purposes 
of  navigation,  whilst  a  large  portion  of  the  coasts  of  Asia  and  America  is  altogether 
useless   to  man.      And    not  only  does  the   sea  penetrate  into  the  very  heart  of 


14 


EUEOPE. 


temperate  Europe,  cuttiiiL!:  it  uj)  into  elongated  peninsulas,  but  tliese  peninsulas, 
too,  are  fringed  with  gults  and  miniature  inland  seas.  Tlic  coasts  of  Greece,  of 
Thessaly,  and  of  Thrace  are  thus  indented  bj'  bays  and  gulfs,  penetrating  far  into 
the  land  ;  Italy  and  Spain  likewise  possess  numerous  bays  and  gulfs  ;  and  tlie 
peninsulas  of  Northern  Europe,  Jutland  and  Scandinavia,  are  cut  up  liy  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  into  numerous  secondary  peninsulas. 

Fig.    3.— DtVELOlMENT    OF    CoAST-LINES    KELATIVELY    TO    AuEA. 


EUROPE 


ASIA 


AFRICA 


NOIVTH  AMERICA 

AUSTRALIA 

Kuropc. 
4,005,100 
3,758,300 

Asii. 
17,308,400 
15,900,000 

11 

11 

Afi-ioa. 

.542,400 

,293,930 

N.  America. 
9,370. bJO 
7,973700 

6.  America. 
0,803  570 
6,731,470 

Austmlia. 
3,450,130 
2,934,500 

18,000 

34,110 

10,480 

30,890 

10,390 

10,570 

17,010 

28,200 

16,480 

26.510 

16,390 

14.400 

1  :  2-5 

1  :  2-5 

1  :  1-4 

1:31 

1  :  1-8 

1  :  1-7 

SCUTH  AMERICA 

Total  area,  square  miles  .     . 
Mainland  ,, 

Development  of  coast-line,  ■) 

miles ) 

Accessible  coa.sts   .... 
Ilatio  of  the  geometrical  to  / 

the  netuiil  contour  ...  I 

The  shaded  cicclts  represent  the  vaiious  continents ;  the  outer  circle  represents  the  actual  extent  of 
coast-line.  The  blank  space  between  the  two  cnncenliic  circles  represents  graphically  the  dUleri-m'e 
between  the  sniallcst  possible  or  geometrical  contour  of  a  country  having  the  area  of  the  respec.ive 
continents,  and  the  .actual  contour  as  exhibited  in  the  existing  coastlines.  Europe,  being  in  reality  only 
a  peninsula  of  Asia,  haidly  admits  of  this  comparison. 

The  islands  of  Europe  must  be  looked  upon  as  dependencies  of  thtit  continent, 
for  most  of  them  are  separated  from  it  only  by  shallow  seas.  Candia  and  thi 
islands  scattered  broadcast  over  the  ^gean  Sea,  the  Archipelagos  of  the  Ionian 
Sea,  and  of  Dalmatia,  Sicily,  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  Elba,  and  the  Balcares,  are  iu 
reality  but  prolongations,  or  maritime  out-stations,  of  neighbouring  peninsulas.  To 
the  islands  of  Sealand  and  Even,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic,  Beuinark  owes 


THE  MAEITIME  EEGION.  15 

most  of  her  commercial  and  political  imBortaiice.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
which  actually  formed  a  portion  of  the  European  continent  in  a  past  age,  cannot 
be  looked  upon  otherwise  than  as  dependencies  of  it,  although  the  isthmus  which 
once  joined  them  has  been  destroyed  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  England  has 
actually  become  the  grand  commercial  emporium  of  Europe,  and  plays  now  the 
same  part  in  the  world's  commerce  that  Greece  once  played  in  that  of  the  more 
restricted  world  of  the  Mediterranean. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  each  of  the  European  peninsulas  should  have 
enjoyed  in  turn  a  period  of  commercial  preponderance.  Greece,  the  "  most  noble 
individuality  of  the  world  of  the  ancients,"  came  first,  and  when  at  the  height  of 
her  power  governed  the  Mediterranean,  which  at  that  time  meant  nearly  the  whole 
universe.  During  the  Middle  Ages  Amalfi,  Genoa,  and  Venice  became  the  com- 
mercial agents  between  Europe  and  the  Indies.  The  discovery  of  a  passage  round 
the  Cape  and  of  America  diverted  the  world's  commerce  to  Cadiz,  Seville,  and 
Lisbon,  on  the  Iberian  peninsula.  Subsequently  the  merchants  of  the  small 
Dutch  Republic  seized  a  portion  of  the  heritage  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the 
wealth  of  the  entire  world  was  floated  into  the  harbours  of  their  sea-bound  islands 
and  peninsulas.  In  our  own  days  Great  Britain,  thanks  to  its  favourable  geo- 
graphical position,  in  the  very  centre  of  great  continental  masses,  and  the  energy 
of  its  people,  has  become  the  great  mart  of  the  world.  London,  the  most  populous 
city  of  the  world,  is  also  the  great  centre  of  attraction  for  the  treasures  of  man- 
kind ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  sooner  or  later  it  will  be  supplanted,  in 
consequence  of  the  opening  of  new  commercial  high-roads,  and  changes  in  the 
political  preponderance  of  nations.  Perhaps  some  city  of  the  L'nited  States  will 
take  the  place  ot  London  in  a  future  age,  and  thus  the  American  belief  in  the 
westward  march  of  civilisation  will  be  verified ;  or  we  may  possibly  return  to  the 
East,  and  convert  Constantinople  or  Cairo  into  the  world's  emporium  and  centre  of 
intercourse. 

But,  whatever  may  happen  in  the  future,  the  great  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  relative  importance  of  the  peninsulas  and  islands  of  Europe  in  the 
short  span  of  twenty  centuries,  sufiiciently  prove  that  geographical  features 
exercise  a  varying  influence  at  difl'erent  epochs.  That  which  at  one  time  was 
looked  upon  as  a  great  natural  advantage  may  become,  in  course  of  time,  a  serious 
disadvantage.  Thus  the  numerous  inlets  and  gulfs  enclosed  by  mountain  chains, 
which  favoured  the  rise  of  the  cities  of  Greece,  and  gave  to  Athens  the  dominion 
of  the  Mediterranean,  now  constitute  as  many  obstacles  to  their  connection  with 
the  existing  system  of  European  communications.  That  which  in  former  times 
constituted  the  strength  of  the  country  has  become  its  weakness.  In  primitive 
times,  before  man  ventured  upon  the  seas,  these  bays  and  gulfs  formed  insur- 
mountable obstacles  to  the  migration  of  nations ;  at  a  later  date,  when  the  art  of 
navigation  had  been  acquired,  they  became  commercial  high-roads,  and  were 
favourable  to  the  development  of  civilisation  ;  and  at  the  present  time  they  are 
again  obstacles  in  the  way  of  our  road-builders  and  railway  engineers. 


16  EUROPE. 


V. — Ci.iMATi;, 


The  influence  exercised  by  tlic  relief  of  the  land  and  the  configuration  of  the 
coasts  varies  in  ditfcrent  ages,  but  that  of  climate  is  permanent.  In  this  respect 
Europe  is  the  most  favoured  region  of  the  earth,  for  during  a  cycle  of  unlinown 
length  it  has  enjoyed  a  climate  at  once  the  most  temperate,  the  most  equable,  and 
the  most  healthy  of  all  continents. 

Owing  to  the  inland  seas  which  penetrate  far  into  the  land,  the  whole  of 
Europe  is  exposed  to  the  modifying  influence  of  the  ocean.  Witli  the  exception 
of  Central  Russia,  no  part  of  Europe  is  more  than  4l((t  miles  from  tlie  sea,  and,  as 
most  of  the  mountains  slope  from  the  centre  of  the  continent  towards  its  circum- 
ference, the  influence  of  the  sea  breezes  is  felt  throughout.  And  thus  continental 
Europe,  in  spite  of  its  great  extent,  enjoys  the  advantages  of  an  insular  climate 
throughout,  the  winds  passing  over  the  ocean  moderating  the  heat  of  summer  and 
tempering  the  cold  of  winter. 

The  continuous  north-easterly  movement  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  likewise 
has  a  favourable  effect  upon  the  climate  of  Europe.  After  having  been  heated  by 
a  tropical  sun  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  gulf-stream  issues  through  the  Strait  of 
Florida,  and,  spreading  over  the  Atlantic,  takes  its  course  towards  the  coasts  of 
Europe.  This  enormous  mass  of  warm  water,  equal  in  volume  to  twenty  million 
rivers  as  large  as  the  Rhone,  brings  tlie  warmth  of  southern  latitudes  to  the 
western  and  northern  shores  of  Europe.  Its  inflvieiicc  is  felt  not  only  in  the 
maritime  countries  of  Western  Europe,  but  to  some  extent  as  far  as  the  Caspian 
and  the  Ural  Mountains. 

The  currents  of  the  air  exercise  as  favourable  an  influence  upon  the  climate  of 
Europe  as  do  those  of  the  ocean.  The  south-westerly  winds  predominating  on  the 
coasts  pass  over  the  warm  gulf-stream,  and,  on  reaching  Europe,  they  p;irt  with  the 
heat  stored  up  by  them  between  the  tropics.  The  north-westerly,  northerly,  and 
even  north-easterly  winds,  which  blow  during  a  portion  of  the  j'car,  are  le.ss  cold 
than  might  be  expected,  for  they,  too,  have  to  cross  the  warm  waters  of  the  gulf- 
stream.  And  lastly,  there  is  the  Sahara,  which  elevates  the  temperature  of  a 
portion  of  Europe. 

The  increase  in  temperature  due  to  the  combined  influence  of  winds  and 
ocean  currents  amounts  to  40°,  -50°,  and  even  ()0^,  if  we  compare  Europe  with 
other  parts  of  the  world  lying  under  the  same  latitudes.  Nowhere  else,  not  even 
on  the  western  coast  of  North  America,  do  the  isothermals,  or  lines  of  equal  annual 
temperature,  ascend  so  high  towards  the  arctic  regions.  The  inhabitants  of 
Europe,  though  they  may  live  900  to  1,200  miles  farther  away  from  the  equator, 
enjoy  as  mild  a  climate  as  do  those  of  America,  and  the  decrease  of  temperature 
on  going  northward  is  far  less  rapid  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  This 
uniformity  of  temperature  constitutes  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of 
Europe.  The  whole  of  it  lies  within  the  temperate  region  bounded  by  the 
isothermal  lines  of  32"  F.  and  fiS"  F.,  wliilst  in  America  and  Asia  that  privileged 
zone  has  only  half  this  extent. 


CLIMATE. 


17 


This  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  climate  of  Europe  is  exhibited  not  only  in 
its  temperature,  but  likewise  in  the  distribution  of  its  rains.  The  seas  washino- 
the  shores  of  Europe  supplj-  all  parts  of  it  with  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture. 
There  is  no  rainless  district,  nor,  with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  the  maritime 
region  of  the  Caspian  and  a  small  corner  of  Spain,  any  district  where  droughts 
occasionally  entail  the  entire  loss  of  the  harvest.  Rains  fall  not  only  regularly 
every  year,  but  in  most  countries  they  occur  in  every  season,  the  only  exception 
being  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  autumn  and  winter  are  the  real 
rainy  seasons.  Moreover,  in  spite  of  the  great  diversity  in  the  physical  features  of 
Europe,  the  amount  of  rain  is  scarcely  anywhere  excessive,  whether  it  descends  as 
a   fine  drizzle,  as  in   Ireland,  or  in  heavj-  showers,  as  in  Provence  and  on  the 


Fig.   4. — The  Isothermal  Zoxe  of  Evrope. 
Scale  1  :  60,000,000. 


oto65ofl.  6io  lo  SiSo  f  1 .  3s8o  to  6i6o  ft.  ovsr  656o  ft. 


southern  slope  of  the  Alps.  The  annual  rainfall  scarcely  ever  exceeds  thirty-nine 
inches,  except  on  the  flanks  of  certain  mountain  ranges  which  arrest  the  passage 
of  currents  charged  with  moisture.  This  uniformity  and  moderation  in  the  rain- 
fall exercise  a  regulating  influence  upon  the  course  of  the  rivers,  for  even  the 
smallest  amongst  ihem,  at  all  events  those  to  the  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps, 
and  the  Balkan,  flow  throughout  the  year.  They  rise  and  fall  generally  within 
narrow  limits,  and  inundations  on  a  va.st  scale  are  as  rare  as  is  want  of  water  for 
purposes  of  irrigation.  In  consequence  of  this  regularity,  Europe  is  able  to  derive 
a  greater  advantage  from  its  waters  than  other  continents  where  the  amount  of 
precipitation  is   more  considerable.      The  Alps   contribute  much  towards  main- 


18  EUROPE. 

taining  a  regular  flow  of  the  rivers;  the  excess  of  hiiinidity  which  fulls  to  their 
share  is  stored  up  in  the  shape  of  snow  and  ice,  which  descend  slowly  into  the 
valleys,  and  melt  during  the  heat  of  summer.  This  hapjjens  just  at  a  time  when 
the  rivers  gain  least  from  rain,  and  lose  most  by  evaporation,  and  some  amongst 
them  would  dry  up  if  the  ice  of  the  mountains  did  not  come  to  the  aid  of  the 
waters  descending  from  the  sky.  It  is  thus  that  a  sort  of  balance  is  established  in 
the  economy  of  European  rivers. 

The  climate  of  Europe  is  thus  characterized  by  uniformity  as  a  wliole,  and  by  a 
compensatory  action  in  its  contrasts.  Regularity  and  freedom  fiom  excess,  such 
as  arc  not  known  in  otluu'  continents,  mark  its  ocean  c\irrents,  its  winds,  its 
temperature  and  rains,  and  the  course  of  its  rivers.  These  great  advantages 
have  benefited  its  inhabitants  in  the  past,  and  will  not  cease  to  do  so  in  the 
future.  Though  small  in  extent,  Europe  possesses  by  far  the  largest  area  of 
acclimation.  Man  may  migrate  from  Russia  to  Spain,  or  from  Ireland  to  Greece, 
without  exposing  himself  to  any  great  risk  of  life.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Caucasus  and  the  Ural  Mountains  were  thus  able  to  cross  the  plains  and  mountains 
of  Europe,  and  to  establish  themselves  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  Soil  and 
climate  are  equally  propitious  to  man,  and  enable  him  to  preserve  his  physical  and 
intellectual  powers  wherever  he  goes.  A  migratory  people  might  found  new 
homesteads  in  any  part  of  Europe.  Their  companions  of  travel — the  dog,  the 
horse,  and  the  ox — woidd  not  d(>scrt  them  on  tlie  road,  and  the  seed-corn  which 
they  cany  witli  them  would  yield  a  harvest  wherever  confided  to  the  earth. 


VI. IXHA1!1T.\NTS. 

A  STIDV  of  the  soil  and  a  patient  observation  of  climatic  phenomena  enable  us 
to  appreciate  the  general  influence  exercised  by  the  nature  of  the  country  upon 
the  development  of  its  inhabitants;  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  assign  to  each  race 
or  nation  its  due  share  in  the  progress  of  European  civilisation.  ISo  doubt,  in 
their  struggles  for  existence,  different  groups  of  naked  and  ignorant  savages  must 
have  been  acted  upon  differently,  according  to  tliiir  numbers  and  physical  strength, 
their  inborn  intelligence,  their  tastes  and  mental  tendencies.  But  who  were  those 
primitive  men  who  first  turned  to  account  the  natural  resources  of  the  country  in 
which  they  dwelt  ?  We  know  not ;  for,  if  we  go  back  for  a  few  thousand  years, 
every  fact  is  shrouded  in  darkness.  We  know  nothing  even  as  regards  the  origin 
of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe.  Are  we  the  "  sons  of  the  soil,"  and  the  "  shoots 
of  oak-trees,"  as  told  in  the  poetical  language  of  ancient  tradition,  or  are  we  to 
look  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  as  the  ancestors  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
our  languages,  and  for  the  rudiments  of  our  aits  and  sciences  ?  <  Ir  did  those 
immigrants  from  a  neighbouring  continent  settle  down  amongst  an  indigenous 
population  ?  Not  many  years  ago  the  Asiatic  origin  of  European  nations  was 
accepted  as  an  established  fact,  and  the  original  seats  of  our  forefathers  were 
pointed  out  upon  the  map  of  Asia.     liut  now  most  men  of  science  are  agreed  to 


ETHNOGRAPHICAL   MAP 

OF 

EUROPE     ,'    '!^' 


|BAKK 
I  CAtrCASIAN 
]  HABOTO- SEMITIC 
r        i  DIDO-GERMAXir 

E  Lithuanian 

Scondiii  avian 

n^  MONGOL . 

}  SamiTved 
B  Tatar  I  Turk) 


1 


NEW  lOm-     ll'«PPLETON   tC« 


c 


INHABITANTS.  19 

our  ancestors  upon  the  very  soil  which  we,  their  descendants,  still  occupy. 
Caverns,  the  shores  of  oceans  and  lakes,  and  the  alluvial  beds  of  our  rivers  have 
yielded  the  remains  of  human  industry,  and  even  human  skeletons,  which  clearly 
prove  that  long  before  these  supposed  immigrations  from  Asia  there  existed  in 
Europe  tribes  who  had  already  made  some  progress  in  human  industry.  Even  in 
the  childhood  of  history  there  existed  tribes  who  were  looked  upon  as  aborigines,  and 
some  of  their  descendants — as,  for  instance,  the  Basks — have  nothing  in  common 
with  the  invaders  from  the  neighbouring  continent.  Xor  is  it  universally  admitted 
that  the  Aryans — that  is,  the  ancestors  of  the  Pelasgians,  the  Greeks,  the  Latins, 
Celts,  Germans,  and  Slavs — are  of  Asiatic  origin.  )Similarity  of  language  may 
justify  our  belief  in  the  common  origin  of  the  Aryans  of  Europe,  the  Persians,  and 
the  Hindoos,  but  it  does  not  prove  that  their  ancestral  home  should  be  looked  for 
somewhere  near  the  sources  of  the  Oxus.  Many  men  of  learning  *  look  upon  the 
Arj'ans  as  aborigines  of  Europe,  but  certainty  on  this  point  does  not  exist.  No 
doubt,  in  prehistoric  times,  intermigrations  between  the  two  continents  were 
frequent ;  but  we  hardly  know  what  direct'ons  they  took,  and  can  speak  with 
certainty  only  of  those  migrations  of  peoples  which  are  related  by  history.  We 
thus  know  that  Europe  sent  forth  to  other  continents  Galatians,  Macedonians,  and 
Greeks,  and  more  recently  innumerable  emigrants  of  all  nationalities,  and  received 
in  turn  Huns,  Avares,  Turks,  Mongols,  Circassians,  Jews,  Armenians,  Moors, 
Berbers,  and  members  of  many  other  nations. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  smaller  families  of  nations,  as  well  as  the 
members  of  races  who  have  not  attained  a  national  existence,  Europe  may 
be  described  as  consisting  of  three  great  ethnological  divisions,  the  principal 
boundary  between  which  is  formed  by  the  Alps,  the  Carpathians,  and  the 
Balkan. 

The  first  of  these  great  families  of  European  nations,  the  members  of  which 
speak  Greco- Latin  languages,  occupies  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Balkan  and  of  the 
Alps,  the  Iberian  peninsula,  France,  and  a  portion  of  Belgium,  as  well  as  a  few 
detached  territories  within  the  limits  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire,  altogether 
surrounded  by  alien  nations.  Such  are  the  plains  of  the  Lower  Danube  and  a 
portion  of  Transylvania,  which  are  inhabited  by  tlie  Rumanians,  and  a  few 
secluded  Alpine  valleys  inhabited  by  "  Romans."  On  the  other  hand,  fragments 
of  two  ancient  nations  have  maintained  their  ground  in  the  midst  of  Latinised 
populations,  viz.  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Brittany,  and  the  Basks  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Generally  speaking,  however,  all  the  inhabitants  of  South-western  Europe,  whether 
of  Celtic,  Iberian,  or  Ligurian  race,  speak  languages  derived  from  the  Latin,  and 
whatever  diffe  e  ices  existed  originally  between  these  various  populations,  this 
community  of  language  has  more  or  less  obliterated  them. 

The  Teutonic  nations  form  the  second  great  group.     They  occupy  nearly  the 

whole  of  Central  Europe  to  the  north  of  the  Alps,  and  extend  through  Holland  and 

Flanders  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  Straits  of  Dover.     Denmark  and  the 

great  Scandinavian  peninsula,  as  well  as  Iceland,  belong  to  the  same  group,  and 

•  Latham,  Benfey,  Cuno,  Spiegel,  and  others. 


20 


EUROPE. 


the  bulk  of  the  in'iahit.mts  of  the  British  Tshinfls  are  likewise  generally  included 
in  it.  The  latter,  however,  should  rather  be  described  as  a  mixed  race,  for  the 
aboriginal  Celtic  population  of  tiiese  islands,  which  now  cxist.s  pure  only  in  a  few 
remote  districts,  has  amalgamated  with  Anglo-Saxon  and  Danish  invaders,  and 
the  language  of  the  latter  has  become  mixed  with  mediaeval  French,  the 
resulting  idiom  being  almost  as  much  Latin  as  Saxon.  The  development  of 
national  characteristics  has  been  favoured  by  the  isolation  in  which  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  British  Islands  found  themselves,  and  lliey  differ  essentially  from 
continental  neighbours — the  Scandinavians,  Germans,  and  Celto-Latins — in  lan- 
guage and  customs. 

The  Slavs,  or  Slavonians,  form  the  third  group  of  European  nations.  They  are 
less  numerous  than  the  Greco-Latins,  but  the  territories  they  occupy  are  far  more 
extensive,  for  they  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Russia,  over  Poland,  a  large 
portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  about  one-half  of  the  Austro-IIungarian 
monarchy.  All  the  great  plains  to  the  east  of  the  Carpathians  are  inhabited  by 
Slavs,  either  pure  or  mixed  with  Tartars  and  Mongols.  To  the  west  and  south 
of  the  mountains  the  race  is  split  up  into  numerous  small  nations,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Danube  these  come  into  contact  with  Rumanians,  as  well  as  with 
Turks  and  Magyars,  the  two  latter  being  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  these  separate  the 
Slavonians  of  the  north  from  the  Slavonians  of  the  soutli.  In  the  north,  Finns, 
Livonians,  and  Lithuanians  interpose  between  the  Slavonians  and  the  Germanic 
nations.* 

Race  and  language,  however,  arc  not  always  identical.  jreinl)ers  of  one  race 
frequently  speak  the  language  of  aiiotlier,  and  race  and  linguistic  boundaries, 
therefore,  differ  frcquentlj'.  As  for  the  political  boundaries,  they  scarcely  ever  ' 
follow  those  natural  features  which  would  have  been  selected  had  their  settlement 
been  intrusted  to  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  different  nations.  They  hardly 
ever  coincide  with  the  boundaries  of  races  or  of  languages,  except  in  the  case  of  a 
few  high  mountain  ranges  or  of  arms  of  the  sea.  On  many  occasions  the  countries 
of  Europe  were  arbitrarily  split  up  in  consequence  of  wars  or  diplomatic  arrange- 
ments.    A  few  peoj^les  only,  jjrotected  by  the  nature  of  their  country  as  well  as 


•  Population  of  Europe,  about  305,000,000  :- 


Oreco-Latin. 

Germanic. 

s 

avonic. 

Greeks  . 

2,C00,00O 

Germans 

.     53,400,000 

Russians 

.     59,000,000 

Alliuniuns 

1,2.50,000 

Dutch  and  Flemish       0,720.000 

Pules     . 

.      ll.SHO.iiOO 

Italians. 

27,700,000 

Scandinaviiins 

5,(;i0.000 

Cueehians,  & 

6,750,000 

i'rench  . 

39,700,000 

Auglo-Saxoua 

.     30,000,000 

.Servians 

5,750,000 

iSpaniariisand  Por- 

Slovenes 

1,200,000 

tiifruose 

20,210,000 

Bulgarians 

3,100,000 

Rumanians    . 

8,400,000 

libaitiaus  ("  Gomans 

")     42,000 

.     4,700,000 

99,902,000 

96,360,000 

87,600,000 

Finns 

Celts 

1,600,000 

O-nianli  . 

.      1,300.000 

Basics 

700  liOO 

Mairyars  . 

.     5,770,(100 

Letts,  &c. 

2,^00,OllO 

Tnit;ii-s    . 

.     2,500,000 

Armenians 

280.000 

Culmucka 

100,000 

(iipsies     . 

Circassians 

5911.000 
400.000 

Ii  eluded  above  are  4,500,000  Jews. 


INHABITANTS.  »        21 

by  their  valour,  have  maintained  their  independence  since  the  age  of  great  migra- 
tions, but  manj'  more  have  been  swept  away  by  successive  invasions.  Many  others, 
again,  have  alternately  seen  their  frontiers  expand  and  contract  more  than  once 
even  during  a  generation. 

The  so-called  "balance  of  European  powers,"  founded  as  it  is  upon  the  rights 
of  war  and  ambitious  rivalries  between  nations,  is  necessarily  unstable.  Nations 
eminently  fit  to  lead  a  common  political  existence  are  torn  asunder  on  the  one 
side,  whilst  the  most  heterogeneous  elements  are  thrown  together  on  the  other.  In 
these  political  arrangements  the  nations  themselves  are  never  consulted,  but  their 
wishes  and  inclinations  must  nevertheless  prevail  in  the  end,  and  the  artificial 
edifice  raised  by  warriors  and  statesmen  wiU  come  to  the  ground.  A  true 
"balance  of  power"  will  only  be  established  when  every  nation  of  the  continent 
shall  have  become  the  arbiter  of  its  own  destinies,  when  every  pretended  right  of 
conquest  shall  have  been  surrendered,  and  neighbouring  nations  shall  be  at  liberty 
to  combine  for  the  management  of  the  affairs  they  have  ia  common.  Our  arbitrary 
political  divisions,  therefore,  possess  but  a  transitory  value.  They  cannot  altogether 
be  ignored ;  but  in  the  following  descriptions  we  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  adhere 
to  the  great  natural  divisions  as  defined  by  mountains  and  valleys,  and  by  the 
distribution  of  nations  having  the  same  origin  and  speaking  the  same  language. 
But  even  these  natural  boundaries  lose  their  importance  in  countries  like 
Switzerland,  inhabited  by  nations  speaking  different  languages,  but  held  together 
by  the  strongest  of  all  ties — the  common  enjoyment  of  freedom. 

From  an  historical  point  of  view  a  description  of  Europe  should  commence  with 
the  maritime  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  Greece  which  gave  birth  to 
our  European  civilisation,  and  which  at  one  time  occupied  the  centre  of  the  known 
woi'ld.  Her  poets  first  sang  the  praises  of  venturesome  navigators,  and  her 
historians  and  philosophers  collected  and  classified  the  information  received  with 
respect  to  foreign  countries.  In  a  subsequent  age,  Italy,  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
Mediterranean,  took  the  place  of  Greece,  and  for  fifteen  centuries  maintained 
herself  therein :  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Florence  succeeded  Rome  as  the  leaders  of 
the  civilised  world.  During  that  period  the  surrounding  nations  gravitated 
towards  the  Mediterranean  and  Italy ;  and  it  was  only  when  the  Italians 
themselves  enlarged  the  terrestrial  sphere  by  the  discovery  of  a  new  world  beyond 
the  ocean  that  this  preponderance  passed  away  from  them,  to  remain  for  a  short 
time  with  the  Iberian  peninsula.  Greece  had  been  the  mediator  between  Europe 
and  the  ancient  civilisations  of  Asia  and  Africa ;  Spain  and  Portugal  became  the 
representatives  of  Europe  in  America  and  the  extreme  Orient ;  historical  develop- 
ment in  its  progress  had  followed  the  axis  of  the  Mediterranean  from  east  to  west. 

It  will  be  found  natural,  under  these  circumstances,  when  we  describe  the  three 
Mediterranean  peninsulas  in  the  same  volume,  particularly  as  they  are  peopled 
almost  exclusively  by  Greco-Latin  nations.  France,  though  likewise  Latinised, 
nevertheless  occupies  a  distinct  position.  It  is  a  Mediterranean  country  only  as 
respects  Provence  and  Languedoc,  the  rest  of  its  territory  sloping  towards  the 
Atlantic.  Its  geographical  position  and  history  have  made  France  the  great 
2 


22 


EUnOPE. 


European  tboroughfare  upon  which  the  nations  of  the  Mediterranean  and  of  the 
Athmtic  meet  to  exchange  their  products  and  to  fight  their  battles.  Ideas  are 
imported  into  France  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  she  is  called  upon  to  act  the 
part  of  an  interpreter  between  the  nations  of  the  North  and  of  the  South.  Next  to 
France  we  shall  describe  the  Germanic  countries  of  Europe,  the  British  Islands, 
and  Scandinavia ;  and  lastly,  the  immense  empire  of  Russia. 


wi 

^ 

?^ 

p 

^ 

^M1 

('^ 

z^ 

^^ 

^^ 

^ 

Q 

iM 

m 

s# 

^a 

^i 

l^^ir 

^^ 

^S 

^^^ 

^ 

^Sf 

^ 

J^ 

-^,» 

^^^^^ 

iXj      ^^^T^ 

#i^^ 

^^^ 

THE    MEDITERRANEAN. 


I. — Hydrology. 


REECE  and  its  insular  satellites  prove  sufficiently  that  tte  unstable 
floods  of  the  Mediterranean  have  exercised  a  greater  influence  upon 
the  march  of  history  than  did  the  solid  land  upon  which  man  trod. 
Western  civilisation  would  never  have  seen  the  light  had  not  the 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean  washed  the  shores  of  Egypt,  Phoenicia, 
Asia  Minor,  Hellas,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Carthage.  The  western  nations  would  have 
remained  in  their  primitive  barbarism  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  Mediterranean, 
which  joined  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  facilitated  the  intercourse  between  Aryans, 
Semites,  and  Berbers ;  and  rendered  more  equable  the  climate  of  the  surrounding 
countries,  thus  facilitating  access  to  them.  For  ages  it  appeared  almost  as  if  man- 
kind could  prosper  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  central  sea,  for  beyond  its 
basin  only  decayed  nations  were  to  be  met  ^^-ith,  or  tribes  not  yet  awakened  to  mental 
activity.  "  Like  frogs  around  a  swamp,  so  have  we  settled  down  on  the  shores  of 
this  sea,"  said  Plato  ;  and  the  sea  he  refers  to  is  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  therefore 
deserving  of  description  quite  as  much  as  the  inhabited  countries  which  surround 
it.     Unfortunately  many  mysteries  still  remain  hidden  beneath  its  waves.  * 

From  an  examination  of  the  coasts,  as  well  as  from  the  traditions  of  the  people 
inhabiting  them,  we  learn  that  the  Mediterranean  has  varied  frequently  in  its 
contours  and  extent.  The  straits  which  connect  its  waters  with  those  of  the 
ocean  have  frequently  changed  their  position.  At  a  time  when  peninsulas  like 
Greece,  and  even  islands  like  Malta,  formed  part  of  continental  masses — and  that 
they  did  so  in  a  comparatively  recent  geological  epoch  is  proved  by  their  fossil 
fauna — the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  covered  large  portions  of  Africa,  of 
Southern  Russia,  and  even  of  Asia.  The  researches  of  Spratt,  Fuchs,  and  others 
have  satisfactorily  proved  that  towards  the  close  of  the  mioceue  age  a  vast  fresh- 

*  W.  H.  Smith,  "The  Mediterranean." — Bureau  de  la  Malic,  "  Geographie  Physique  de  la  Mer 
Noire  et  de  la  Mediterranee."— Bottger,  "Daa  Mittelmeer." 


24 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN. 


water  laka  stretched  from  the  banks  of  the  Aral,  across  Russia,  the  plains  of  the 
Danube  and  the  Archipelago,  as  far  as  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  Then  came  the  briny 
waters  of  the  ocean.  There  was  a  time  when  the  Elack  Sea  and  the  Caspian 
connected  the  Archipelago  with  the  Gulf  of  the  Obi.  At  another  epoch  the  gulfs 
of  the  Syrtes  penetrated  far  inland,  and  a  large  portion  of  what  is  now  the  Libyan 
and  Saharan  desert  was  then  covered  with  water.  The  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  which 
was  torn  asunder  by  Hercules  according  to  the  traditions  of  the  ancients,  is  in 
reality  but  of  recent  origin,  and  has  taken  the  place  of  a  more  ancient  strait  which 
joined  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean :  this  strait  has  been 
restored  by  human  hands,  and  is  known  now  as  the  Suez  Canal.  The  coast-lines  of 
the  Mediterranean  are  undergoing  perpetual  change,  owing  to  the  upheaval  or 
subsidence  of  the  countries  surrounding  it.  The  Nile,  the  Po,  the  Rhone,  and 
other  rivers  incessantly  enlarge  the  alluvial  plains  at  their  mouths,  and  still 
further  encroach  upon  the  sea.     Actually  the  Mediterranean,  with  its  subordinate 


Fig.  5. — The  Depth  of  the  Mediterranean-. 
Fi-ora  a  Chart  by  M.  Delesse. 


u> 

oGr 

& 

10 

l5 

Im                25               \io              |55 

Ida 

*!> 

M 

fe 

t 

^: 

* 

(K> 

r 

4o 

3b 

S& 

3o 

So 

ID 

o 

b 

ID 

iS 

u„ 

ai               bo              |35 

1_               \ 

|lo 

0^  SSOf 


seas  from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  the  Sea  of  Azof,  covers  an  area  about  thirty 
times  that  of  the  British  Islands.  This  area  is  small  if  we  compare  it  with  the 
immense  development  of  the  coasts  and  the  wealth  in  j^eninsulas,  which  impart  an 
aspect  of  life  and  independence  to  at  least  one-third  of  the  ancient  world.  The 
Mediterranean,  though  it  takes  precedence  of  all  the  oceans,  in  consequence  of  the 
part  it  has  played  in  history,  nevertheless  only  covers  an  area  one-seventieth  that 
of  the  Pacific*  It  is  broken  up,  moreover,  into  several  separate  seas,  some  of  them 
so  small  in  extent  that  the  navigator  hardly  ever  loses  sight  of  the  land.     In  the 


Area  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  :^ 
/   Europe 

Drainage  of       ^^^.^  ;        ;        ; 

\  Mediterranean  Sea 


683,-500  square  miles. 

232,000  „ 

1,737,.500  „ 

1,153,300  „ 


3,806,300 


HYDROLOGY.  25 

east  we  have  the  Black  Sea,  with  its  two  dependencies,  the  Seas  of  Azof  and  of 
Marmara.  The  ^gean  Sea,  or  Archipelago,  with  its  numerous  islands,  extends 
between  the  deeply  indented  coasts  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Crete.  The 
Adriatic  stretches  towards  the  north-west,  between  the  Balkan  peninsula  and 
Italy ;  and  the  Mediterranean  proper  is  divided  into  two  separate  basins,  which 
might  appropriately  be  called  the  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  Seas,  or  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Mediterraneans.  Each  of  these  basins  is  again  subdivided,  the  one  by 
Crete,  the  other  by  the  two  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica.  These  various 
subdi\'isions  of  the  Mediterranean  differ  in  area,  and  still  more  in  depth.  The  Sea 
of  Azof  almost  deserves  the  name  of  "  Swamp,"  which  was  bestowed  upon  it  by 
the  ancients,  for  if  a  ship  sinks  in  it  the  masts  remain  visible  above  the  water. 
The  Black  Sea  has  a  maximum  depth  of  over  1,000  fathoms,  but  the  narrow  strait 
which  joins  it  to  the  Sea  of  Marmara  is  shallower  than  many  a  European  river. 
The  cavity  filled  by  the  Sea  of  Marmara  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  many  an  inland 
lake ;  and  the  Dardanelles,  like  the  Bosphorus,  are  hardly  wider  than  a  river.  In 
the  Archipelago  and  the  eastern  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  proper  the  depth 
corresponds  with  the  protuberance  of  the  land.  Abyssal  depths  and  "  pits  "  of  260 
and  even  of  540  fathoms  are  to  be  found  in  close  proximity  to  the  scarped 
mountain  islands  of  the  Cyclades,  whilst  on  the  low  coasts  of  Egj^t  the  water 
deepens  only  gradually,  imtil  in  the  centre  of  the  Levantine  Se^.  it  attains  a  depth 
of  1,750  fathoms.  The  maximum  depth — 2,170  fathoms — is  attained  between 
Crete  and  Malta.  If  the  whole  of  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  were  to  be 
collected  into  an  aqueous  sphere,  the  latter  would  have  a  diameter  of  90  miles ; 
if  it  fell  down  upon  the  earth,  it  would  not  even  wholly  cover  a  country  like 
Switzerland. 

The  Ionian  Sea  is  separated  from  the  Adriatic  by  a  submarine  ridge  rising  in 
the  Strait  of  Otranto,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  a  shoal  or  submarine  isthmus, 
already  referred  to  by  Strabo,  which  joins  Sicily  to  Tunis.  This  isthmus  forms 
the  true  geological  boundary  between  the  western  and  eastern  basins  of  the 
Mediterranean,  which  are  connected  here  by  a  narrow  breach  only,  the  depth  of 
which  hardly  exceeds  100  fathoms.  The  western  of  these  basins  is  the  smaller  and 
shallower  of  the  two,  but  nevertheless  it  attains  a  depth  of  1,100  fathoms  in  the 
Tyrrhenian,  and  of  1,360  fathoms  and  even  1,640  in  the  Balearic  Sea,  and  is 
separated  from  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  by  a  submarine  ridge  lying  outside  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  joining  Europe  to  Africa.* 

This  subdivision  of  the  Mediterranean  into  separate  basins,  divided  from  each 
other  by  shoals  or  submarine  ridges,  b)'  islands  and  promontories,  sufficiently 
explains  the  contrasts  between  the  phenomena  of  the  open  ocean  and  those  observed 
here.  In  the  Mediterranean,  it  is  well  known,  the  tides  are  almost  everywhere 
irregular  and  uncertain.  To  the  east  of  the  Xarrows  of  Gibraltar,  in  the  sea 
extending  between  Andalusia  and  Morocco,  the  tides  are  hardly  felt  at  all,  and 

Western  basin. 
•  Area  .         .         .     355,200 

Greatest  depth,  fathoms  1,640 

Average  depth,        ..     .  640 


Jijistem  basin. 

Adriatic. 

Archipelago. 

Black  Sea. 

SlediterraneaD. 

o02,OUO 

oO,2UU 

60,600 

185,300 

1,153,300 

2,170 

565 

540 

1,070 

2,170 

960 

110 

320 

320 

640 

26 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 


thej'  are,  moreover,  interfered  with  to  such  an  extent  by  currents  that  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  determine  their  amplitude,  or  the  establishment  of  the  various 
ports.  Xevortheless  tlie  rise  and  fall  of  the  tidal  wave  are  sufficiently  marked  to 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  Greek  and  Italian  navigators.  On  the  coasts  of 
Catalonia,  France,  Liguria,  Naples,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt  the  oscillation 
is  hardly  perceptible,  but  on  those  of  Eastern  Sicily  and  of  the  Adriatic  the  tide 
sometimes  rises  three  feet,  and,  if  accompanied  by  storms,  may  even  attain  a  height 
of  ten  feet  in  certain  localities.  The  Straits  of  Messina  and  of  Euripo  (Eubo^a)  have 
their  regular  tides,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  the  waters  rise  and  fall  with  the  same 
regularity  as  in  the  open  ocean.     In  the  Black  Sea,  however,  no  tidal  movements 


Fig.  6. — The  Strait  or  Gibraltar 
According  to  Robiquet,  Randpgger.  and  others.    Scale  1  :  750.000. 


J)pplh  less  ihan  no  fathoms 
Depth  no  to  s^o  fathoms 


Depth  i-oto  5jo  fathotiis 
Drpth  over  boo  fathoms 

'.'O  Miles. 


whatever  have  been  discovered  hitherto.  It  is  nevertheless  probable  that  more 
careful  observations  will  lead  to  the  discovery  of  a  feeble  tide,  for  it  is  believed 
that  this  phenomenon  exists  even  on  Lake  Michigan,  which  has  only  one-fifth  the 
area  of  the  lUack  Sea. 

The  ilediterranean  differs  not  only  from  the  open  ocean  with  respect  to  the 
feebleness  and  irregularity  of  its  tides,  but  it  is  likewise  without  a  great  stream- 
current  keeping  in  constant  circulation  the  whole  body  of  its  waters.  The  currents 
which  have  been  observed  in  various  divisions  of  the  Mediterranean  can  be  ascribed 
only  to  local  causes.     An  Italian  geographer  of  the  last  century,  Montanari,  has 


HYDROLOGY.  27 

advanced  an  hypothesis  of  a  great  circuit  current  which  entered  the  Mediterranean 
through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and,  after  having  washed  the  shores  of  Africa  as 
far  as  Egypt,  returned  to  the  west  along  those  of  Asia  and  Europe ;  but  careful 
observers  have  vainly  endeavoured  to  discover  its  existence.  They  have  met  only 
with  local  currents,  produced  by  an  indraught  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  by 
winds,  by  the  floods  of  rivers,  or  by  an  excess  of  evaporation.  One  of  these 
currents  sets  along  the  coasts  of  Morocco  and  Algeria  from  west  to  east ;  another 
flows  along  the  Italian  coast  of  the  Adriatic  from  north  to  south  ;  and  a  third 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  in  the  direction  of  Cette  and  Port  Vendres.  In 
fact,  the  configuration  of  the  sea-bottom,  and  particularly  the  shoal  between  Sicily 
and  Tunis,  precludes  the  existence  of  any  but  surface  currents  in  the  Mediter- 
ranejin. 

Amongst  the  local  currents  the  existence  of  which  has  been  most  clearly 
established  are  those  which  convey  the  waters  of  the  Sea  of  Azof  into  the  Black 
Sea,  and  those  of  the  latter  into  the  Archipelago.  The  Don  more  than  makes  up 
for  the  loss  by  evaporation  in  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  its  surplus  waters  find  an  exit 
through  the  Strait  of  Kerch  into  the  Black  Sea.  Similarly  the  waters  of  the 
Dniester,  the  Dnieper,  the  Rion,  and  of  the  rivers  of  Asia  Minor,  and,  above  all,  of 
the  Danube,  which  by  itself  conveys  a  larger  volume  of  water  into  the  Black  Sea 
than  all  the  others  combined,  are  discharged  through  the  Bosphorus  and  the 
Dardanelles  into  the  Archipelago.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Archipelago  returns  to 
the  Black  Sea,  by  means  of  a  submarine  counter-current  and  of  lateral  surface 
currents,  a  certain  quantity  of  salt  water  for  the  fresh  water  which  it  receives  in 
excess.  This  exchange  accounts  for  the  salinene.ss  of  the  waters  of  the  Black 
Sea.  The  volume  of  fresh  water  discharged  into  it  by  the  Danube  and  other 
rivers  is  so  large  that  in  the  course  of  a  thousand  years  its  waters  would  become 
perfectly  fresh,  if  there  did  not  exist  these  compensatory  highly  saline  counter- 
currents. 

Analogous  pnenomena  take  place  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Evaporation  there  is  excessive,  owing  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  burning  sands 
of  the  deserts,  the  winds  from  which  blow  freely  over  the  sea,  absorbing  the 
vapours  and  dispersing  the  clouds.  The  loss  by  evaporation  amounts  to  at  least 
seven  feet  in  the  course  of  a  year,  and  as  the  annual  rainfall  is  estimated  to  amount 
to  twenty  inches  only,  and  the  volume  of  water  discharged  annually  by  all  the 
tributary  rivers  of  the  Mediterranean,  if  uniformly  spread  over  its  surface,  would 
hardly  exceed  ten  inches  in  depth,  there  exists  thus  an  excess  of  evaporation 
amoimting  annually  to  more  than  four  feet ;  and  this  excess  has  to  be  made  good 
by  an  inflow  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  which  takes  place  through  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  whose  volume  far  exceeds  that  of  the  Amazon  in  a  state  of  flood.  This 
inflow  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  is  felt,  as  a  current,  as  far  as  the  coasts  of 
Sicily,  and,  like  all  other  currents,  it  is  bounded  by  lateral  currents  flowing  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  main  current.  During  ebb  the  insetting  Atlantic 
current  takes  up  the  whole  of  the  strait,  but  when  the  tide  rises  the  Mediterranean 
resists  more  successfully  the  pressure  of  the  ocean,  and  this  struggle  gives  birth  to 


28  THE  MEDITEEEANEAN. 

two  counter-currents,  one  of  which  skirts  the  coast  of  Europe,  the  other  that  of 
Africa  between  Ceiita  and  Capo  Spartol ;  the  latter  is  the  larger  and  more  powerful 
of  the  two.  In  addition  to  these,  there  exists  a  submarine  current,  which  conveys 
the  highly  saline  and  heavier  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  out  into  the  Atlantic. 

The  quantity  of  salt  held  in  solution  in  various  parts  of  the  Mediterranean 
differs  widely,  as  the  submarine  ridges  and  shoals  which  divide  it  into  separate 
basins  do  not  permit  its  waters  to  mingle  as  freely  as  in  the  open  ocean.  Owing 
to  the  excess  of  evaporation,  the  quantity  of  salt  is  greater  on  the  whole  than  in  the 
Atlantic,  and  this  is  the  case  more  particularly  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  But  in  the 
Black  Sea  it  is  far  less,  and  near  the  mouths  of  some  of  the  largo  rivers  which 
enter  that  sea  the  water  is  almost  fresh.* 

The  temperature  of  the  Mediterranean  is  affected  by  the  same  causes  which 
produce  its  varying  salineness,  viz.  the  existence  of  shoals  and  banks,  which 
separate  it  into  distinct  sub-basins.  In  the  open  ocean  the  currents  conve_y  to  all 
latitudes  large  bodies  of  water,  some  of  them  heated  by  a  tropical  .sun,  others  cooled 
by  contact  with  the  ice  of  the  polar  regions.  But  these  layers  of  unequal  density 
are  regularly  superimposed  one  upon  the  other,  owing  to  the  differences  in  their 
temperature :  the  warm  water  remains  on  the  surface,  whilst  the  cold  water 
descends  to  the  bottom.  In  the  Mediterranean  an  analogous  superimposition 
exists  only  to  a  depth  of  110  fathoms,  which  is  the  depth  of  the  Atlantic  current, 
flowing  into  it  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  If  a  thermometer  be  lowered  to  a 
greater  depth  it  will  indicate  no  further  decrease  of  temperature,  and  the  immense 
body  of  water,  remaining  almost  still  at  the  bottom  of  the  Mediterranean,  has  an 
equable  temperature  of  about  56°  F.  Observations  made  at  depths  varying 
between  110  and  1,640  fathoms  have  always  exhibited  the  same  result.  Professor 
Carpenter  believes,  however,  that  the  abyssal  waters  of  some  of  the  volcanic  regions 
have  a  somewhat  higher  temperature,  which  may  be  due  to  the  presence  of  lava  in 
a  state  of  fusion. 

II. — Animal  Life.    Fisheries  .\\n  Salt  Paxs. 

Another  remarkable  feature  of  the  abyssal  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  consists 
in  their  poverty  of  animal  life.  No  doubt  there  is  some  life  ;  the  dredgings  of  the 
Porcupine  and  the  telegraph  cables,  which,  on  being  brought  to  the  surface,  were 
found  to  be  covered  with  shells  and  polypes,  prove  this.  But,  compared  with  those  of 
the  ocean,  the  depths  of  the  Mediterranean  are  veritable  deserts.  Edward  Forbes, 
who  explored  the  waters  of  the  Archipelago,  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  their 
abyssal  depths  were  entirely  devoid  of  life,  but  he  was  wrong  when  he  assumed  an 
exceptional  case  like  this  to  represent  a  universal  law.  Carpenter  thinks  that 
this  absence  of  life  in  the  depths  of  the  Mediterranean  is  due  to  the  great  quantity 
of  organic  remains  which  is  carried  into  it  by  the  rivers.  These  remains  absorb 
the  oxygen  of  the  water,  and  part  with  their  carbonic  acid,  which  is  detrimental  to 

•  Quantity  of  Bait  held  in  solution  in  the  Atlantic,  36  parts  in  1,000 ;  in  the  Mediti-Tranean  (mean), 
38  parts;  in  the  Black  Sea,  16  paits 


ANIMAL  LIFE.  29 

animal  life.  In  numerous  instances  the  water  of  the  Mediterranean  contains  only 
one-fourth  the  normal  quantity  of  the  former  gas,  but  fifty  per  cent,  in  excess  of 
the  latter.  To  the  presence  of  these  organic  remains  the  Mediterranean  is 
probably  indebted  for  its  beautiful  azure  colour,  so  different  from  the  black  waters 
of  most  oceans.  This  blue,  then,  which  is  justly  celebrated  by  poets,  would  thus  be 
caused  bj'  the  impurity  of  the  water.  M.  Delesse  has  shown  that  the  bottom  of 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  is  covered  with  ooze. 

The  regions  of  the  Mediterranean  immediatelj^  below  the  surface  abound  in  animal 
life,  particularly  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy  ;  but  nearly  all  species, 
whether  fish,  testacea,  or  others,  are  of  Atlantic  origin.  The  Mediterranean,  in 
spite  of  its  vast  extent,  as  far  as  its  fauna  is  concerned,  is  nothing  but  a  gulf  of  the 
Lusitanian  Ocean.  Its  longitudinal  extension  and  the  similarity  of  climate  in  its 
various  portions  have  favoured  the  migration  of  animals  through  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Syria.  At  the  same  time,  animal  life  is  most 
varied  near  this  point  of  entry,  and  the  species  met  with  in  the  western  basin  are 
generally  of  greater  size  than  those  which  exist  in  the  eastern.  A  very  small  pro- 
portion of  non -Atlantic  species  recalls  the  fact  that  the  Mediterranean  formerly 
communicated  with  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  But  amongst  a  total  of 
more  than  eight  hundred  molluscs  there  are  only  about  thirty  which  have  reached 
the  seas  of  Greece  and  Sicily  through  the  ancient  straits  separating  Africa  from 
Asia,  instead  of  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.*  The  diminution  in  the  number 
of  species  in  an  easterly  direction  becomes  most  striking  when  we  reach  the  narrow 
channel  of  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Bosphorus.  The  Black  Sea,  in  fact,  differs 
essentially  from  the  Mediterranean  proper  as  regards  temperature.  It  is  refri- 
gerated by  north-easterly  winds  sweeping  over  its  surface,  to  the  extent  even  of 
portions  of  it  becoming  now  and  then  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  ice,  adhering 
to  the  coast.  The  Sea  of  Azof  has  frequently  disappeared  beneath  a  thick  crust  of 
ice,  and  even  the  whole  of  the  Black  Sea  has  been  frozen  over  in  winters  of 
exceptional  severity.  The  cold  surface  waters,  together  with  those  conveyed  into 
the  Black  Sea  by  large  rivers,  descend  to  the  bottom,  and  prove  most  detrimental 
to  animal  life.  Echinodermata  and  zoophytes  are  not  met  with  at  all  in  the  Black 
Sea ;  certain  classes  of  molluscs,  already  rare  in  the  Levantine  Sea  and  the 
Archipelago,  are  likewise  absent ;  and  the  total  number  of  species  of  molluscs  is 
only  one-tenth  of  what  it  is  in  the  Mediterranean.  Fish  are  numerous  as  far  as 
individuals  go,  but  their  species  are  few.  In  fact,  the  fauna  of  the  Black  Sea 
appears  to  resemble  that  of  the  Caspian,  from  which  it  is  cut  ofi',  rather  than  that 
of  the  Greek  seas,  with  which  the  Sea  of  Marmara  connects  it. 

In  addition  to  the  species  which  have  found  a  second  home  in  the  Mediterranean, 
there  are  some  tbat  must  still  be  looked  upon  as  visitors.  Such  are  the  sharks, 
which  extend  their  incursions  to  the  seas  of  Sicily,  to  the  Adriatic,  and  even  to  the 
coasts  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  Such,  also,  are  the  larger  cetacea — whales,  rorquals, 
and  sperm  whales — whose  visits,  however,  are  confined  now  to  the  Tyrrhenian 

*  There  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean  444  species  of  fi»h  (Goodwin  Austen),  850  species  of  molluscs 
(Jeffreys),  and  about  200  species  of  foraminiferas. 


80 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN". 


basin,  and  become  less  frequent  from  century  to  century.  The  tunny-fisli  of  fbe 
Mediterranean  are  also  vi-^itors  from  the  coasts  of  Lusitania.  First-rate  swimmers, 
they  enter  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  in  spring,  ascend  the  whole  of  the 
Mediterranean,  make  the  tour  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  return  in  autumn  to  the 
Atlantic,  after  having  accomplished  a  journey  of  some  5,600  miles.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  fishermen  the  tunnies  go  upon  their  travels  in  three  immense  divisions  or 
shoals,  and  it  is  the  central  shoal  which  visits  the  coasts  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea, 
and  consists  of  the  largest  and  strongest  fish.  Each  of  the  three  divisions  appears 
to  be  composed  of  individuals  about  the  same  age.  For  mutual  protection  they 
swim  in  troops,  for  they  are  preyed  upon  by  enemies  innumerable.  Dolphins  and 
other  fish  of  prey  follow  their  track,  but  their  great  destroyer  is  man.  In  the 
summer  the  tunny  fishery,  or  tonnaro,  is  carried  on  in  numerous  bays  of  Sicily, 
Sardinia,    Naples,    and   of    Provence.       Enormous   structures   consisting   of  nets 


Fig.  7. — The  Pkincipal  Fisheries  of  the  Mediterraneav. 
Scale  1  :  38,300,000. 


t'^ml 


_. Tunn^ 


Spotto^ 


enclose  these  bays,  and  they  are  ingeniously  arranged  so  as  to  close  gradually 
around  the  captured  fish,  which,  passing  from  net  to  net,  find  themselves  at  last  in 
the  "  chamber  of  death,"  where  they  are  massacred.  Millions  of  pounds  of  flesh 
are  annually  obtained  from  these  floating  "slaughter-houses,"  yet  the  tunny 
appears  year  after  year  in  multitudes,  and  on  the  same  coasts.  There  may  have 
been  a  slight  decrease  in  the  number,  but  their  closely  packed  masses  still  invade 
the  "  Golden  Horn  "  of  Byzance  and  other  bays,  as  they  did  when  first  they 
attracted  the  attention  of  Greek  naturalists. 

Next  to  the  tunny  fisheries  those  of  the  sardines  and  anchovies  are  most 
important.  Sea-urchins  and  other  products  of  the  sea  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  coasts,  particularly  in  Italy,  but  there  is  no  part  of  the  Mediterranean  where 
animal  life  is  so  abundant  and  so  prodigious  in  quantity  as  on  the  celebrated 
banks  of  Newfoundland,  or  on  the  coasts  of  Portugal  or  of  the  Canaries. 

A  large  number  of  fishing-boats  are  engaged,  not  in  the  capture  of  fish,  but  in 


COMMERCE  AND  NAVIGATION.  31 

the  collection  of  articles  of  dress  or  of  the  toilet.  The  purple-shell  fisheries  on  the 
coasts  of  Phoenicia,  the  Peloponnesus,  and  Greece  are  no  longer  carried  on,  but 
hundreds  of  boats  are  employed  annually  during  the  fine  season  in  fishing  for  coral 
or  sponges. 

Coral  is  found  most  abundantl}'  in  the  western  portion  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  Italian  fishermen  do  not  confine  themselves  to  their  own  shores — to  Sicily, 
Naples,  and  Sardinia — but  also  vi-sit  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  the  sea  off  St.  Tropez, 
the  vicinity  of  Cape  Creus  in  Spain,  and  the  waters  of  Barbary.  Ordinary 
sponges  are  collected  in  the  Gulf  of  Gabes,  and  at  the  other  extremity  of  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  coasts  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  straits  winding 
between  the  Cyclades  and  Spoi'ades.  Sponges  are  usually  found  at  a  depth  of 
from  12  to  150  feet,  and  can  be  gathered  by  divers  ;  whilst  coral  occurs  at  far 
greater  depth.s,  and  has  to  be  wrenched  off  with  an  iron  instrument,  which  brings 
up  its  fragments,  mixed  with  ooze,  seaweeds,  and  the  remains  of  marine  animal- 
culse.  This  industry  is  still  in  a  state  of  barbarism :  those  devoted  to  it  are  not  as 
yet  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  sea  and  its  inhabitants  to  enable  them  to  carry 
on  the  sponge  and  coral  fisheries  in  a  rational  manner.  Yet  this  they  must  aim 
at :  they  must  learn  how  to  deprive  Proteus,  the  ever-changing  deity,  of  his 
dominion  over  the  inhabitants  of  the  deep. 

Next  to  the  fisheries,  the  preparation  of  sea  salt  constitutes  one  of  the  leading 
industries  of  the  Mediterranean  coast-lands.  But  this  industry,  too,  is  frequently 
carried  on  in  a  primitive  way,  and  only  in  the  course  of  the  present  century  have 
scientific  methods  been  introduced  in  connection  with  it.  The  Mediterranean  is 
admirably  suited  for  the  production  of  salt,  for  its  waters  have  a  high  temperature, 
they  hold  a  very  large  quantity  of  salt  in  solution,  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides  are 
inconsiderable,  and  flat  seashores  alternate  with  steep  coasts  and  promontories. 
The  most  productive  salt  marshes  of  the  Mediterranean  are  probably  those  on  the 
Lagoon,  or  Etang  de  Thau,  near  Cette,  and  on  the  littoral  of  Hyeres  ;  but  consider- 
able ones  may  also  be  met  with  on  the  coasts  of  Spain,  in  Italj%  in  Sardinia, 
Sicily,  Istria,  and  even  on  the  "  limans  "  of  Bessarabia,  bordering  upon  the  Black 
Sea.  The  annual  production  of  salt  is  estimated  at  more  than  a  million  tons,  and 
exceeds,  therefore,  the  entire  tonnage  of  the  commercial  marine  of  France.*  But 
this  quantity,  large  as  it  is,  is  infinitesimal  if  we  compare  it  with  the  saline 
contents  of  the  sea,  and  science  will  enable  us  one  day  to  raise  a  far  more  abundant 
treasure  from  its  sterile  depths,  t 


III. — Commerce  and  Navigation. 

Whatever  advantages  may  be  yielded  by  fisheries  and  salt-works,  they  shrink 
into  insignificance  if  we  compare  them  with  the  great  gain — material,  intellectual, 

*  The  production  of  salt  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  is  thus  distributed  among  its  coast- 
liinds:—  Spain,  200,000  tons;  France,  250,000  tons;  Italy,  300,000  tons;  Austria,  70,000  tons;  Russia, 
120,000;  other  countries,  200,000  tons.     Total,  1,140,000  tons,  valued  at  £480,000. 

t  The  annual  produce  of  the  fisheries  has  been  estimated  at  £3,000,000,  of  the  coial  fisheries  at 
£640,000,  of  the  sponge  fisheries  at  £40,000.     Total,  £3,680,000. 


82  THE  ^IKDITEREANEAN. 

and  moral — which  mankind  has  derived  from  the  navigation  of  this  inland  sea. 
It  has  repeatedly  been  pointed  out  by  historians  tliat  the  disposition  of  the  coasts, 
islands,  and  peninsulas  of  the  Mediterranean  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  admi- 
rably favoured  the  first  essays  in  maritime  commerce.  Many  causes  have  con- 
tributed to  make  this  sea  the  cradle  of  Euiopean  commerce:  the  faint  summits  of 
distant  lands  visible  even  before  the  port  has  been  cpiitted  ;  numerous  nooks  along' 
the  coasts  where  a  safe  refuge  may  be  found  in  case  of  storms ;  regular  land  and 
sea  breezes ;  an  equability  of  climate  which  makes  the  sailor  feel  at  home  wherever 
business  takes  him  ;  and,  moreover,  a  great  variety  of  productions  resulting  from 
the  diverse  configuration  of  the  Mediterranean  coast-lands.  And  this  commerce, 
does  it  not  lead  to  a  peaceful  intercourse  between  peoples  on  neutral  ground,  and 
to  mutual  enlightenment,  brought  about  by  an  interchange  of  ideas  ?  Every 
coast-line  which  facilitates  the  intercourse  between  nations  is,  therefore,  of  immense 
value  as  a  means  of  developing  civilisation. 

Civilisation  for  many  centuries  marched  from  the  south-east  towards  the  north- 
west, and  Phoenicia,  Greece,  Italy,  and  France  have  successively  become  great 
centres  of  human  intelligence.  This  historical  phenomenon  is  due  to  the  configura- 
tion of  the  sea,  which  has  been  the  vehicle  of  migratory  nations.  In  fact,  the  axis 
of  civilisation,  if  this  expression  be  allowed,  has  become  confounded  with  that  axis 
of  the  Mediterranean  which  extends  from  the  coast  of  Syria  to  the  Gulf  of  Tjifins, 
on  the  coast  of  France.  But  the  Mediterranean  has  ceased  to  be  the  only  centre  of 
gravitation  of  Europe,  which  sends  its  merchantmen  now  to  the  two  Americas  and 
the  farthest  East ;  and  civilisation  no  longer  marches  in  that  general  line  from  east 
to  west,  but  rather  radiates  in  all  directions.  Civilising  streams  depart  from 
England  and  Germany  towards  Northern  America,  and  from  the  Latinised  countries 
of  Europe  towards  Southern  America.  Their  direction  is  still  westerly,  but  they 
have  been  deflected  towards  the  south,  to  meet  the  conditions  imposed  by  climate 
and  the  geographical  configuration  of  land  and  sea. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  changes  which  have  occurred  in  the  historical 
importance  of  the  Mediterranean.  As  long  as  that  sea  remained  the  great  highway 
between  nations,  the  commercial  republics  were  content  to  extend  this  highway 
towards  the  east,  by  establishing  caravan  routes  to  the  Gulf  of  Persia,  to  India,  and 
to  China.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Genoese  factories  dotted  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea, 
and  extended  thence  through  Trans-Caucasia  as  far  as  the  Caspian.  European 
travellers,  and  particularly  Italians,  at  that  time  crossed  Western  Asia  in  all 
directions ;  and  many  a  route  hardly  known  in  our  days  was  then  frequented  almost 
daily.  But  for  several  centuries  direct  commercial  intercourse  with  Central  Asia 
has  dwindled  down  to  small  proportions. 

The  Mediterranean  had  ceased  to  be  a  great  ocean  highway.  Our  navigators, 
no  longer  dreading  a  boundless  sea,  took  their  ships  into  every  part  of  the  ocean. 
The  difiicult  and  perilous  land  routes  were  abandoned,  the  once  busy  markets  of 
Central  Asia  became  solitudes,  and  the  Mediterranean  itself  a  veritable  blind  alley, 
as  far  as  the  world's  commerce  was  concerned.  This  condition  of  atiairs  lasted  for 
many  years,  but  since  the  middle  of  this  century  our  relations  with  the  East  have 


COMMERCE  AND  NAVIGATION.  33 

been  renewed,  and  the  lost  ground  is  rapidly  being  recovered.  "Within  the  last 
year  a  great  commercial  revolution  has  been  effected  through  the  opening  of  one 
of  the  ancient  gates  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Suez  Canal  has  become  the 
great  highway  of  steamers  between  "Western  Europe,  the  Indies,  and  Australia. 
Possibly,  at  no  distant  future,  a  similar  canal  will  enable  our  merchantmen  to 
proceed  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  and  perhaps  even  to  the  Amu  and  the 
Syr,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  ancient  continent. 

It  is  thus  that  the  great  centres  of  intercommunication,  or  vital  points  of  our 
planet,  as  we  should  like  to  call  them,  become  shifted  in  the  course  of  time.  Port 
Said,  an  improvised  town  on  a  desert  shore,  has  thus  become  a  centre  of  attraction 
for  travellers  and  merchandise,  whilst  the  neighbouring  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon 
have  dwindled  down  into  miserable  villages,  with  nothing  to  indicate  the  proud 
position  they  held  in  the  past.  Carthage,  too,  has  perished,  and  "Venice  decayed. 
Many  a  thriving  place  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  has  been  reduced  to 
insignificance  through  the  silting  up  of  its  harbour,  the  employment  of  larger 
vessels,  the  loss  of  independence,  or  through  political  changes  of  all  kinds.  But 
in  nearly  every  instance  some  neighbouring  town  has  taken  the  place  of  these 
decayed  harbours,  and  most  of  the  great  routes  of  commerce  have  maintained  their 
original  directions,  and  their  terminal  j)oints,  as  well  as  intermediate  stations,  have 
remained  in  the  same  localities. 

There  are,  moreover,  certain  places  which  ships  are  almost  obliged  to  frequent, 
and  where  towns  of  imjjortance  arise  as  a  matter  of  course.  Such  are  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar  and  of  Messina  ;  such,  also,  are  places  like  Genoa,  Trieste,  and  Saloniki, 
which  occupy  the  bottom  of  gulfs  or  bays  penetrating  far  into  the  land.  Ports 
offering  the  greatest  facilities  for  embarking  merchandise  intended  for  foreign 
countries,  such  as  Marseilles  and  Alexandria,  are  likewise  natural  centres  of 
attraction  to  merchants.  One  town  there  is  in  the  Mediterranean  which  enjoys  at 
one  and  the  same  time  every  one  of  the  geographical  advantages  which  we  have 
pointed  out,  for  it  is  situated  on  a  strait  connecting  two  seas  and  separating  two 
continents.  This  town  is  Constantinople,  and  despite  the  deplorable  maladminis- 
tration under  which  it  suffers,  its  position  alone  has  enabled  it  to  maintain  its 
place  amongst  the  great  cities  of  the  world. 

The  j)orts  of  the  Mediterranean  no  longer  enjoy  a  monopoly  of  commerce  as 
they  did  for  thousands  of  years,  but  the  number  of  ships  to  be  met  with  in  that 
inland  sea  is,  nevertheless,  proportionately  far  greater  than  what  we  meet  with  on 
the  open  oceans.  The  commercial  marine  of  the  Mediterranean  numbers  thirty- 
seven  thousand  vessels,  of  a  capacity  of  two  million  seven  hundred  and  ninety-six 
thousand  tons,  without  counting  fishing-boats.  This  is  more  than  one-fourth  of 
the  entire  commercial  marine  of  the  world,  as  respects  the  number  of  ships,  and 
one-sixth  of  it  as  regards  tonnage.  This  inferiority  of  tonnage  is  due  to  the  small 
vessels  of  ancient  types  which  still  maintain  their  ground  in  Greece  and  Italj',  and 
which  possess  certain  advantages  for  the  coasting  trade. 

To  this  marine  of  the  Mediterranean  should  be  added  the  vessels  belonging  to 
foreign  ports,  which  visit  it  for  purposes  of  trade,  and  amongst  which  those  of 


84 


THE  JfEDITEEEAXE/VN. 


England  take  the  most  prominent  rank.  The  Government  of  Great  Britain  has 
even  taken  cavo  to  secure  itself  a  place  amongst  the  Mediterranean  powers.  It  has 
occupied  Gibraltar,  at  the  eastern  entrance  to  this  basin,  and  taken  possession  of 
Malta,  which  commands  its  centre ;  and  although  the  western  entrance,  formed  by 
the  Suez  Canal,  is  not  in  its  possession,  its  garrisons  on  Perim  and  the  rock  of  Aden 
are  able  at  any  moment  to  close  up  the  only  approach  to  it  which  leads  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  through  the  Red  Sea. 

The  share  which  England  takes  in  the  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean  is 
considerable,  but  it  is  surpassed  by  far  by  that  of  France  and  Italy.  A  sovereign 
who  aspired  to  the  dominion  of  the  world  once  spoke  of  the  inland  sea  extending 
from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  Egypt  as  a  "  French  lake;  "  but  with  equal  justice 
might  it  be  called  a  Greek,  a  Dalmatian,  or  Spanish  lake,  and  with  still  greater 
an  Italian  lake.  The  pirates  of  Barbary  were,  in  realitj',  the  last  "  masters  "  of  the 
Mediterranean :  their  swift  vessels  presented  themselves  unexpectedly  before  the 


Fig.  S. — Steamer  Routes  and  Telegraphs  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Scale  1  :  46,000,000. 


.  Steamer  ruutes. 


■  Telegraph  cables. 


coast  towns,  and  carried  otf  their  inhabitants.  But  since  their  predator}'  fleets 
have  been  destroj'ed,  the  Mediterranean  has  become  the  common  property  of  the 
world,  and  the  meshes  of  an  international  network  of  maritime  highways  become 
closer  from  year  to  year.  The  merchantmen  no  longer  pursue  their  voyages  in 
company  as  thej'  did  in  former  times,  discharging  their  cargo  from  port  to  port, 
for  a  single  vessel  may  venture  now  into  any  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  in 
safety.  Still  there  remain  the  dangers  of  reefs  and  of  storms.  The  art  of  naviga- 
tion has  made  vast  progress  ;  most  of  the  capes,  at  least  on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  are 
lit  up  by  lighthouses ;  the  approaches  to  the  ports  are  rendered  easy  bj'  lightships, 
buoys,  and  beacons  ;  but  shipwrecks  are  nevertheless  of  frequent  occurrence.  Even 
large  vessels  founder  sometimes,  without  leaving  a  stray  plank  behind  to  indicate 
the  place  of  their  disappearance. 

Steamers   travelling    along    prescribed  routes  are  now  gradually  taking    the 
place  of  sailing  vessels,  and  where  they  cross  at  frequent  intervals  they  may  be 


COJIMEECE  AND  NAVIGATION. 


35 


likened  to  ferry-boats  crossing  a  river.  The  regularity  and  speed  of  these  steam 
ferries  ;  the  facilities  which  they  afford  for  the  conveyance  of  merchandise ;  the 
increasing  number  of  railways  which  convey  the  produce  of  the  interior  to  the 
seaports ;  and  lastly,  the  submarine  telegraphs,  which  have  established  instantaneous 
means  of  communication  between  the  principal  ports,  all  contribute  towards  the 
growth  of  Mediterranean  commerce.  This  commerce,  including  imports  and 
exports,  and  the  transit  through  the  Suez  Canal,  actually  amounts  to  about 
£353,000,000,  a  year.*  This  may  not  be  much  for  a  maritime  population  of  a 
hundred  millions,  but  a  perceptible  increase  is  taking  place  from  year  to  year.  "We 
should  also  bear  in  mind  that,  face  to  face  with  the  busy  peninsulas  of  Europe,  there 
lies  torrid  Africa,  an  inert  mass,  avoided  by  the  sailors  of  our  own  age  as  much  as 
it  was  by  those  of  ancient  Greece.  Its  coasts  are  hardly  ever  \'isited,  with  the 
exception  of  those  portions  which  extend  from  Oran  to  Tunis,  and  from  Alexandria 
to  Port  Said.  It  is  matter  of  surprise,  too,  that  certain  localities  which  formerly 
attracted  crowds  of  vessels,  such  as  Cyrenaica,  Cyprus,  and  beautiful  Crete,  at  the 
very  entrance  to  the  Archipelago,  should  still  remain  outside  the  ordinary  track 
of  our  steamers. 

•  Shipping  and  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean  (estimated) : — 


Commercial  Maeine. 
Siiil-vessels.       Steamers.         Tonnage. 

Entered  a.vd 

Cleared. 

Tons. 

Value  of  Exports 
A.\D  Imports. 
£ 

Spain  (Mediterranean) 

2,500 

100 

250,000 

5,000,000 

24,000,000 

France            „ 

4,000 

230 

300,000 

6,000,000 

80,000,000 

Italy 

18,800 

140 

1,030,000 

21,000,000 

104,000,000 

Austria        .... 

3,000 

92 

380.000 

8,000,000 

18,000,000 

Greece         .... 

5,400 

20 

502,000 

8,500,000 

8,000,000 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia 

2,200 

10 

210,000 

25,000,000 

24,000,000 

Rumania     .... 

— 

1,300,000 

8,000,000 

Russia  (Mediterranean) 

.500 

50 

50,000 

2,000,000 

24,000,000 

EgJ'pt 

100 

25 

15,000 

4,000,000 

20,000,000 

Malta  and  Gibraltar  . 

200 

13 

39,000 

12,000,000 

23,000,000 

Algeria        .... 

170 

— 

10,000 

2,000,000 

16,000,000 

Tunis,  Tripoli,  &c. 

.500 

680 

10,000 

500,000 

4,000,000 

■ 

37,370 

2,796,000 

95,300,000 

353,000,000 

GEEECE. 


I. — General  Aspects. 


IREECE,  within  its  coufincd  political  boundaries,  to  the  south  of  the 
Gulfs  of  Arta  and  Volo,  is  a  country  of  about  nineteen  thousand 
square  miles,  or  at  most  equal  to  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Within  the  vast  empire  of  Russia  there  are  many  districts 
more  extensive  than  the  whole  of  Greece,  but  there  is  nothing 
which  distinguishes  these  from  other  districts  which  surround  them,  and  their  names 
call  forth  no  idea  in  our  mind.  The  little  country  of  the  Hellenes,  however,  so 
insignificant  upon  our  maps — how  many  memories  does  it  not  awaken  !  In  no 
other  part  of  the  world  had  man  attained  a  degree  of  civilisation  equally  har- 
monious in  all  respects,  or  more  favourable  to  individual  development.  Even 
now,  though  carried  along  within  an  historical  cycle  far  more  vast  than  that  of 
the  Greeks,  we  should  do  well  to  look  back  frequently  in  order  to  contemplate 
those  small  nations,  who  arc  still  our  masters  in  the  arts,  and  first  initiated  us  into 
science.  The  city  which  was  the  "school  of  Greece"  still  remains  the  school  of 
the  entire  world  ;  and  after  twenty  centuries  of  decay,  like  some  of  those  extinct 
stars  whose  luminous  rays  yet  reach  the  earth,  still  continues  to  enlighten  us. 

The  considerable  part  played  by  the  people  of  Greece  during  many  oges  must 
undoubtedly  be  ascribed  to  the  geographical  position  of  their  country.  Other 
tribes  having  the  same  origin,  but  inhabiting  countries  less  happily  situated — such, 
for  instance,  as  the  Pelasgians  of  lUyria,  who  are  believed  to  be  the  ancestors  of 
the  Albanians — have  never  risen  above  a  state  of  barbarism,  whilst  the  Hellenes 
placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  civilised  nations,  and  opened  fresh  paths  to  their 
enterprise.  If  Greece  had  remained  for  ever  what  it  was  during  the  tertiary 
geological  epoch — a  vast  plain  attached  to  the  deserts  of  Libya,  and  run  over  by 
lions  and  the  rhinoceros — would  it  have  become  the  native  country  of  a  Phidias, 
an  ^schylos,  or  a  Demosthenes  ?  Certainly  not.  It  would  have  shared  the  fate 
of  Africa,  and,  far  from  taking  the  initiative  in  civilisation,  would  have  waited  for 
an  impulse  to  be  given  to  it  from  beyond. 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.  37 

Greece,  a  sub-penineula  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Balkans,  was  even  more 
completely  protected  by  transverse  mountain  barriers  in  the  north  than  was 
Thracia  or  Macedonia.  Greek  culture  was  thus  able  to  develop  itself  without  fear 
of  being  stifled  at  its  birth  by  successive  invasions  of  barbarians.  Mounts 
Olympus,  Pelion,  and  Ossa,  towards  the  north  and  east  of  Thessaly,  consti  tuted  the 
first  line  of  formidable  obstacles  towards  Macedonia.  A  second  barrier,  the  steep 
range  of  the  Othrys,  runs  along  what  is  the  present  political  boundary  of  Greece. 
To  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Lamia  a  fresh  obstacle  awaits  us,  for  the  range  of  the 
ffita  closes  the  passage,  and  there  is  but  the  narrow  pass  of  the  Thermopylae 
between  it  and  the  sea.  Having  crossed  the  mountains  of  the  Locri  and  descended 
into  the  basin  of  Thebce,  there  still  remain  to  be  crossed  the  Parnes  or  the 
spurs  of  the  Cithaeron  before  we  reach  the  plains  of  Attica.  The  "  isthmus  " 
beyond  these  is  again  defended  by  transverse  barriers,  outlying  ramparts,  as  it 
were,  of  the  mountain  citadel  of  the  Peloponnesus,  that  acropolis  of  all  Greece. 
Hellas  has  frequently  been  compared  to  a  series  of  chambers,  the  doors  of  which 
were  strongly  bolted  ;  it  was  difficult  to  get  in,  but  more  difficult  to  get  out  again, 
owing  to  their  stout  defenders.  Michelet  likens  Greece  to  a  trap  having  three 
compartments.  You  entered,  and  found  yourself  taken  first  in  Macedonia,  then  in 
Thessaly,  then  between  the  Thermopylaj  and  the  isthmus.  But  the  difficulties 
increase  beyond  the  isthmus,  and  Lacedaemonia  remained  impregnable  for  a  long 
time. 

At  an  epoch  when  the  navigation  even  of  a  land-locked  sea  like  the  iEgean 
was  attended  with  danger,  Greece  found  herself  sufficientl}'  protected  against  the 
invasions  of  oriental  nations  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  no  other  country  held  out  such 
inducements  to  the  pacific  expeditions  of  merchants.  Gulfs  and  harbours  facili- 
tated access  to  her  ^gean  coasts,  and  the  numerous  outlying  islands  were  available 
as  stations  or  as  places  of  refuge.  Greece,  therefore,  was  favourably  placed  for 
entering  into  commercial  intercourse  with  the  more  highly  civilised  peoples  who 
dwelt  on  the  opposite  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  The  colonists  and  voyagers  of  Eastern 
Ionia  not  only  supplied  their  Achaean  and  Pelasgian  kinsmen  with  foreign  com- 
modities and  merchandise,  but  they  also  imparted  to  them  the  myths,  the  poetry, 
the  sciences,  and  the  arts  of  their  native  country.  Indeed,  the  geographical 
configuration  of  Greece  points  towards  the  east,  whence  she  has  received  her  first 
enlightenment.  Her  peninsulas  and  outlying  islands  extend  in  that  direction  ;  the 
harbours  on  her  eastern  coasts  are  most  commodious,  and  afford  the  best  shelter ; 
and  the  mountain-surrounded  plains  there  offer  t-he  best  sites  for  populous  cities. 
Greece,  at  the  same  time,  does  not  share  the  disadvantage  of  Turkey,  which  is 
almost  cut  off  from  the  western  world  by  a  mountain  region  difficult  to  cross. 
The  Ionian  Sea,  to  the  west  of  the  Peloponnesus,  it  is  true,  is,  comparatively 
speaking,  a  desert ;  but  farther  north  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  almost  cuts  in  two  the 
Greek  peninsula,  and  the  sight  of  the  distant  mountains  of  Italy,  which  are  visible 
from  the  Ionian  Islands,  must  have  incited  to  an  exploration  of  the  western  seas. 
The  Acarnanians,  who  knew  how  to  build  vaults  long  before  the  Romans,  were 
thus  brought  early  into  contact  with  the  Italians,  to  whom  they  imjjarted  their 
3 


88  GREECE. 

knowledge,  and  at  a  subsequent  period  the  Greeks  became  the  civilisers  of  the 
whole  western  world  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  most  distinctive  feature  of  Hellas,  as  far  as  concerns  the  relief  of  the 
ground,  consists  in  the  large  number  of  small  basins,  separated  one  from  the  other 
by  rocks  or  mountain  ramparts.  The  features  of  the  ground  thus  favoured  the 
division  of  the  Greek  people  into  a  multitude  of  independent  republics.  Every 
town  had  its  river,  its  amphitheatre  of  hills  or  mountains,  its  acropolis,  its  fields, 
pastures,  and  forests,  and  nearly  all  of  them  had,  likewise,  access  to  the  sea.  All 
the  elements  required  by  a  free  community  were  thus  to  be  found  within  each  of 
these  small  districts,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  other  towns,  equally  favoured,  kept 
alive  perpetual  emulation,  too  frequently  degenerating  into  strife  and  battle.  The 
islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  likewise,  had  constituted  themselves  into  miniature 
republics.  Local  institutions  thus  developed  themselves  freely,  and  even  the 
smallest  island  of  the  Archipelago  has  its  great  representatives  in  history. 

But  whilst  there  thus  exists  the  greatest  diversit}*,  owing  to  the  configuration 
of  the  ground  and  the  multitude  of  islands,  the  sea  acts  as  a  binding  element, 
washes  every  coast,  and  penetrates  far  inland.  These  gulfs  and  numerous  harbours 
have  made  the  maritime  inhabitants  of  Greece  a  nation  of  sailors — amphibian,  as 
Strabo  called  them.  From  the  most  remote  times  the  passion  for  travel  has  always 
been  strong  amongst  them.  When  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  grew  too  numerous 
to  support  themselves  upon  the  produce  of  their  land,  they  swarmed  out  like  bees, 
explored  the  coasts  of  the  Jlediterranean,  and,  when  they  had  found  a  site  which 
recalled  their  native  home,  they  built  themselves  a  new  city.  It  was  thus  Greek 
cities  arose  in  hundreds  of  places,  from  the  Mtrotis  Palus  to  beyond  the  columns  of 
Hercules — from  Tanais  and  Panticapicum  to  Gades  and  Tingis,  the  modern  Tangier. 
Thanks  to  those  numerous  colonies,  some  of  them  more  powerful  and  renowned  than 
the  mother  towns  which  gave  birth  to  them,  the  veritable  Greece,  the  Greece  of 
science  and  art  and  republican  independence,  in  the  end  overflowed  its  ancient 
cradle,  and  sporadically  occupied  the  whole  circumference  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Greeks  held  the  same  position  relatively  to  the  world  of  the  ancients  which 
is  occupied  at  the  present  time  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  with  reference  to  the  entire 
earth.  There  exists,  indeed,  a  remarkable  analogy  between  Greece,  with  its  archi- 
pelago, and  the  British  Islands,  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  continent.  Similar 
geographical  advantages  have  brought  about  similar  results,  as  far  as  commerce 
is  concerned,  and  between  the  iEgean  and  the  British  seas  time  and  space  have 
effected  a  sort  of  harmony. 

The  admiration  with  which  travellers  behold  Greece  is  due,  above  all,  to  the 
memories  attaching  to  every  one  of  its  ruins,  to  the  smallest  amongst  its  rivulets, 
and  the  most  insignificant  rock  in  its  seas.  Scenery  in  Provence  or  Spain,  though 
it  may  surjiass  in  grace  or  boldness  of  outline  anything  to  be  seen  in  Greece,  is 
appreciated  only  by  a  few.  The  mass  go  past  it  without  emotion,  for  names  like 
Marathon,  Leuctra,  or  Platrcae  are  not  connected  with  it,  and  the  rustle  of  bygone 
ages  is  not  heard.     But  even  if  glorious  memories  were  not  associated  with  the 


GENEEAL  ASPECTS.  39 

coasts  of  Greece,  their  beauty  -would  nevertheless  entitle  them  to  our  admiration. 
In  the  gulfs  of  Athens  or  of  Argos  the  artist  is  charmed  not  only  with  the  azure 
blue  of  the  waters,  the  transparency  of  the  sky,  the  ever-changing  perspective 
along  the  shores,  and  the  boldness  of  the  promontories,  but  also  with  the  pure  and 
graceful  profile  of  the  mountains,  which  consist  of  layers  of  limestone  or  of  marble. 
We  almost  fancy  we  look  upon  architectural  piles ;  and  the  temples  with  which 
many  a  summit  is  adorned  appear  to  epitomize  them. 

It  is  verdure  and  the  sparkling  water  of  rivulets  which  we  miss  most  on  the 
shores  of  Greece.  Xearly  all  the  mountains  near  the  coast  have  been  despoiled  of 
their  large  trees.  There  remain  only  bushes,  mastic,  strawberry,  and  juniper 
trees,  and  evergreen  oaks  ;  even  the  carpet  of  odoriferous  herbs  which  clothes  the 
declivities,  and  upon  which  the  goat  browses,  has  in  many  instances  been  reduced 
to  a  few  miserable  patches.  Torrents  of  rain  have  carried  away  the  mould,  and 
the  naked  rock  appears  on  the  surface.  From  a  distance  we  only  see  greyish 
declivities,  dotted  here  and  there  with  a  few  wretched  shrubs.  Even  in  the  days 
of  Strabo  most  mountains  along  the  coasts  had  been  robbed  of  their  forests,  and  one 
of  our  modern  authors  says  that  "  Greece  is  a  skeleton  onh*  of  what  it  used  to  be  ! " 
By  a  sort  of  irony,  geographical  names  derived  from  trees  abound  throughout 
Hellas  and  Turkey :  Caryse  is  the  "  town  of  walnut-trees,"  Yalanidia  that  of  the 
Valonia  oaks,  Kyparissi  that  of  cypresses,  Platanos  or  Plataniki  that  of  plane- 
trees.  Everywhere  we  meet  with  localities  whose  appellation  is  justified  hy 
nothing.  Forests  at  the  present  day  are  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  interior 
and  to  the  Ionian  coast.  The  ffita  Mountains,  some  of  the  mountains  of  iEtolia, 
the  hills  of  Acamania,  and  Arcadia,  Elis,  Triphylia,  and  the  slopes  of  the  Taygetus, 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  still  retain  their  forests.  And  it  is  only  in  these  forest 
districts,  visited  solely  by  herdsmen,  that  savage  animals,  such  as  the  wolf,  the  fox, 
and  the  jackal,  are  now  met  with.  The  chamois,  it  is  said,  stiU  haunts  the  recesses 
of  the  Pindus  and  (Eta  Mountains ;  but  the  wild  boar  of  the  Erymanthus,  which 
must  have  been  a  distinct  species  if  we  are  to  judge  by  antique  sculptures,  exists 
no  more  in  Greece,  and  the  lion,  still  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  has  not  been  seen 
for  two  thousand  years.  Amongst  the  smaller  animals  there  is  a  turtle,  common 
in  some  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  which  the  natives  look  upon  with  the  same 
aversion  as  do  many  western  nations  upon  the  toad  and  the  salamander. 

Greece  is  a  small  country,  but  the  variety  of  its  climate  is  nevertheless  great. 
Striking  differences  in  the  climate  of  different  localities  are  produced  by  the 
contrasts  between  mountains  and  plains,  woodlands  and  sterile  valleys,  coasts 
having  a  northern  or  southern  aspect.  But  even  leaving  out  of  sight  these 
local  differences,  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  varieties  of  climate  which  we 
meet  with  in  traversing  Greece  from  north  to  south  are  scarcely  exceeded  in  any 
other  region.  The  mountains  of  Jitolia,  in  the  north,  whose  slopes  are  covered 
with  beech-trees,  remind  us  of  the  temperate  zone  of  Europe,  whilst  the  peninsulas 
and  islands  towards  the  east  and  south,  with  their  thickets  of  fig  and  olive  trees, 
their  plantations  of  oranges  and  lemons,  their  aloe  hedges  and  rare  pahu-trees, 
belong  to  the  sub-tropical  zone.     But  even  neighbouring  districts  occasionally 


40  GREECE. 

diflFer  strikingly  as  regards  climate.  In  the  ancient  lake  basin  of  Bocotia  the  winters 
are  cold,  the  summers  scorching,  whilst  the  temperature  of  the  eastern  shore  of 
Euba'a  is  equable,  owing  to  the  moderating  influence  of  sea  breezes.  Within  a 
narrow  compass  Greece  presents  us  with  the  climates  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
earth,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  diversity  of  climate,  and  the  contrasts  of 
every  kind  sjiringing  from  it,  must  have  favourably  influenced  the  intellectual 
development  of  the  Hellenes.  A  spirit  of  inquiry  was  called  forth  amongst  them 
which  reacted  upon  their  commercial  tastes  and  industrial  proclivities. 

The  diversity  of  the  climate  of  the  land,  however,  is  compensated  for,  in 
Greece,  by  a  uniformity  in  the  climate  of  the  maritime  districts.  As  in  a  mountain 
valley,  the  winds  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  blow  alternately  in  contrary  directions. 
During  nearly  the  whole  of  summer  the  atmospheric  currents  of  Eastern  Europe  are 
attracted  towards  the  African  deserts.  The  winds  from  the  north  of  the  Archi- 
pelago and  Macedonia  then  speed  the  navigator  on  his  voyage  to  the  south,  and  on 
many  occasions  the  conquering  tribes  of  the  northern  shores  of  that  sea  have 
availed  thcm.selves  of  them  in  their  improvised  attacks  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the 
more  southern  districts  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Greece.  These  regular  northerly 
currents,  known  as  etesian  or  annual  wind.s,  cease  on  the  termination  of  the 
hot  season,  when  the  sun  stands  above  the  southern  tropic.  They  are,  moreover, 
interrupted  every  night,  when  the  cool  sea  air  is  attracted  by  the  heated  surface  of 
the  land.  When  the  sun  has  set  tlie  wind  gradually  subsides ;  there  is  a  calm, 
lasting  a  few  moments ;  and  then  the  air  begins  to  move  in  an  inverse  direction  — 
"  the  land  begins  to  blow,"  as  the  sailors  say.  Nor  is  this  regular  wind  without 
its  counter-current,  known  as  the  emhatcfi,  or  propitious  south-easterly  breeze  of 
which  the  poets  sing.  General  winds  and  breezes,  moreover,  are  deflected  from 
their  original  directions  in  consequence  of  the  configuration  of  the  coast  and  the 
direction  of  mountain  chains.  The  Gulf  of  Corinth,  for  instance,  is  .shut  in  by 
high  mountains  on  the  north  and  the  south,  and  the  winds  alternately  enter  it 
from  the  east  or  west — a  phenomenon  likened  by  Strabo  to  the  breathing  of  an 
animal. 

The  rains,  like  the  winds,  deviate  in  many  places  from  the  average,  and  whiLst 
the  water  pours  down  into  some  mountain  valleys  as  into  a  funnel,  elsewhere  the 
clouds  drift  past  without  parting  with  a  drop  of  their  humid  burden.  Contrasts 
in  the  amoimt  of  precipitation  are  thus  added  to  those  resulting  from  diiferences 
of  configuration  and  variety  of  climate.  As  a  rule,  rain  is  more  abundant  on  the 
western  shores  of  Greece  than  on  the  eastern,  and  this  fact  accounts  for  the  smiling 
aspect  of  the  hills  of  Elis,  as  compared  with  the  barren  declivities  of  Argolis  and 
Attica.  Thunder-storms,  driven  before  the  winds  of  the  Mediterranean,  likewi.se 
recur  with  greater  regularity  in  the  western  portion  of  the  peninsula.  In  Elis  and 
Acarnania  the  roll  of  thunder  may  be  heard  in  spring  daily,  for  whole  weeks,  in 
the  afternoon.  No  sites  more  apposite  could  have  been  found  for  temples  dedicated 
to  Jupiter,  the  god  of  lightning. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Cycladcs,  and  probably,  also,  those  of  the  coasts 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.  41 

of  Hellas  and  Asia  Minor,  had  already  attained  a  considerable  amount  of  culture 
long  before  the  commencement  of  our  historical  records.  This  has  been  proved  by 
excavations  made  in  the  volcanic  ashes  of  Santorin  and  Therasia.  At  the  time 
their  houses  were  buried  beneath  the  ashes,  the  Santoriniotes  had  begun  to  pass 
from  the  age  of  stone  into  that  of  copper.  They  knew  how  to  build  arches  of 
stone  and  mortar,  they  manufactured  lime,  used  weights  made  of  blocks  of  lava, 
wove  cloth,  made  pottery,  dyed  their  stuffs,  and  ornamented  their  houses  with 
frescoes ;  they  cultivated  barley,  peas,  and  lentils,  and  had  begun  to  trade  with 
distant  countries. 

We  do  not  know  whether  these  men  were  of  the  same  race  as  the  Hellenes ; 
but  thus  much  is  certain — that  at  the  earliest  dawn  of  history  the  islands  and 
coasts  of  the  ^gean  Sea  were  peopled  by  various  families  of  Greeks,  whilst  the 
interior  of  the  country  and  the  western  shores  of  the  peninsula  were  inhabited  by 
Pelasgians.  These  Pelasgians,  moreover,  were  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Greeks, 
and  they  spoke  a  language  derived  from  the  same  source  as  the  dialects  of  the 
Hellenes.  Both  were  Aryans,  and,  imless  natives  of  the  soil,  they  must  have 
immigrated  into  Greece  from  Asia  Minor  by  crossing  the  Hellespont,  or  by  way  of 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  The  Pelasgians,  according  to  tradition,  sprang 
from  Mount  Lycfeus,  in  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus  ;  they  boasted  of  being 
"  autochthons,"  "  men  of  the  black  soil,"  "  children  of  oaks,"  or  "  men  born  before 
the  moon."  All  around  them  lived  tribes  of  kindred  origin,  such  as  the  ^olians 
and  the  Leleges,  and  these  were  afterwards  joined  by  lonians  and  Achtcans. 
The  lonians,  who,  in  a  subsequent  age,  exercised  so  great  an  influence  over  the 
destinies  of  the  world,  only  occupied  the  peninsula  of  Attica  and  the  neighbouring 
Euboea.  The  Achaeans  for  a  long  time  enjoyed  a  preponderance,  and  in  the  end 
the  Greek  clans  collectively  became  known  by  that  name.  Later  on,  when  the 
Dorians  had  crossed  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  where  it  is  narrowest,  and  established 
themselves  as  conquerors  in  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Amphictyons,  or  national 
councils,  sitting  alternately  at  Thermopylte  and  Delphi,  conferred  the  name  of 
Hellenes,  which  was  that  of  a  small  tribe  in  Thessaly  and  Phthiotis,  upon  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  and  the  islands.  The  name  of  Greek,  which 
signifies,  perhaps,  "mountaineer,"  "ancient,"  or  "son  of  the  soil,"  gradually 
spread  amongst  the  nation,  and  in  the  end  became  general.  The  lonians  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  Carians  of  the  Sporades,  emulated  the  Phoenicians  by  trading  from 
port  to  port  amongst  these  half-savage  tribes,  and,  like  bees  which  convej'  the 
fecundating  pollen  from  flower  to  flower,  they  carried  the  civilisation  of  Egypt  and 
the  East  from  tribe  to  tribe. 

Phoenician  merchants  and  Roman  conquerors  scarcely  modified  the  elements 
composing  the  jjopulation  of  Hellas,  but  during  the  age  of  migrations  barbarians 
in  large  numbers  penetrated  into  Greece.  For  more  than  two  centuries  did  the 
Avares  maintain  themselves  in  the  Peloponnesus.  Then  came  the  Slavs,  aided,  on 
more  than  one  occasion,  by  the  plague  in  depopulating  the  country.  Greece  became 
a  Slavonia,  and  a  Slavonian  language,  probably  Servian,  was  universally  spoken, 
as  is  proved  by  the  majority  of  geographical  names.   The  superstitions  and  legends 


42 


GREECE. 


of  the  modern  Greeks,  as  has  boon   remarked   by  many  authors,  are  not  simply  a 
heritago  derived  from  the  ancient  Hellenes,  but  have  become  enriched  by  phantoms 


Fig.  9. — Mainote  and  Spaktav. 


^''~^-^^?:^'^- 


and  vampires  of  Slav  invention.     The  dress  of  the  Greeks,  too,  is  a  legacy  of  their 
northern  conquerors.      But,  in  spite  of  this,  the  polished  language  of  the  Hellenes 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.  43 

has  regained  by  degrees  its  ancient  preponderance,  and  the  race  has  so  thoroughly 
amalgamated  these  foreign  immigrants,  that  it  is  impossible  now  to  trace  any 
Servian  elements  in  the  population.  But  hardly  had  Hellas  escaped  the  danger  of 
becoming  Slav  when  it  was  threatened  with  becoming  Albanian.  This  occurred 
during  the  dominion  of  Venice.  As  recently  as  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century  Albanian  was  the  dominant  language  of  Elis,  Argos,  Boeotia,  and  Attica, 
and  even  at  the  present  day  a  hundred  thousand  supposed  Hellenes  still  speak 
it.  The  actual  population  of  Greece  is,  therefore,  a  very  mixed  one,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  say  in  what  proportions  these  Hellenic,  Slav,  and  Albanian  elements 
have  combined.  The  Mainotes,  or  Maniotes,  of  the  peninsula  terminating  in 
Cape  Matapan,  are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  Greeks  of  the  purest  blood. 
They  themselves  claim  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Spartans,  and  amongst 
their  strongholds  they  still  jDoint  out  one  which  belonged  to  "  Signer  Lycurgus." 
Their  Councils  of  Elders  have  preserved  from  immemorial  times,  and  down  to 
the  war  of  independence,  the  title  of  Senate  of  Lacedaemonia.  Every  Mainote 
professes  to  love  unto  death  "  Liberty,  the  highest  of  all  goods,  inherited  from 
our  Spartan  ancestors."  Nevertheless,  a  good  many  localities  in  Maina  bear 
names  derived  from  the  Servian,  and  these  prove,  at  all  events,  that  the  Slavs 
resided  in  the  country  for  a  considerable  time.  The  ilainotes  practise  the 
vendetta,  as  if  they  were  Montenegrins.  But  is  not  this  a  common  custom 
amongst  all  uncivilised  nations  ? 

However  this  may  be,  in  spite  of  invasions  and  intermixture  with  other 
races,  the  Greeks  of  to-day  agree  in  most  points  with  the  Greeks  of  the  past. 
Above  all  things,  they  have  preserved  their  language,  and  it  is  truly  matter 
for  surprise  that  the  vulgar  Greek,  though  derived  from  a  rural  dialect,  should 
differ  so  slightly  only  from  the  literarj'  language.  The  differences,  analogous 
to  what  may  be  observed  with  respect  to  the  languages  derived  from  the  Latin, 
are  restricted  almost  to  two  points,  viz.  the  contraction  of  non-accentuated 
syllables  and  the  use  of  auxiliary  verbs.  It  was,  therefore,  easy  for  the  modern 
Greeks  to  purify  their  language  from  barbarisms  and  foreign  terms,  and  to 
restore  it  gradually  to  what  it  was  in  the  time  of  Thucydides.  Nor  has  the 
race  changed  much  in  its  physical  features,  for  in  most  districts  of  modern 
Greece  the  ancient  types  may  yet  be  recognised.  The  BcEotian  is  still  distin- 
guished by  that  heavy  gait  which  made  him  an  object  of  ridicule  amongst 
the  other  Greeks ;  th6  Athenian  youth  possesses  the  suppleness,  grace  of  move- 
ment and  bearing  which  we  admire  so  much  in  the  horsemen  sculptured  on 
the  friezes  of  the  Parthenon  ;  the  Spartan  women  have  preserved  that  haughty 
and  vigorous  beauty  which  constituted  the  charm  of  the  virgins  of  Doris.  As 
regards  morals,  the  descent  of  the  modern  Hellenes  is  equally  evident.  Like 
their  ancestors,  they  are  fond  of  change,  and  inquisitive;  as  the  descendants 
of  free  citizens,  they  have  preserved  a  feeling  of  equality;  and,  still  infatuated 
with  dialectics,  they  hold  forth  at  all  times  as  if  they  were  in  the  ancient 
market-place,  or  Agora.  They  frequently  stoop  to  flattery  :  like  the  ancient 
Greeks,   too,   they  are    apt    to    rate   intellectual  merit  above   purity    of    morals. 


44 


GREECE. 


Like  sag'C  Ulysses  of  the  Homeric  poem,  they  wtll  know  liow  to  lie  unci  cheat 
with  grace ;  and  the  truthful  Acanianian  and  the  Maiuote,  who  are  "  slow  to 
promise,  but  sure  to  keep,"  are  looked  upon  as  rural  oddities.  Another 
trait  in  the  character  of  the  modern  and  ancient  Greeks,  and  one  which 
distinguishes  them  from  all  other  Europeans,  is  this — that  they  do  not  allow 
themselves  to  be  carried  away  by  passion,  except  in  the  cause  of  patriotism. 
The  Greek  is  a  stranger  to  melancholy :  he  loves  life,  and  is  determined  to  enjoy 
it.  In  battle  he  may  throw  it  away,  but  suicide  is  a  species  of  death 
unknown  amongst  the  modern  Greeks,  and  the  more  unhappy  they  arc,  the 
more  they  cling  to  existence.     They  are  very  seldom  afflicted  with  insanity. 


Fig.  10. — FoRETON  Elements  ix  the  Popi'lation  of  Greece. 


CLI  Albanians  Ba  FrencK .  Ualians 


I  Turks 


Walachians 


In  spite  of  the  divei'se  elements  which  compose  it,  the  Greek  nationalitj'  is 
one  of  the  most  homogeneous  in  Europe.  The  Albanians,  of  Pelasgian  descent 
like  the  Greeks,  do  not  cede  to  the  latter  in  patriotism  ;  and  it  was  they — the 
Suliotes,  Hydriotes,  Spezziotes — who  fought  most  valiantly  for  national  independ- 
ence. The  eight  hundred  families  of  Rumanian  or  Kutzo-Wallachian  Zinzares 
who  pasture  their  herds  in  the  hills  of  Acarnania  and  ^tolia,  and  are  known  as 
Kara-Gunis,  or  "  black  cloaks,"  .speak  the  two  languages,  and  sometimes  marrj' 
Greek  girls,  though  they  never  give  their  own  daughters  in  marriage  to  the 
Greeks.  Haughty  and  free,  they  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  be  of  any  great 
importance.  To  foreigners  the  Greeks  are  rather  intolerant,  and  they  take  no 
pains  to  render  their  stay  amongst  them  agreeable.  The  Turks — who  were 
numerous  formerly  in  certain  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  in  Boeotia,  and  in  the 


CONTINENTAL  GREECE.  45 

island  of  Euboea,  and  whose  presence  recalled  an  unhappy  period  of  servitude — 
have  fled  to  a  man,  and  only  the  fez,  the  narghile,  and  the  slippers  remind  us  of 
their  former  presence.  The  Jews,  though  met  with  in  every  town  of  the  East, 
whether  Slav  or  Mussulman,  dare  hardly  enter  the  presence  of  the  Greeks,  who 
are,  moreover,  their  most  redoubtable  rivals  in  matters  of  finance  :  they  are  to  be 
found  onl}-  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  where  they  managed  to  get  a  footing  during 
the  British  Protectorate.  In  this  same  Archipelago  we  likewise  meet  with  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Venetian  colonists,  and  with  emigrants  from  all  parts 
of  Italy.  French  and  Italian  families  stiU  form  a  distinct  element  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Naxos,  Santorin,  and  Syra.  As  to  the  Maltese  porters  and  gardeners 
at  Athens  and  Corfu,  they  continue  for  the  most  part  in  subordinate  positions, 
and  never  associate  with  the  Greeks. 

The  homogeneous  character  of  the  population  of  Greece  does  not  admit  of 
that  country  being  di-vided  into  ethnological  provinces,  like  Turkey  or  Austro- 
Hungary,  but  it  consists  geographically  of  four  distinct  portions.  These  are 
(1),  continental  Hellas,  known  since  the  Turkish  invasion  as  Rumelia,  in 
remembrance  of  the  "Roman"  empire  of  Byzantium ;  (2),  the  ancient  Pelopon- 
nesus, now  called  the  Morea,  perhaps  a  transposition  of  the  word  "  Romea,"  or 
from  a  Slav  word  signifying  "  sea  coast,"  and  applied  formerly  to  Elis  ; 
(3),  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea  ;  (-4),  the  Ionian  Islands.  In  describing  the 
various  portions  of  Greece  we  shall  make  use,  in  preference,  of  the  ancient  names 
of  mountains,  rivers,  and  towns ;  for  the  Hellenes  of  our  own  day,  proud  of  the 
glories  of  the  past,  are  endeavouring  gradually  to  get  rid  of  names  of  Slav  or 
Italian  origin,  which  still  figure  upon  the  maps  of  their  country.* 


II. — COXTIXENTAL    GrEECE. 

The  Pindus,  which  forms  the  central  chain  of  Southern  Turkey,  passes  over 
into  Greece,  and  imparts  to  it  an  analogous  orographical  character.  On  both 
sides  of  this  conventional  boundary  we  meet  with  the  same  rocks,  the  same 
vegetation,  the  same  landscape  features,  and  the  same  races  of  people.  By 
dividing  the  Epirus  and  handing  over  Thessaly  to  the  Turks,  European  diplomacy 
has  paid  no  attention  to  natural  features.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  boundary 
is  made  to  follow  the  line  of  water  parting  over  the  range  of  the  lofty  Othrys, 
commanding  the  plain  of  the  Sperchius.     Westward  of  the  Pindus  the  boundary 

*  Greece  within  its  political  limits : — 


Continental  Greece 

Peloponnesus   .... 

.Sgean  Islands 

Ionian  Islands 

Army,  navy,  and  sailors    . 

Area. 
Sq.  m. 
7,558 
8,288 
2,500 
1,007 

Population 

(1870). 

466,918 
545,389 
205,840 
218,879 
20,868 

Density 

62 

66 

82 

217 

Touil 

.      19,353 

1,457,894 

75 

46 


GREECE. 


crosses  transversely  tte  valley  of  the  Achelous,  and  the  hills  which  separate  it 
from  the  Gulf  of  Arta. 

The  isolated  summit  of  Mount  Tymphrestus,  or  Yelukhi,  which  rises  where 
the  grand  chain  of  the  Othrys  branches  oflf  from  the  Pindus,  is  not  the  culmi- 
nating point  of  continental  Greece,  but  it  is  a  centre  from  which  the  principal 
mountain  spurs  and  rivers  radiate.  AVithin  its  spurs  lies  hidden  the  cliarming 
valley  of  Karpcnisi,  and  an  elevated  ridge  joins  them,  towards  the  south-east, 
to  the  most  important  mountain  mass  of  modern  Greece,  viz.  the  group  sur- 
mounted by  the  snow-clad  pyramids  of  the  Vardusia  and  Khiona,  whose  slopes 
are  covered  with  dark  firs,  and  to  the  superb  Katavothra,  the  ffita  of  the 
ancients,  on  which  Hercules  built  his  funeral  pile.     The  mountains  of  Vardusia 

Fig.  11. — Mount  Parnassus  and  Delphi. 


and   Khiona  are  face  to  face  with  the  fine  mountain  masses  of  Northern  Morea, 
likewise  wooded  and  covered  with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  j'ear. 

The  mountains  of  ^Etolia,  to  the  west  of  the  Velukhi  and  the  Vardusia,  are 
far  less  elevated,  but  they  are  rugged,  and  form  a  veritable  chaos  of  rocks, 
savage  defiles,  and  thickets,  into  which  only  Wallachian  herdsmen  venture.  In 
Southern  ^T^tolia,  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes  and  along  the  rivers,  the  country  is 
more  accessible,  but  mountains  rise  there  likewise,  and  by  tortuous  ridges  they 
are  brought  into  connection  with  the  system  of  the  Pindus.  Those  on  the  coast 
of  Acarnania,  opposite  to  the  Ionian  Islands,  are  steep,  covered  with  trees  and 
shrubs  ;  they  are  the  mountains  of  the  "  Black  Continent  "  mentioned  by  Ulysses. 


CONTINENTAL  GREECE.  47 

To  the  east  of  the  Achelous  there  is  another  coast  chain,  well  known  to  mariners  : 
this  is  the  Zygos,  the  southern  slopes  of  which,  arid  and  austere,  are  seen  from 
off  Missolonghi.  Still  further  to  the  east  another  range  comes  down  to  the 
seashore,  and,  together  with  the  promontories  on  the  opposite  coast  of  the  Morea, 
forms  the  narrow  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  Close  to  this  entrance,  on 
the  ^tolian  side,  there  rises  bold  Mount  Varassova,  a  huge  block  of  rock.  Local 
tradition  tells  us  that  the  Titans  endeavoured  to  throw  this  rock  into  the  sea,  so 
that  it  might  form  a  bridge  between  the  two  coasts  ;  but  the  rock  proved  too 
heavy,  and  it  was  dropped  where  we  now  see  it. 

Towards  the  ^-Egean  Sea  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Katavothra  is  continued 
by  a  coast  range  running  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  mountains  of  the  island  of 
Euboea.  This  range  should  be  described  rather  as  a  series  of  mountain- groups 
separated  from  each  other  by  deep  hollows,  extensive  dejDressions,  and  even  by 
river  valleys.  These  mountains,  though  low  and  intersected  by  numerous  roads, 
are  nevertheless  difficult  of  access,  for  their  slopes  are  steep,  their  promontories 
abrupt,  and  their  precipices  sudden,  and  in  the  times  of  the  ancient  Greeks  a 
small  number  of  men  repeatedly  defended  them  against  large  armies.  At  one 
extremity  of  this  range  is  the  passage  of  Thermopylce ;  at  the  other,  on  the 
eastern  foot  of  the  Pentelicus,  the  famous  plain  of  Marathon. 

The  mountain  groups  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  and  to 
the  south  of  Boeotia,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  range  running  parallel  with  that 
following  the  channel  of  Eubcea,  but  far  more  beautiful  and  picturesque.  Every 
one  of  its  summits  recalls  the  sweet  memories  of  poetry,  or  conjures  up  the 
image  of  some  ancient  deity.  To  the  west  we  find  ourselves  in  the  pre- 
sence of  "  double-headed  "  Parnassus,  to  which  fled  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha,  the 
ancestors  of  the  Greeks,  and  where  the  Athenians  celebrated  their  torchlight 
dances  in  honour  of  Bacchus.  From  the  summits  of  the  Parnassus,  which  rival 
in  height  those  of  the  Khiona,  raising  its  pyramidal  head  towards  the  north-west, 
nearlj'  the  whole  of  Greece,  with  its  gulfs,  islands,  and  mountains,  lies  spread  out 
below  us,  from  the  Thessalian  Olympus  to  the  Taygetus,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Peloponnesus  ;  and  close  by,  at  our  feet,  lies  the  admirable  basin  of  Delphi,  the 
place  of  Peace  and  Concord,  where  Greeks  forgot  their  animosities.  The 
mountain  group  towards  the  east  next  to  Parnassus  is  quite  equal  to  it.  The 
valleys  of  the  Helicon,  the  seat  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  are  still  the  most 
verdant  and  the  most  smiling  in  all  Greece.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  Helicon  is 
more  especially  distinguished  for  its  charming  beauty,  its  woods,  its  verdant 
pastures,  gardens,  and  murmuring  springs,  which  contrast  most  favourablj^  with  the 
bare  and  arid  plains  of  Boeotia.  If  Mount  Parnassus  may  boast  of  the  Castalian 
spring.  Mount  Helicon  possesses  that  of  Hippocrene,  which  burst  forth  from  the 
ground  when  struck  by  the  hoof  of  Pegasus.  The  elongated  summit  of  the 
Cithaeron,  the  birthplace  of  Bacchus,  joins  the  mountains  of  Southern  Boeotia 
to  those  of  Attica,  whose  marble  has  become  famous  through  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city  which  they  shelter.  Mount  Parnes  rises  to  the  north  of  Athens ; 
to  the  east  of  it,  like  the  pediment  of  a  temple,  rises  the  Pentelicus,  in  which  are 


48  GREECE. 

the  quarries  of  Pikermi,  rendered  famous  throupjh  their  fossil  hones ;  on  the 
south  appears  Mount  Ilyniettus,  celebrated  for  its  flowers  and  its  bees.  Farther 
away,  the  Laurium,  with  its  rich  argentiferous  slags,  stretches  towards  the  south- 
east, and  terminates  in  Cape  Sunium,  consecrated  in  other  days  to  Minerva 
and  Neptune,  and  still  surmounted  by  fifteen  columns  of  an  ancient  temple. 

Another  isolated  mountain  group  to  the  south  of  Attica,  and  occupying  the 
entire  width  of  the  Isthmus  of  Mcgara,  served  the  xVthcnians  as  a  rampart  of 
defence  against  their  neighbours  of  the  Peloponnesus.  This  is  the  mountain 
group  of  Gerania,  the  modern  Pera  Khora.*  Having  passed  bej'ond  it,  we  find 
ourselves  upon  the  Isthmus  of  Corintb,  properly  so  called,  confiucd  between  the 
Gulfs  of  Athens  and  of  Corinth.  It  is  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  scarcely  five  miles 
across,  whose  arid  limestone  rocks  hardly  rise  two  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
neutral  bit  of  territory,  lying  between  two  distinct  geographical  regions,  naturally 
became  a  place  for  meetings,  festivals,  and  markets.  The  remains  of  a  wall 
built  by  the  Peloponnesians  across  the  isthmus  may  still  be  traced,  as  may  also 
the  canal  commenced  by  order  of  Nero. 

The  limestone  mountains  of  Greece,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Epirus  and  of 
Thessaly,  abound  in  lakes,  but  all  the  rivers  are  swallowed  up  in  "  sinks,"  or 
katavothras,  leaving  the  land  dry  and  arid.  Southern  Acarnania,  a  portion  of  which 
is  known  as  Xeromeros,  or  the  "arid  country,"  on  account  of  the  absence  of  run- 
ning water,  abounds  in  lake  basins  of  this  kind.  To  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of 
Arta,  which  may  not  inaptly  be  described  as  a  sort  of  lake  communicating  with  the 
sea  through  a  narrow  opening,  there  are  several  sheets  of  water,  the  remains  of  an 
inland  sea,  silted  up  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Achelous.  The  largest  of  these 
lakes  is  known  to  the  natives  as  Pelagos,  or  "big  sea,"  because  of  its  extent  and 
the  agitated  state  of  its  waters,  which  break  against  its  coasts.  This  is  the 
Trichonius  of  the  ancient  Jiltolians.  Reputed  unfathomable,  it  is,  in  truth,  very 
deep,  and  its  waters  are  perfectly  pure  ;  but  they  are  discharged  sluggishly  into 
another  basin  far  less  extensive,  and  surrounded  by  pestilential  marshes,  and 
through  a  turgid  stream  they  even  find  their  way  into  the  Achelous.  The  hills 
surrounding  Lake  Trichonis  are  covered  with  villages  and  fields,  whilst  the  locality 
around  the  lower  lake  has  been  depopulated  by  fever.  The  country,  nevertheless, 
is  exceedingly  beautiful  to  look  upon.  Hardly  have  we  passed  through  a  narrow 
gorge,  or  klisiov,  of  Mount  Zygos  before  we  enter  upon  a  bridge  over  a  mile 
in  length,  which  a  Turkish  governor  caused  to  be  thrown  across  the  swamps 
separating   the    two    lakes.      This  viaduct    has    sunk    down  more  than  half   its 

•  Altitudes  of  mountains  in  continental  Greece  (in  feet) : — 

Gerakavuni  (Othrys)     .        .        .  5,673  I  Liakura  (Parnassus)       .        .        .  8,0(58 

Velukhi  (Tymphre.stus)           .         .  7,610  ;  Palceovouni  (Helicon)     .         .         .  5,738 

Khonia 8,186  i  Elatea  (Citha-ron)   ....  4,630 

Vardusia 8,242  i  Parnes 4,645 

Katavothra  ((Eta)           .         .         .  6,.560  I  Pentelicus 3,693 

Mountains  of  Acarnania         .         .  5,216  Hytnetius 3,400 

Varaesova 3,010  Geninia  (Pera  Khora)     .         .         .  4,482 


CONTINENTAL  GREECE. 


49 


height  into  the  mud,  hut  it  is  still  sufBciently  elevated  to  enahle  the  eye  freely 
to  sweep  over  the  surface  of  the  waters,  and  to  trace  the  coasts  which  bound  them. 
Oaks,  planes,  and  wild  olive-trees  intermingle  beneath  us,  their  branches  hung 
with  festoons  of  wild  vine,  and  these,  with  the  blue  waters  of  the  lake  and 
the  mountains  rising  beyond  it,  form  a  picture  of  great  beauty. 

Another  lake  basin  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Zygos,  between  the  alluvial 
lands  of  the  Achelous  and  the  Fidari.  It  is  occupied  by  a  swamp  filled  with  fresh, 
brackish,  or  salt  water ;  and  since  the  days  of  ancient  Greece,  this  swamp, 
owing  to  the  apathy  of  the  inhabitants,  has  continued  to  increase  in  extent  at 
the  expense  of  the  cultivated  land.  Missolonghi  the  heroic  is  indebted  for  its 
name  to  its  position  near  these  marshes,  for  the  meaning  of  it  is  "  centre  of 
marshes."     A  barrier,  or  ramma,  here  and  there  broken  through  by  the  floods, 


Fig.  12. — Lower  Acarnania. 
Scale  1  :  800,000. 


n 


^j,„^^^i^a  vS  TK    a 


oT 


,.ATVvA* 


;  --x^- 


25  Miles. 


separates  the  basin  of  Missolonghi  from  the  Ionian  Sea.  During  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence every  opening  in  this  barrier  was  protected  by  redoubts  or  stockades, 
but  at  present  the  only  obstruction  consists  of  the  reed  barriers  of  the  fishermen, 
which  are  opened  in  spring  to  admit  the  fish  from  the  sea,  and  closed  in  summer 
to  prevent  their  escape.  Missolonghi,  though  surrounded  by  brackish  water,  is  a 
healthy  place,  thanks  to  the  breezes  from  the  sea  ;  whilst  a  heavy  atmosphere 
charged  with  miasmata  hangs  perpetually  over  the  bustling  little  town  of 
xEtoHko  (AnatoHkon),  which  lies  farther  to  the  north-west  in  the  midst  of  the 
swamps,  and  is  joined  to  the  dry  land  by  two  bridges.  Between  ^toliko  and 
the  river  Achelous  may  be  observed  a  large  number  of  rocky  eminences,  rising 
like  pyramids  above  the  plain.  These  are  no  doubt  ancient  islands,  such  as 
still  exist  between  the  mainland  and  the  island  of  St.  Mauro.  The  mud  brought 
down    by  the   Achelous  has   gradually  converted  the    intervals    between    these 


60 


GEEECE. 


rocks  into  dry  land.  In  former  times  the  commercial  city  of  ffiniadsD  occupied 
one  of  these  islets.  The  geological  changes  already  noticed  by  Herodotus  are 
thus  still  going  on  under  our  eyes,  and  the  muds  of  the  Achelous,  to  which  it 
owes  its  modern  name  of  Aspro,  or  "  white,"  incessantly  extend  the  land  at  the 
expense  of  the  sea. 

The  Achelous,  which  the  ancients  likened  to  a  savage  bull,  owing  to  its 
rapid  current  and  great  volume,  is  by  fur  the  most  important  river  of  Greece. 
One  of  the  great  feats  ascribed  to  Hercules  consisted  in  breaking  off  one  of 
the  horns  of  this  bull ;  that  is  to  say,  he  embanked  the  river,  and  thus  protected 
the  lands  which  it   used   to  inundate.      The   neighbours   of   the  Achelous,  the 


Fig.    13. — TnERMOPYL.Ti. 

Prom  the  French  Staff  Map  (1852).    Scale  1 :  330,000. 


Ancient    Coast 
Ancient  Bhrer  b< 


/  Arcopdinq  to  Leake 


10  Miles. 


rapid  Fidari  (Evenus,  on  the  banks  of  which  Hercules  killed  the  centaur 
Nessus,  for  offering  violence  to  Dejanira)  and  the  Mornos,  which  rises  in  the 
snows  of  the  CEta,  cannot  compare  with  it.  Still  less  is  it  equalled  by  the 
Oropus,  the  Cephissus,  and  the  Ilissus,  "  wet  only  when  it  rains,"  which  flow 
eastward  into  the  ^gean  Sea.  The  principal  river  of  Eastern  Greece,  the 
Sperchius,  is  inferior  to  the  Achelous,  but,  like  it,  has  extensively  changed  the 
aspect  of  the  plain  near  its  mouth.  When  Leonidas  and  his  three  hundred  heroes 
guarded  the  defiles  of  Thermopylae  against  the  Persians,  the  Gulf  of  Lamia 
extended  much  farther  into  the  land  than  it  does  now.  But  the  alluvial  deposits 
of  the  river  have  extended  its  delta,  and  several  rivulets  which  formerly  flowed 


CONTINENTAL  GEEECE.  51 

directly  into  the  sea  have  now  to  be  numbered  amongst  its  tributaries ;  the  sea  has 
retired  from  the  foot  of  the  Callidromus  for  a  distance  of  several  miles  ;  and  the 
narrow  pass  of  Thermopylae  has  been  converted  into  a  plain  sufficiently  wide 
to  enable  an  entire  army  to  manoeuvre  upon  it.  The  hot  springs  which  gush 
from  the  rocks,  by  forming  deposits  of  calcareous  tufa,  may  likewise  have  con- 
tributed towards  this  change  of  coast-line ;  nor  are  more  violent  convulsions  of 
nature  precluded  in  a  volcanic  region  like  this,  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes. 
Sailors  still  point  out  a  small  island  in  this  neighbourhood,  formed  of  scoriae, 
from  which  the  incensed  Hercules  hiirled  his  companion,  Lichas,  into  the  ocean. 
Hot  springs  abound  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Eubcea,  and  the  incrustations 
formed  by  them  are  so  considerable  as  to  assume  the  appearance  of  glaciers 
when  seen  from  a  distance.  A  bathing  establishment  exists  now  near  the  hot 
sulphur  springs  of  Thermopylae,  and  strangers  are  thus  enabled  to  explore  this 
region,  so  rich  in  memories  of  a  great  past.  The  pedestal,  however,  upon 
which  reposed  the  figure  of  a  marble  lion,  placed  there  in  honour  of  Leonidas, 
has  been  destroyed  by  ruthless  hands,  and  utilised  in  the  construction  of  a 
mill  ! 

The  basin  of  the  Cephissus,  enclosed  by  the  chains  of  the  ffita  and  Parnassus, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  from  an  hydrological  point  of  view.  The  river 
first  flows  through  a  bottom-land  formerly  a  lake,  and  then,  forcing  for  itself  a 
passage  through  a  narrow  defile  commanded  by  the  spurs  of  Mount  Parnassus, 
it  winds  round  the  rock  upon  which  stood  the  ancient  city  of  Orchomenus,  and 
enters  upon  a  vast  plain,  where  swamps  and  lakes  are  embedded  amidst  culti- 
vated fields  and  reed-banks.  These  swamps  are  fed,  likewise,  by  numerous 
torrents  descending  from  the  Helicon  and  other  mountains  in  its  vicinity. 
One  of  these  is  the  torrent  of  Livadia,  into  which  the  bounteous  springs 
of  Memory  and  Oblivion — Mnemosyne  and  Lethe — discharge  themselves.  In 
summer  a  large  portion  of  the  plain  is  dry,  and  it  yields  a  bountiful  harvest- 
of  maize,  the  stalks  of  which  are  sweet  like  sugar-cane.  But  after  the  heavy 
rains  of  autumn  and  winter  the  waters  rise  twenty,  and  even  twenty-five  feet, 
and  the  plain  is  converted  into  a  vast  lake,  ninety-six  square  miles  in  extent.  The 
myth  of  the  deluge  of  Ogyges  almost  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  rising  floods 
occasionally  invaded  every  valley  which  debouches  into  this  basin.  To  the 
ancients  the  shallower  part  of  this  lake  was  known  as  Cephissus,  and  its  deep 
eastern  portion  as  Copais,  from  Copae,  a  town  occupying  a  promontory  on  its 
northern  shore,  and  now  called  Topolias. 

The  importance  of  regulating  the  floods  just  referred  to,  and  of  preventing 
the  sudden  overflow  of  the  waters  to  the  destruction  of  the  cultivated  fields, 
may  readily  be  imagined.  The  ancient  Greeks  made  an  effort  to  accomplish  this 
task.  To  the  east  of  the  large  Lake  of  Copais  there  is  another  lake  basin,  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  lower,  and  encompassed  by  precipitous  rocks,  incapable 
of  cultivation.  This  basin,  the  Hylice  of  the  Ba;otians,  appears  to  be  made  by 
nature  for  receiving  the  superabundant  waters  of  the  Copais.  The  remains  of  a 
canal  may  still  be  traced  in  the  plain,  which  was  evidently  intended  to  convey  into 


52 


GREECE. 


it  the  floods  of  the  Copais,  but  it  appears  never  to  have  been  completed.  No 
doubt  caie  was  taken  to  keep  open  the  various  katarotfirr/fi,  or  subterranean 
channels,  through  wliich  the  waters  of  the  Copaic  lake  discharge  themselves  into 
the  sea.  One  of  these,  on  the  north-western  shore  of  the  lake,  and  close  to 
the  rock  of  Orchomenus,  swallowed  up  the  river  Melas,  and  convej'ed  its  waters 
to  the  Gulf  of  Atalanta.  Farther  to  the  cast  other  subterranean  channels  flow 
towards  Lakes  Ilylice  and  I'aralimni,  but  the  most  important  of  these  channek 
are  towards  the  north-east,  in  the  Gulf  of  Kokkino.  In  that  extreme  angle  of 
the  lake,  the  veritable  Copais,  the  waters  of  the  Cephissus  rush  against  the  foot 
of  Mount  Skroponcri,  and  are  swallowed  up  by  the  ground  so  as  to  form  a  sub- 
terranean delta.  To  the  south  there  is  a  cavernous  opening  in  the  rock,  but 
this  is  merely  a  sort  of  tunnel   passing  underneath  a  promontory,  and,  except 


Fig.  14. — Lake  Cop.ms, 
From  the  French  Staff  Map.    Scale  1 ;  600,000. 


1  l''aJ^t««tof  <V. 

-    o 


'^-^^7% 


\ 


K.  Katavothras. 


lu  Miles. 


during  the  rainy  season,  it  may  be  traversed  dry-shod.  Beyond  this,  another 
.opening  swallows  up  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  Cephissus, 
which  makes  its  reappearance  in  the  shape  of  bounteous  springs  pouring  their 
waters  into  the  sea.  Two  other  branches  of  the  river  disappear  in  the  rocks 
about  a  mile  farther  north.  They  join  soon  afterwards,  and  flow  northwards 
beneath  the  bottom  of  a  sinuous  valley.  The  old  Greek  engineers  dug  pits  in  this 
valley,  which  enabled  them  to  descend  to  the  subterranean  waters,  and  to  clear  away 
obstructions  interfering  with  their  flow.  Sixteen  of  these  pits  have  been  discovered 
between  the  opening  of  the  katavothra  and  the  place  where  the  waters  reappear. 
Some  of  these  are  still  thirty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  depth  ;  but  most  of  them  have 
become  choked  up  with  stones  and  earth.  These  ancient  engineering  works,  which 
Crates  vainly  endeavoured  to  restore  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  may  possibly  date 


PEASANTS  FROM  THE  ENVIKONS  OF   ATHENS. 


CONTINENTAL  GEEECE.  63 

flora  the  mythical  age  of  King  Minyas  of  Orchomenus,*  aud  the  successful  drain- 
ing of  tliese  marshes  may  account  for  the  well-fiUed  treasury  of  that  king  spoken 
of  by  Homer.  Thus  the  ingenuity  of  the  Homeric  age  had  succeeded  in  accom- 
plishing a  work  of  the  engineering  art  which  baffles  our  modern  men  of  science ! 

The  whole  of  "Western  Greece,  filled  as  it  is  by  the  mountains  of  Acarnania, 
^tolia,  and  Phocis,  is  condemned  by  nature  to  play  a  very  subordinate  part  to 
the  eastern  provinces.  In  the  time  of  the  ancient  Greeks  these  provinces  were 
looked  upon  almost  as  a  portion  of  the  world  of  the  barbarians,  and  even  in  our 
own  daj's  the  jEtolians  ai-e  the  least  cultivated  of  all  the  Greeks.  There  is  no 
commerce  except  at  a  few  privileged  places  close  to  the  sea,  such  as  Missolonghi, 
iEtoliko,  Salona,  and  Galaxidi.  The  latter,  which  is  situated  on  a  bay,  into 
which  flows  the  Pleistus,  a  river  at  one  time  consecrated  to  Neptune,  although 
quite  dry  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  was,  up  to  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, the  busiest  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  As  for  Xaupactus,  or  Epakto, 
(called  Lepanto  by  the  Italians),  it  was  important  merely  from  a  strategical  point 
of  view,  on  account  of  its  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  which 
is  sometimes  named  after  it.  !Many  naval  engagements  were  fought  to  force  the 
entrance  into  the  gulf,  defended  by  the  castles  of  Rumelia  and  Morea — the  ancient 
Rhium  and  Antirrhiuni.  A  curious  phenomenon  has  been  observed  in  connection 
with  the  channel  which  forms  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  Nowhere 
more  than  36  fathoms  in  depth,  it  is  subject  to  perpetual  changes  in  its  width, 
owing  to  the  formation  of  alluvial  deposits  bj'  maritime  currents.  What  one 
current  deposits  is  carried  away  by  the  other.  At  the  epoch  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  this  channel  was  7  stadia,  or  about  1,200  yards,  wide ;  at  the  time  of 
Strabo  its  width  was  only  5  stadia ;  whilst  in  our  own  days  it  is  no  less  than 
2,200  yards  from  promontory  to  promontory.  The  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Arta, 
between  the  Turkish  Epirus  and  Greek  Acarnania,  does  not  present  the  same 
phenomena,  and  its  present  width  is  about  equal  to  that  assigned  to  it  by  every 
ancient  author  ;   that  is  to  say,  about  1,000  yards. 

The  valleys  and  lake  basins  of  Eastern  Greece,  and  more  especially  its  position 
between  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  the  ^gean  Sea,  and  the  channel  of  Eubcea,  which 
almost  convert  it  into  a  peninsula,  sufficiently  account  for  the  prosperity  of  that 
country.  With  its  cities  of  Thebes,  Athens,  and  Megara,  it  is  essentially  a 
land  of  historical  remin'scences.  The  contrast  between  the  two  most  important 
districts  of  this  region — Boootia  and  Attica — is  very  striking.  The  first  of  the.se 
is  an  inland  basin,  the  waters  of  which  are  collected  into  lakes,  where  mists 
accrtmulate,  and  a  rich  vegetation  springs  forth  from  a  fat  alluvial  soil.  Attica, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  arid.  A  thin  layer  of  mould  covers  the  terraces  of  its  rockv 
slopes  ;  its  valleys  open  out  into  the  sea ;  the  summits  of  its  mountains  rise  into 
an  azure  sky ;  and  the  blue  waters  of  the  ^Egean  wash  their  base.  Had  the 
Greeks  been  fearful  of  the  sea ;   had  they  confined  themselves,  as  in  the  earliest 

•  Orchomenus,  o  town  on  the  Cejihisaus,  the  capitiil  of  Northefn  Boeotia,  destroyed  by   the  Thebana 
371  u.c. 

4 


64 


OKKtCE. 


ages,  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  Boeotia,  no  doubt,  would  have  retained  the 
preponderance  which  it  enjoyed  in  the  time  of  the  Minyae  of  wealthy  Orchomenus. 
But  the  progress  of  navigation  and  the  allurements  of  commerce,  which  proved 
irresistible  to  the  Greeks,  were  bound  by  degrees  to  transfer  the  lead  to  the 
men  of  Attica.  The  city  of  Athens,  which  arose  in  the  midst  of  the  largest 
plain  of  this  peninsula,  therefore  occupied  a  position  which  assured  to  it  a  grand 
future. 

The  choice  of  Athens  as  the  modern  capital  of  Greece  has  been  much 
criticized.  Times  have  changed,  no  doubt,  and  the  natural  centres  of  commerce 
have  become  shifted,  in  consequence   of  the  migrations  of  nations.     Corinth,  on 

Fig.  15. — The  Acropolis  of  Athens. 


the  isthmus  joining  continental  Greece  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  commanding  two 
seas,  undoubtedly  deserved  the  preference.  Its  facilities  for  communicating  with 
Constantinople  and  the  Greek  maritime  districts  still  under  the  rule  of  the 
Osmanli,  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  western  world,  from  which  now  proceed 
all  civilising  impulses,  on  the  other,  are  certainly  greater  than  those  of  Athens. 
If  Greece,  instead  of  a  small  centralised  kingdom,  had  become  a  federal  republic, 
which  would  have  been  more  in  accordance  with  her  genius  and  traditions,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  other  towns  of  Greece,  more  favourably  situated  than  Athens 
for  establishing  rapid  communications  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  would  soon  have 
surpassed  that  town  in  population  and  commercial  wealth.  Athens,  however, 
has  grown  upon  its  plain,  and,  by  the  construction  of  a  railway,  it  has  become  even 


CONTIXENT^U.  GREECE. 


55 


a  maritime  city,  as  in  ancient  days,  wlien  its  triple  walls  joined  it  to  the  ports  of 
the  Piraeus  and  Phalerum. 

But  how  great  the  difference  between  the  monuments  of  the  ancient  city  and 
of  the  modern  !  The  Parthenon,  though  gutted  by  the  shells  of  the  Venetian 
Morosini,  and  robbed  since  of  its  finest  sculptures,  still  retains  its  pure  and  simple 
beauty,  which  agrees  so  well  with  the  sobriety  of  the  surrounding  landscape — still 
remains  the  finest  architectural  work  of  the  world.  By  the  side  of  this 
majestic  ruin,  on  the  same  plateau  of  the  Acropolis,  where  the  mariner  in  the 
Gulf  of  ^gina  saw  the  gilt  spear-head  of  Athene  Promachos  glitter  in  the  sun, 
there  rise  other  monuments,  the  Erechtheum  and  the  Propylaea,  hardly  inferior 
to  it,  and  dating  likewise  from  the  great  period  of  art.     Outside  the  city,  on  a 


Fig.  16. — Athens  and  its  Lono  Walls. 
Aronrding  to  Kiepei't  and  Schmidt.    Scale  1  ;  114,000. 


5  MUes. 


promontory,  rises  the  temple  of  Theseus,  the  best-preserved  monument  of  Greek 
antiquity.  Elsewhere,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilissus,  a  group  of  columns 
mark.s  the  site  of  the  magnificent  temple  of  Olympian  Jupiter,  which  it  took  the 
Athenians  seven  hundred  years  to  build,  and  which  their  degenerate  descendants 
made  use  of  as  a  quarry.  Remarkable  remains  have  been  discovered  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  ancient  city,  and  the  least  of  them  are  of  interest,  for  they 
recall  the  memory  of  illustrious  men.  On  such  a  rock  sat  the  Areopagus  which 
condemned  Socrates  ;  from  this  stone  tribune  Demosthenes  addressed  the  multi- 
tude ;   and  here  walked  Plato  with  his  disciples  ! 

A  simihir  histnric:il   interest  attaches  to   nearly  every  part  of  Attica,  whether 
vre  visit  the  city  of  Eleusis,  where  the  mysteries  of  Ceres  were  celebrated,  or  the 


56 


GREECE. 


city  of  Megara,  with  its  double  Acropolis,  or  whether  we  explore  the  field  of 
Marathon  and  the  shores  of  the  island  of  Salamis.  Even  beyond  Attica  the 
memories  of  the  past  attract  the  traveller  to  Platfca,  to  Leuctra,  Chscronea,  Thebes 
of  (Edi])us,  and  Orchoineuus  of  Miuyus,  though,  in  comparison  witli  what  these 
districts  were  in  other  times,  they  are  now  deserts.  In  addition  to  Athens  and 
Thebes,  there  are  now  only  two  cities  in  eastern  continental  Greece  which  are  of 
any  importance.  These  are  Lamia,  in  the  midst  of  the  low  i)laiiis  of  the 
Sperchius,  and  Livadia,  in  IJa^otia,  at  one  time  celebrated  for  the  cavern  of 
Trophonius,  which  archaeologists  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  identifying.  The 
island  of  j'Egina,  which  belongs  to  Attica,  ofi'ers  the  same  spectacle  of  decay  and 
depopulation  as  the  mainland.  Anciently  it  supported  more  than  two  liundred 
thousand  inhabit.aits ;  at  present  it  hardly  uuniburs  six  thousand.     But  tliu  island 


Fig.  17. — Ancient  Athens. 
Accoiding-  to  Kicpert  and  Schmidt.     Scale  1 :  30,000. 


-i 


r.vmiottiil! '; 


I 


■^ 


Ol-J         \  .%  \ 


,V   v/'  <.-. 


still  retains  the  picturesque  ruin  of  its  temple  of  Minerva,  and  the  prospect  which 
it  affords  of  the  amphitheatre  of  hills  in  Argolis  and  Attica  is  as  magnificent 
as  ever. 


III. — The  More.a,   or  Peloponnesus. 

GEOGRAPHif.vi.LY  the  Peloponnesus  well  deserves  the  name  of  island,  which  was 
bestowed  upon  it  by  the  ancients.  The  low  Isthmus  of  Corinth  completely  severs 
it  from  the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Greece.  It  is  a  world  in  itself,  small 
enough  as  far  as  the  mere  space  is  concerned  which  it  occupies  upon  the  map, 
but  great  on  account  of  the  part  it  has  played  in  the  history  of  humanity. 


THE  MUREA,  OK  PELOPONNESUS.  57 

On  entering  the  Peloponnesus  from  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  we  see  rising  in 
front  of  us  the  mountain  rampart  of  Oneium,  which  defended  the  entrance  of  the 
peninsula,  and  upon  one  of  whose  promontories  was  built  the  nearly  impregnable 
citadel  of  Corinth.  These  mountains  form  part  of  the  general  mountain  system  of 
the  whole  island,  and,  sheltered  by  them,  its  inhabitants  could  live  in  security. 
The  principal  mountain  mass,  whence  all  other  chains  radiate  towards  the 
entrances  of  the  peninsula,  is  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  about 
forty  miles  to  the  west  of  Corinth.  There  Mount  Cyllene  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
or  Zyria,  rises  into  the  air,  its  flanks  covered  with  dark  pines  ;  and  farther  away 
still,  the  Khelmos,  or  Aroanian  Mountain,  attains  even  a  more  considerable 
height,  its  snows  descending  into  a  valley  on  its  northern  slope,  where  they  give 
rise  to  the  river  Styx,  the  cold  waters  of  which  prove  fatal  to  perjurers,  and  dis- 
appear in  a  narrow  chasm,  one  of  the  entrances  to  Hades.  A  range  of  wooded 
peaks,  to  the  west  of  the  Khelmos,  connects  that  mountain  with  the  Olonos  (Mount 
Erymanthus),  celebrated  as  the  haunt  of  the  savage  boar  destroyed  by  Hercules. 
All  those  mountains,  from  Corinth  as  far  as  Patras,  form  a  rampart  running 
parallel  with  the  southern  shore  of  the  gulf,  in  the  direction  of  which  they  throw 
off  spurs  enclosing  steep  valleys.  In  one  of  these — that  of  Buraikos — we  meet 
with  the  grand  caverns  of  Mega-Spileon,  which  are  used  as  a  monastery,  and 
where  the  most  curious  structures  may  be  seen  built  up  on  every  vantage-ground 
offered  by  the  rocks,  suggesting  a  resemblance  to  the  cells  of  a  vast  nest  of 
hornets. 

The  table-land  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  thus  bounded  towards  the  north  by  an 
elevated  coast  range.  Another  chain  of  the  same  kind  bounds  it  on  the  east. 
It  likewise  starts  from  Mount  Cyllene,  and  extends  southward,  its  various  portions 
being  known  as  Gaurias,  Malevo  (Mount  Artemisium),  and  Parthenion.  It  is  then 
broken  through  by  a  vast  depression,  but  again  rises  farther  south  as  the  rano-e 
of  Hagios  Petros,  or  Parnon,  to  the  east  of  Sparta.  Getting  lower  li}^  degrees,  it 
terminates  in  the  promontory  of  Malea,  opposite  to  the  island  of  Cerigo.  It  was 
this  cape,  tradition  tells  us,  which  formed  the  last  refuge  of  the  Centaurs ;  that 
is  to  say,  of  the  barbarian  ancestors  of  the  modern  Tsakonians.  No  promontory 
was  more  dreaded  by  Greek  navigators  than  this  Cape  Malea,  owing  to  sudden 
gusts  of  wind,  and  an  ancient  proverb  says,  "When  thou  hast  doubled  the  cape 
forget  the  name  of  thy  native  land." 

The  mountains  of  Western  Morea  do  not  present  the  regularity  of  the  eastern 
chain.  They  are  cut  through  by  rivers,  and  to  the  south  of  the  Aroanian  Moun- 
tains and  the  Erymanthus  they  ramify  into  a  multitude  of  minor  chains,  which 
now  and  then  combine  into  mountain  groups,  and  impart  the  most  varied  aspect 
to  that  portion  of  the  plateau.  Everywhere  in  the  valleys  we  come  unexpectedly 
upon  landscapes  to  which  an  indescribable  charm  is  imj^arted  by  a  group  of  trees, 
a  spring,  a  flock  of  sheep,  or  a  shepherd  sitting  upon  a  heap  of  ruins.  We  are  in 
beautiful  Arcadia,  sung  by  the  poets.  Though  in  great  part  deprived  of  its  woods, 
it  is  still  a  beautiful  country ;  but  more  charming  still  are  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
plateau,   which  descend  towards  the  Ionian   Sea.       There   luxuriant  forests   and 


58 


GREECE. 


sparkling  rivulets  aild  an  cloniont  of  bivmty  to  Miie  waves,  distant  islands,  and  a 
transparent  sky,  wliich  is  wanting  in  nearly  every  other  p:irt  of  maritime  Greece. 

The  table-land  of  Arcadia  is  commanded  on  the  west  by  pine-clad  Mtciialus, 
and  bounded  on  the  south  by  several  mountain  groups  which  give  birth  to 
separate  mountain  chains.  One  of  these  mountain  masses — the  Kotylion,  or 
Palajocastro — thus  gives  rise  to  the  mountains  of  Messenia,  amongst  which  rises  the 
famous  Ithome,  and  to  those  of  ^1*lgaleiis,  which  spread  over  the  peninsula  to  the 
west  of  the  Uulf  of  Coron,  and  reappear  in  the  sea  as  the  rocky  islets  of  Sapienza, 

Fig.  18. — JIoiNT  Tayoetus. 


Cabrera,  and  ^'enetikoIl.  Another  mountain  mass,  the  Lycxus,  or  Diaforti — the 
Arcadian  Olympus,  which  the  Pelasgians  claim  for  their  cradle — and  which  rises 
almost  in  the  centre  of  the  Peloponnesus,  is  continued  westward  of  Laconia  by  an 
extended  mountain  chain,  the  most  elevated  and  most  characteri.stic  of  all  the 
Morea.  The  higlicst  crest  of  the.se  mountains  is  the  famous  Taygetus,  known  also 
as  Pentedactylum  (five  fingers),  because  of  the  five  peaks  which  surmount  it ;  or 
as  St.  Elias,  in  honour,  no  doubt,  of  Helios,  the  Dorian  sun-god.  A  portion  of 
the  lower  slopes  of  this  mountain  is  clothed  with  forests  of  chestnuts  aiid  walnuts. 


THE  MOEEA,  OR  PELOPONIS^ESUS.  59 

interspersed  with  cypresses  and  oaks  ;  but  its  crest  is  bare,  and  snow  remains 
upon  it  during  three-fourths  of  the  year.  The  snows  of  Taygetus  direct  the 
distant  mariner  to  the  shores  of  Greece.  On  approaching  the  coast,  he  sees  rising 
above  the  blue  waters  the  spurs  and  outlying  ridges  of  the  Kakavuni,  or  "  bad 
mountain."  Soon  afterwards  he  comes  in  sight  of  the  promontory  of  Tainaron, 
with  its  two  capes  of  Mutapan  and  Grasso — immense  blocks  of  white  marble  more 
than  six  hundred  feet  in  height,  upon  which  the  quails  settle  in  millions  after  their 
fatiguing  journey  across  the  sea.  Into  the  caverns  at  its  foot  the  waters  rush 
with  a  dull  noise  which  the  ancients  mistook  for  the  barking  of  Cerberus. 
Cape  Matapan,  like  Malea,  is  dreaded  amongst  mariners  as  a  great  "  destroyer 
of  men." 

The  three  southern  extremities  of  the  Peloponnesus  are  thus  occupied  by  high 
mountains  and  rocky  declivities.  The  peninsula  of  Argolis,  in  the  east,  is  likewise 
traversed  by  mountain  ranges,  which  start  from  Mount  Cj-Uene,  similarly  to  the 
Gaurias  and  the  mountains  of  Arcadia.  The  whole  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  thus 
a  country  of  table-lar.ds  and  mountain  ranges.  If  we  except  the  phiiiis  of  Elis, 
which  have  been  formed  by  the  alluvial  deposits  carried  down  by  the  rivers  of 
Arcadia,  and  the  lake  basins  of  the  interior,  which  have  been  filled  up  in  the 
course  of  ages,  we  meet  with  nothing  but  mountains.*  The  principal  mountain 
masses — the  Cyllene,  the  Taygetus,  and  Parnon— are  composed  of  crystalline 
schists  and  metamorphic  marbles,  as  in  continental  Greece.  Strata  of  the  Jurassic 
age  and  beds  of  cretaceous  limestone  are  here  and  there  met  with  at  the  foot 
of  these  more  ancient  rocks.  Near  the  coast,  in  Argolis,  and  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Taygetus,  eruptions  of  serpentines  and  porphyries  1  ave  taken  place,  whilst 
on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Argolis,  and  especially  on  the  small  peninsula  of 
Methone,  there  exist  recent  volcanoes — amongst  others,  the  Kaimenipetra,  which 
M.  Fouque  identifies  with  the  fire-vomiting  mouths  of  Strabo,  and  which  had  its 
last  eruption  twenty-one  centuries  ago.  These  volcanoes  are,  no  doubt,  the  vents 
of  a  submarine  area  of  disturbance  which  extends  through  MUos,  Sautorin,  and 
Nisyros,  to  the  south  of  the  ^gean  Sea. 

The  sulphur  springs  which  abound  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus 
are,  perhaps,  likewise  evidences  of  a  reaction  of  the  interior  of  the  earth. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  several  geologists  that  the  coasts  of  Western  Greece  are 
being  insensibly  upheaved.  In  many  places,  and  particularly  at  Corinth,  we  meet 
with  ancient  caverns  and  sea  beaches  at  an  elevation  of  several  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  It  is  this  upheaval,  and  not  merely  the  alluvial  deposits  brought  down  bv 
rivers,  which  explains  the  encroachment  of  the  land  upon  the  sea  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Achelous  and  on  the  coast  of  Elis,  where  four  rocky  islets  have  been  joined  to  the 
land.     Elsewhere  a  subsidence  of  the  land  has  been  noticed,  as  in  the  Gulf  of 

•   Heights  of  the  principal  mounlaii.s  in  the  Peloponnesus  (in  English  feet) :  — 

Lycaeus  (Diaforti)       ....  4,660 

Ithome 2,630 

Taygetus 7,904 

Arachnaeus  (Argolis)           .         .         .  3,935 

Mean  height  of  peninsula  .         .         .  2,000 


Cyllene  (Zyria) 

.     8.940 

Aroanian  Mountain  (Khelmos)  . 

.     7,726 

Erynianthus  (Olonos) 

.     7,297 

Artemisium  (Malevo) 

.     .i,8l4 

Pamon  (Hagios  Petros)     . 

.     fr.3o5 

60 


GREECE. 


Marathoiiisi  luul  on  tlic  enstcrn  coast  of  Greece,  where  the  ancient  peninsula  of 
Elaphonisi  has  been  convi-rtod  into  an  ishtiid.  Rut  even  there  the  fluvial  deposits 
have  encroached  upon  the  sea.  The  city  of  Culamata  is  twice  as  distant  from  the 
seashore  now  as  in  the  days  of  Strabo,  and  the  traces  of  the  ancient  haven  of 
Helos,  on  the  coast  of  Lacouia,  are  now  far  inland. 

The  limestone  rocks  of  the  interior  of  the  PeloiJonnesus  ahound  as  much  in 
chasms,  which  swallow  up  the  rivers,  as  do  Bceotia  and  the  western  portion  of  the 
whole  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Some  of  these  katavothras  are  mere  sieves,  hidden 
beneath  herbage  and  pebbles,  but  others  are  wide  chasms  and  caverns,  through  wliicli 
the  course  of  the  underground  waters  maybe  readily  traced.  In  winter  wild  birds 
post  themselves  at  the  entrances  of  these  caverns,  in  expectation  of  the  prey  which 
the  river  is  certain  to  carry  towards  them ;  in  summer,  after  the  waters  have 
retired,  foxes  and  jackals  again  take  possession  of  their  accustomed  dens.     The 

i'ii;.  19. — Lakes  Phenea  and  Stymphah'S. 
Finm  the  French  Staff  Map.    Scale  1  :  500,000. 


water  swallowed  up  by  these  chasms  on  the  plateau  reappears  on  the  other  side  of 
the  mountains  in  the  shape  of  springs,  or  ki'phtilaria  {kcp/iahrri/siK).  The  water 
of  these  springs  has  been  purified  by  its  passage  through  the  earth,  and  its 
temperature  is  that  of  the  soil.  It  bursts  forth  sometimes  from  a  crevice  in  the 
rocks,  .sometimes  in  an  alluvial  plain,  and  .sometimes  even  from  the  bottom  of  the 
sea.  The  subterranean  geography  of  Greece  is  not  yet  suflSciently  known  to 
enable  us  to  trace  each  of  these  kephalaria  to  the  katavothras  which  feed  them. 

The  ancients  were  most  careful  in  keeping  open  these  natural  funnels,  for,  by 
facilitating  the  passage  of  the  water,  they  prevented  the  formation  of  swamps. 
These  precautions,  however,  were  neglected  during  the  centuries  of  barbari.sm 
which  overcame  Greece,  and  the  waters  were  permitted  to  accumulate  in  many  places 
at  the  expense  of  the  salubrity  of  the  country.  The  plain  of  Pheneus,  or  Phonia,  a 
vast  chasm  between  the  Aroanian  Mountains  and  the  Cyllene,  has  thus  repeatedly 
been  converted  into  a  lake.     In  the  middle  of  last  century  the  whole  of  this  basin 


THE  MOEEA,  OB.  PELOPOXXESUS.  Gl 

was  filled  with  water  to  a  depth  of  more  than  300  feet.  In  1828,  when  this  sheet  of 
water  had  already  become  considerably  reduced,  it  was  still  6  miles  long  and  150  feet 
in  depth.  At  length,  a  few  years  afterwards,  the  subterranean  sluices  opened, 
the  waters  disajjpeared,  and  there  remained  only  two  small  marshes  near  the  places 
of  exit.  But  in  1850  the  lake  was  again  200  feet  in  depth.  Hercules,  we  are  told, 
constructed  a  canal  to  drain  this  valley  and  to  cleanse  its  subterranean  outlets,  but 
the  inhabitants  content  themselves  now  with  placing  a  grating  above  the  "  sink- 
holes," to  prevent  the  admission  of  trunks  of  trees  and  of  other  large  objects 
carried  along  by  the  floods. 

To  the  east  of  the  valley  of  Pheneus,  and  on  the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Cyllene, 
there  is  another  lake  basin,  celebrated  in  antiquity  because  of  the  man-eating  birds 
which  infested  it,  until  they  were  exterminated  bj'  Hercules.  This  is  the 
Stymphalus,  alternately  lake  and  cultivated  land.  During  winter  the  waters 
cover  about  one-third  of  the  basin  ;  but  it  happens  occasionally,  after  heavy  rains, 
that  the  lake  resumes  its  ancient  dimensions.  There  is  onlj'  one  katavothra  through 
which  the  waters  can  escape,  and  this,  instead  of  being  near  the  shore,  as  usual,  is 
at  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  It  swallows  up  not  only  the  water  of  the  lake,  but  like- 
wise the  vegetable  remains  carried  into  it,  and  the  mud  formed  at  its  bottom  ;  and 
this  detritus  is  conveyed  through  it  to  some  subterranean  cavity,  where  it  putrefies 
slowly,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  fetid  exhalations  proceeding  from  the  kata- 
vothra. The  water,  however,  is  purified,  and  when  it  reappears  on  the  surface, 
close  to  the  seashore,  it  is  as  clear  as  crystal. 

There  are  many  other  lake  basins  of  the  same  kind  between  the  mountains  of 
Arcadia  and  the  chain  of  the  Gaurias.  They  all  have  their  swamps  or  temporary 
lakes,  but  the  katavothras,  in  every  instance,  are  sufficiently  numerous  to  prevent 
an  inundation  of  the  entire  valley.  The  most  important  of  these  lake  basins  is 
formed  by  the  famous  plain  of  Mantinea,  upon  which  many  a  battle  was  fought. 
From  an  hydrological  point  of  view  this  is  one  of  the  most  curious  places  in  the 
world ;  for  the  waters  which  collect  there  are  discharged  into  two  opposite  seas — 
the  Gulf  of  Nauplia  on  the  east,  and  in  the  direction  of  the  Alpheus  and  the  Ionian 
Sea  towards  the  west.  There  may  exist  even  some  subterranean  rivulet  which 
discharges  itself,  towards  the  south,  into  the  Eurotas  and  the  Gulf  of  Laconia. 

The  disappearance  of  the  waters  underground  has  condemned  to  sterility  several 
parts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  which  a  little  water  would  convert  into  the  most  fertile 
regions  of  the  globe.  The  surface  waters  quickly  suck  up  and  form  subterranean 
rivers,  hidden  from  sight,  which  only  see  the  light  again,  in  most  instances,  near  the 
seashore,  when  it  is  impossible  to  utilise  them.  The  plain  of  Argos,  though  sur- 
rounded by  a  majestic  amphitheatre  of  well-watered  hiUs,  is  more  sterile  and  arid 
even  than  are  Megara  and  Attica.  Its  soil  is  always  dry,  and  soaks  up  water  like 
a  sieve,  which  may  have  given  ri.se  to  the  fable  of  the  Danaids.  But  to  the  south 
of  that  plain,  where  there  is  but  a  narrow  cultivable  strip  of  land  between  the 
mountains  and  the  seashore,  a  great  river  bursts  forth  from  the  rocks.  This  is  the 
Erasinus. 

Other  springs  burst  forth  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  plain,  close  to  the  defile 
5 


02 


GREECE. 


of  Lerna,  which,  like  that  of  the  Erasinus,  are  supposed  to  be  fed  from  Lake  Stj'm- 
phalus.  Close  to  them  is  a  chasm  filled  with  water,  said  to  be  uufuthomablo.  It 
abounds  in  tortoises,  and  venomous  serpents  inhabit  the  adjoining  marsh.  These 
are  the  hcpbalaria,  or  "  heads,"  of  the  ancient  hydra  of  Lerna,  which  Ilercules 
found  it  so  difficult  to  seize  hold  of.  Still  farther  south  there  is  another  spring 
which  rises  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  more  than  three  hundred  yui'ds  from  the 


Fig.  20. — The  Plateau  oy  Maxtinha. 
From  the  French  Staff  Map.    Scale  1 :  400,000. 


lu  Jlilcs 


£.  Katavothras. 


shore.  This  spring — the  Doinoc  of  the  ancients,  and  Anavula  of  modern  Greek 
mariners — is,  in  realitj',  but  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  rivers  swallowed  up  by  the 
katavothras  of  Slantinea.  When  the  sea  is  still  it  throws  up  a  jet  rising  to  a 
height  of  fiftj-  feet. 

Analogous  phenomena  may  be  witnessed  in  the  two  southern  valleys  of  the 
peninsula,  those  of  Sparta  and  Messenia.  The  Iri,  or  Eurotas,  is,  in  reality,  but  a  large 
rivulet,  which  discharges  itself  into  the  Gulf  of  Marathonisi,  at  the  end  of  a  gorge^ 


THE  MORE  A,  OR  PELOPONNESUS. 


63 


tbrougli  which  the  waters  of  the  Lake  of  Sparta  forced  themselves  a  passage  during 
some  ancient  deluge  ;  but  it  is  only  on  rare  occasions  that  its  volume  of  water  is 
sufficient  to  remove  the  bar  which  obstructs  its  mouth.  The  Vasili-Potamo  ("  royal 
i-iver  "),  on  the  other  hand,  which  bursts  forth  at  the  foot  of  a  rock  a  short  distance 
from  the  Eurotas,  though  its  whole  course  does  not  exceed  five  miles,  discharges  a 
considerable  volume  of  water  throughout  the  year,  and  its  mouth  is  at  all  times 
open.  As  to  the  river  of  Jlessenia,  the  ancient  Pamisus,  now  called  Pirnatza,  it  is 
the  only  river  of  Greece,  besides  the  Aljjheus,  which  forms  a  harbour  at  its  mouth, 
and  it  can  be  ascended  by  small  vessels  for  a  distance  of  eight  miles ;  but  this 
advantage  it  owes  exclusively  to  the  powerful  springs  of  Hagios  Floros,  which  are 
fed  by  the  mountains  on  the  east.     These  springs,  which  form  a  large  swamp 

Fig.  21. — BiFrRCATIOS  OF  THE  Gasttni. 
From  the  Flench  Staff  Map.     Scale  1:  400,000. 


10  Miles. 


where  they  rise  to  the  surface,  are  the  real  river,  if  volume  of  water  is  to  be  decisive, 
and  the  coimtry  watered  and  fertilised  by  them  was  called  the  "  Happy  "  by  the 
ancients,  on  account  of  its  fertility. 

The  western  regions  of  the  Peloponnesus  receive  more  rain,  and  they  are 
likewise  in  the  possession  of  the  most  considerable  river,  the  Alpheus,  now  called 
Ruphia,  from  one  of  its  tributaries.  The  latter,  the  ancient  Ladon,  conveys  a 
larger  volume  of  water  towards  the  sea  than  the  Alpheus.  It  was  as  cele- 
brated amongst  the  Greeks  as  was  the  Peneus  of  Thessaly,  on  account  of  the 
transparency  of  its  waters,  and  the  smiling  scenery  along  its  banks.  It  is  partly 
fed  by  the  snows  of  Blount  Erymanthus,  and,  like  most  rivers  of  the  Morea,  derives 
a  portion  of  its  waters  from  subterranean  tributaries  rising  on  the  central  plateau. 
The  Ladon  thus  receives  the  waters  of  Lake  Phenea,  whilst  the  Alpheus  proper 


64  GEEECE. 

is  fed  in  its  upper  course  from  katavothras  on  tlio  shores  of  the  ancient  lakes 
of  Orchomomis  and  Alantinea.  Having  traversed  the  basin  of  Megalopolis,  anciently 
a  lake,  it  passes  through  a  series  of  picturesque  gorges,  and  reaches  its  lower 
valley.  A  charming  tradition,  illustrative  of  the  ties  of  amity  which  existed 
between  Elis  and  Syracuse,  makes  this  river  plunge  beneath  the  sea  and  reappear 
in  Sicily,  close  to  the  fountain  of  his  beloved  Arethusa.  The  ancient  Greeks, 
who  witnessed  the  disappearance  of  so  many  rivers,  would  hardly  have  looked 
upon  this  submarine  course  of  the  Alphcus  as  a  thing  to  wonder  at. 

The  Alphcus  and  all  other  rivers  of  Elis  carry  down  towards  the  sea  immense 
masses  of  detritus,  which  they  spread  over  the  jdains  extending  from  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  to  the  seashore.  The  ruins  of  Olympia  disappeared  in  this 
manner  beneath  alluvial  deposits.  They  have  all  frequently  changed  their  beds, 
and  not  one  amongst  them  has  done  so  more  frequently  than  the  I'eneus,  or  river  of 
Gastuni.  Anciently  it  discharged  its  waters  to  the  nortli  of  tlie  rocky  promontory 
of  Chelonatas,  whilst  in  the  present  day  it  turns  abruptly  to  the  south,  and  enters 
the  sea  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles  from  its  ancient  mouth.  AVorks  of  irrigation 
may  partly  account  for  this  change,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  nature  unaided 
has  by  degrees  much  modified  the  aspect  of  this  portion  of  Greece.  Islands 
originally  far  in  the  sea  have  been  joined  to  the  land  ;  numerous  open  bays  have 
gradually  been  cut  off  from  the  sea  by  natural  embankments,  and  transformed 
into  swamps  or  lagoons.  One  of  the  latter  extends  for  several  leagues  to  tlie 
south  of  the  Alpheus,  and  is  divided  from  the  sea  by  a  fine  forest  of  pines. 
These  majestic  forests,  in  which  the  Triphylians  paid  honour  to  their  dead,  the 
surrounding  hills  dotted  over  with  clumps  of  trees,  and  Mount  Lycocus,  from 
whose  flanks  are  precipitated  tlie  cascades  dedicated  to  Xeda,  the  nur.se  of  Jupiter, 
render  this  the  most  attractive  district  of  all  the  Morea  to  a  lover  of  nature. 

The  Peloponnesus  presents  us  with  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  the 
influence  exercised  by  the  nature  of  the  country  ujjon  the  historical  development 
of  its  inhabitants.  Held  to  Greece  by  a  mere  thread,  and  defended  at  its  entrance 
by  a  double  bulwark  of  mountains,  this  "isle  of  Pelops"  naturallj'  became  the 
seat  of  independent  tribes  at  a  time  when  armies  still  recoiled  from  natural 
obstacles.  The  isthmus  was  open  as  a  commercial  high-road,  but  it  was  closed 
against  invaders. 

The  relief  of  the  peninsula  satisfactorily  explains  the  distribution  of  the 
tribes  inhabiting  it,  and  the  part  they  played  in  history.  The  whole  of  the  interior 
basin,  which  has  no  visible  outlets  towards  the  .sea,  naturally  became  the  home 
of  a  tribe  who,  like  the  Arcadians,  held  no  intercourse  with  their  neighbours,  and 
hardly  any  amongst  themselves.  Corinth,  Sicyon,  and  Achaia  occupied  the  sea- 
shore on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  mountains,  but  were  separated  by  high  trans- 
versal chains.  The  inhabitants  of  these  i.solated  valleys  long  remained  strangers 
to  each  other,  and  when  at  length  they  combined  to  resist  the  invader,  it  was 
too  late.  Elis,  in  the  west,  with  its  wide  valleys  and  its  insalubrious  plains 
extending  along  a  coast  having  no  havens,  naturally  plaj'ed  but  a  secondary  part 


THE  MOEEA,  OR  PELOPONNESrS.  C5 

in  the  history  of  the  peninsula.  Its  inhabitants,  exposed  to  invasions,  owing 
to  their  country  being  without  natural  defences,  would  soon  have  been  enslaved, 
had  they  not  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  all  the  rest  of  Greece 
by  converting  their  plain  of  Olympia  into  a  place  of  meeting,  where  the  Hellenes 
of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  from  the  continent  and  from  the  islands,  met  for  a  few 
days'  festival  to  forget  their  rivalries  and  animosities.  The  basin  of  Argos  and 
the  mountain  peninsula  of  Argolis,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Peloponnesus,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  districts  having  natural  boundaries,  and  are  easily  defended. 
Hence  the  Argolians  were  able  to  maintain  their  autonomy  for  centuries,  and  even 
in  the  Homeric  age  they  exercised  a  sort  of  hegemony  over  the  remainder  of 
Greece.  The  Spartans  were  their  successors.  The  country  in  which  they 
established  themselves  possessed  the  double  advantage  of  being  secure  against 
every  attack,  and  of  furnishing  all  they  stood  in  need  of.  Having  firmly 
established  themselves  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  they  foimd  no 
difficulty  in  extending  their  power  to  the  seashore,  and  to  the  unfortunate  Helos. 
At  a  later  date  they  crossed  the  heights  of  the  Taygetus,  and  descended  into  the 
plains  of  Messenia.  That  portion  of  Greece  likewise  formed  a  natural  basin, 
protected  by  elevated  mountain  ramparts ;  and  the  Messenians,  who  were  kinsmen 
of  the  Spartans  and  their  equals  in  bravery,  were  thus  able  to  resist  for  a  century. 
At  length  they  fell,  and  all  the  Southern  Peloponnesus  acknowledged  the  siipremacy 
of  Sparta,  w^hich  was  now  in  a  position  to  assert  its  authority  over  the  whole  of 
Greece.  Then  it  was  that  the  mountain-girt  plateau  on  the  road  from  Lacedaemonia 
to  Corinth,  upon  which  stood  the  cities  of  Tegea  and  Mantinea,  and  which  was 
made  by  nature  for  a  field  of  Mars,  became  the  scene  of  strife. 

The  Peloponnesus,  with  its  sinuous  shores,  forms  a  remarkable  contrast  to 
Attica.  Its  characteristics  are  essentially  those  of  a  continent,  and  anciently 
the  Peloponnesians  were  mountaineers  rather  than  mariners.  Except  in  Corinth, 
where  the  two  seas  nearly  join,  and  a  few  towns  of  Argolis,  which  is  another 
Attica,  there  were  no  inducements  for  the  inhabitants  to  engage  in  maritime 
commerce ;  and  in  their  mountain  valleys  and  upland  plains  they  were  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  husbandry.  Arcadia,  in  the  centre 
of  the  peninsula,  was  inhabited  only  by  herdsmen  and  labourers ;  and  its  name, 
which  originally  meant  "  country  of  bears,"  has  become  the  general  designation 
for  an  eminently  pastoral  country.  The  Laconians  also,  separated  from  the 
sea  by  rocky  mountains  which  hem  in  the  valley  of  the  Eurotas  at  its  point  of 
issue,  preserved  for  a  long  time  the  customs  of  warriors  and  of  cultivators  of 
the  soil,  and  took  to  the  sea  only  with  reluctance.  "  When  the  Spartans  placed 
Eurotas  and  Taygetus  at  the  head  of  their  heroes,"  says  Edgar  Quinet,  "they 
distinctly  connected  the  features  of  the  vallej-  with  the  destinies  of  the  people 
by  whom  it  was  occupied." 

In  the  very  earliest  ages  the  Phoenicians  already  occupied  important  factories 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  They  had  established  themselves  at  Nauplia, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Argos ;  and  at  Crana?,  the  modern  Slarathonisi  or  Gythiou,  in 
Laconia,    they    purchased   the   shells   which   they  required   to   dye  their  purple 


G6  GREECE. 

cloths.  The  Greeks  themselves  were  in  possession  of  a  few  busy  ports,  amongst 
■which  was  "sandy  Pylos,"  the  capital  of  Nestor,  whose  position  is  now  held  by 
Navarino,  on  the  other  side  of  the  gulf.  At  a  subsequent  date,  when  Greece  had 
become  the  centre  of  Mediterranean  commerce,  Corintli,  so  favourably  situated 
between  tlie  two  seas,  rose  into  importance,  not  because  of  its  political  influence, 
its  cultivation  of  the  arts,  or  love  of  liberty,  but  through  the  number  and  wealth 
of  its  inhabitants.  It  is  said  that  it  had  a  population  of  three  hundred  thousand 
souls  within  its  walls.  Even  after  it  had  been  razed  by  the  Romans  it  again 
recovered  its  ancient  pre-eminence.  But  the  exposed  position  of  the  town  has 
caused  it  to  be  ravaged  so  many  times  that  all  commerce  has  fled  from  it.  In  1858, 
when  an  earthquake  destroyed  Corinth,  that  once  famous  city  had  dwindled  down 
into  a  poor  village.  The  city  has  been  rebuilt  about  five  miles  from  its  ancient  site, 
on  the  shore  of  the  gulf  named  after  it,  but  we  doubt  whether  it  will  ever  resume 
its  ancient  importance  unless  a  canal  be  dug  to  connect  the  two  seas.  The  high- 
roads from  Marseilles  and  Trieste  to  Smyrna  and  Constantinople  would  then  lead 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  this  canal  might  attract  an  amount  of  sliipping 
equal  to  that  wliich  frequents  other  ocean  channels  or  canals  similarl}'  situated. 
But  for  the  present  the  isthmus  is  almost  deserted,  and  only  the  passengers  who  are 
conveyed  by  Greek  steamers  to  the  small  ports  on  its  opposite  shores  cross  it. 
The  ancients,  who  had  failed  in  the  construction  of  a  canal,  and  who  made  no 
furtlicr  efi'ort  after  the  time  of  Nero,  because  they  imagined  one  of  the  two  seas 
to  be  at  a  higher  level  than  the  other,  had  provided,  at  all  events,  a  kind  of 
tramway,  by  means  of  which  their  small  vessels  could  be  conveyed  from  the  Gulf 
of  Corinth  to  the  ^gean  Sea.* 

After  the  Crusades,  when  the  powerful  Republic  of  Venice  had  gained  a 
footing  upon  the  coasts  of  Morea,  flourishing  commercial  colonies  arose  along 
them,  in  Arcadia,  on  the  island  of  Prodano  (Prote),  at  Navarino,  Modon,  Coron, 
Calamata,  Malvoisie,  and  Nauplia  in  ArgoUs.  At  the  call  of  these  Venetian 
merchants  the  Peloponnesus  again  became  a  seat  of  trade,  and  resumed,  to  some 
extent,  that  part  in  maritime  enterprise  which  it  had  enjoyed  in  tlie  time 
of  the  Phoenicians.  But  the  advent  of  the  Turk,  the  impoverishment  of  the  soil, 
and  the  civil  wars  which  resulted  therefrom,  again  forced  the  inhabitants  to  break 
off  all  intercourse  with  the  outer  world,  and  to  shut  themselves  up  in  their  island 
as  in  a  prison.  Tripolis,  or  Tripolitza,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  peninsula,  and 
called  thus,  it  is  said,  because  it  is  the  representative  of  three  ancient  cities — 
Mantinea,  Tegea,  and  Pallantium — then  became  the  most  populous  place.  Since 
the  Greeks  have  regained  their  independence  life  again  fluctuates  towards  the  sea- 
shore as  by  a  sort  of  natural  sequence.  Patras,  close  to  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of 
Corinth,  and  near  the  most  fertile  and  best-cultivated  plains  on  the  eastern  shore, 
is  by  far  the  most  important  city  at  present,  and,  in  anticipation  of  its  future 
extension,  the  streets  of  a  new  town  have  been  laid  out,  in  the  firm  belief  that  it 
will  some  day  rival  Smyrna  and  Trieste  in  extent. 

•  The  isthmus  is  6,496  yards  wide,  and  rises  to  a  lieight  of  250  feet  where  it  is  narrowest,  its  mean 
height  being  130  feet. 


THE  MOEEA,  OR  PELOPOXXESUS. 


67 


The  other  towns  of  the  peninsula,  even  those  which  exhibited  the  greatest 
activity  during  the  dominion  of  the  Venetians,  are  but  of  very  secondary 
importance,  if  we  compare  them  with  this  emporium  of  the  Peloponnesus,  ^gium, 
or  Vostitza,  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  is  a  poor  port,  less  celebrated  on  account 
of  its  commerce  than  in  consequence  of  a  magnificent  plane-tree,  more  than 
fifty  feet  in  girth,  the  hollow  trunk  of  which  was  formerly  used  as  a  prison. 
Pyrgos,  close  to  the  Alpheus,  has  no  port  at  all.  The  fine  roadstead  of  Xavarino, 
defended  against  winds  and  waves  by  the  rocky  islet  of  SiAacteria,  is  but  little 


Fig.  22. — ^The  Valley  of  the  Eukotas. 
From  the  French  Staff  Map.     Scale  1 :  370.000. 


10  Miles. 


frequented,  and  the  merchantmen  riding  at  anchor  there  never  outnumber  the 
Turkish  men-of-war  at  the  bottom,  where  they  have  lain  since  the  battle  fought  in 
1828.  Modon  and  Coron  have  likewise  fallen  off.  Calamata,  at  the  moutb  of  the 
fertile  valleys  of  Messenia,  has  an  open  roadstead  only,  and  vessels  cannot 
always  ride  in  safety  upon  it.  The  celebrated  Malvoisie,  now  called  Monemvasia, 
is  hardly  more  than  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  the  vineyards  in  its  neighbourhood, 
which  furnished  the  exquisite  wine  named  after  the  town,  have  long  ceased 
to  exist.  Xauplia,  which  was  the  capital  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece 
during  the  first  few  years  of   its  existence,  possesses  the  advantage  of  a  well- 


G8  GREECE. 

sheltered  port ;  but  its  walls,  its  bastions,  and  its  forts  give  it  the  character  of  a 
military  town  rather  than  of  a  commercial  one. 

The  towns  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  whatever  glories  may  attach  to  them, 
arc  hardly  more  now  than  large  villages.  The  most  celebrated  of  all,  Sparta,  thanks 
to  the  fertility  of  its  environs,  promises  to  become  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
cities  of  the  interior  of  the  Peloponnesus.  Sparta — that  is,  the  "  scattered  city," 
— was  named  thus  because  its  houses  were  scattered  over  the  plain,  defended  only 
by  the  valour  of  their  inhabitants,  and  not  by  walls.  In  the  iliddle  Ages  Sparta 
was  supplanted  by  the  neighbouring  Mistra,  whose  decayed  Gothic  buildings  and 
castles  occupy  a  steep  hill  on  the  western  side  of  the  Eurotas  ;  but  it  has  now  reco- 
vered its  supremacy  amongst  the  towns  of  Laconia.  Argos,  which  is  more  ancient 
even  than  the  city  of  Lacedac-mon,  has  likewise  risen  anew  from  its  ruins ;  for  the 
plain  in  which  it  lies,  though  occasionallj'  dried  up,  is  of  great  natural  fertility. 

Strangers,  however,  who  explore  the  countries  of  the  Peloponnesus,  do  not  go 
in  search  of  these  newly  risen  cities,  where  a  few  stones  only  remind  them  of 
the  glories  of  the  past,  but  are  attracted  by  the  ancient  monuments  of  art. 
In  that  respect  Argolis  is  one  of  the  richest  provinces  of  Greece.  Near  to  Argos 
the  seats  of  an  amphitheatre  are  cut  into  Ihe  steep  flanks  of  the  hill  of  Lurissa. 
Between  Argos  and  Nauplia  a  small  rock  rises  in  the  middle  of  the  plain,  which 
is  snrinonnted  by  the  ancient  Aerojiolis  of  Tiryns,  the  Cyclopean  walls  of  which 
are  more  than  tifty  feet  in  thickness.  A  few  miles  to  the  nurtii  of  Argos  are  the 
ruins  of  Mycenae,  the  city  of  Agamemnon,  where  the  celebrated  "  Gate  of  Lions," 
coarsely  sculptured  when  Greek  art  first  dawned,  and  the  vast  vaults  known  as 
the  Treasury  of  the  Atrides,  mainly  attract  the  attention  of  visitors.  These 
vaults  are  amongst  the  oldest  and  best-preserved  antiquities  of  Greece.  They 
exhibit  most  solid  workmanship,  and  one  of  the  stones,  which  does  duty  as  a  lintel 
over  the  entrance-gate,  weighs  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  tons.  At 
Epidaurus,  in  Argolis,  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  ^■Egina,  and  close  to  the  most 
famous  temple  of  ^I*]sculapius,  we  still  meet  with  a  theatre  which  has  suffered 
less  from  time  than  any  other  throughout  Greece.  Shrubs,  interspersed  with 
small  trees,  surround  it ;  but  we  can  still  trace  its  fifty-four  rows  of  white 
marble  seats,  capable  of  affording  accommodation  to  twelve  thousand  spectators. 
Amongst  other  famous  ruins  of  Argolis  are  the  beautiful  remains  of  a  temple  of 
Jupiter  at  Nemea,  and  the  seven  Doric  columns  of  Corinth,  said  to  be  the  oldest 
in  all  Greece.  But  the  most  beautiful  edifice  of  the  peninsula  must  be  sought  for 
near  Arcadian  Phigalia,  in  the  charming  valley  of  the  Neda.  This  is  the  temple 
of  Bassie,  erected  by  Ictinus  in  honour  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  and  its  beauty 
is  enhanced  by  the  oaks  and  rocks  which  surround  it. 

Citadels,  however,  are  the  buildings  we  most  frequently  meet  with ;  and  many 
a  fortified  place,  with  its  walls  and  acropolis,  yet  exists  as  in  the  days  of 
ancient  Greece.  The  walls  of  Phigalia  and  iMessenia  still  have  their  ancient 
towers,  gates,  and  redoubts.  Other  fortifications  were  utilised  by  the  Crusaders, 
Venetians,  or  Turks,  and  by  them  furnished  with  crenellated  walls  and  keeps, 
v.'hich  add  another  picturesque  feature  to  the  landscape.     One   of  these   ancient 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  ^GEAN  SEA.  G9 

fortresses,  transformed  during  the  Middle  Ages,  rises  at  the  very  gates  of 
the  Peloponnesus — namely,  the  citadel  of  Corinth,  the  strongest  and  most  com- 
manding of  all. 

Several  of  the  islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea  must  be  looked  upon  as  natural  depend- 
encies of  the  Peloponnesus,  to  which  submarine  ledges  or  shoals  attach  them. 

The  islands  along  the  coast  of  Argolis,  which  are  inhabited  by  Albanian 
seamen,  who  were  amongst  the  foremost  to  fight  the  Turk  during  the  struggle  for 
Hellenic  independence,  have  lost  mucb  of  their  former  commercial  importance. 
Poros,  a  small  Albanian  town  on  a  volcanic  island  of  the  same  name,  which  the 
revolted  people  chose  for  their  capital,  is,  however,  still  a  bustling  place,  for 
it  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  the  Greek  Government  has  made  it  the  principal 
naval  station  of  the  kingdom.  Hydra,  on  the  other  hand,  and  the  small  island 
of  Spezzia,  next  to  it,  have  lost  their  former  importance.  They  are  both  rocky 
islands,  without  arable  soil,  trees,  or  water,  and  yet  they  formerly  supported  a 
population  of  fifty  thousand  souls.  About  1730  a  colony  of  Albanians,  weary  of 
the  exactions  of  some  Turkish  pasha  on  the  mainland,  fled  to  the  island  of  Hydra. 
They  were  left  in  peace  there,  for  they  agreed  to  pay  a  trifling  tribute.  Their 
commerce — leavened,  to  be  sure,  with  a  little  piracy — assumed  large  dimensions, 
and  immediately  before  the  war  of  independence  the  Albanians  of  Hydra  owned 
nearly  400  vessels  of  100  to  200  tons  each,  and  they  were  able  to  send  over  200 
vessels,  armed  with  200  guns,  against  the  Turks.  By  engaging  so  enthusiastically 
in  this  struggle  for  liberty,  the  Hydriotes,  without  suspecting  it,  wrought  their  own 
ruin.  'No  sooner  was  the  cause  of  Greece  triumphant  than  the  commerce  of  Hydra 
was  transferred  to  Syi-a  and  the  Piraeus,  which  are  more  favourabty  situated. 

Cythera  of  Laconia,  a  far  larger  island  than  either  of  those  mentioned,  and 
better  known  b}^  the  Italian  name  of  Cerigo,  formed  a  member  of  the  Septinsular 
Republic,  although  not  situated  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  and  clearly  a  dependency  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  Cythera  is  no  longer  the  island  of  Venus,  and  its  voluptuous 
groves  have  disappeared.  Seen  from  the  north,  it  resembles  a  pile  of  sterile 
rocks.  It  nevertheless  yields  abundant  harvests,  possesses  fine  plantations  of 
olive-trees,  and  ijoijulous  villages.  Cerigo,  in  former  times,  enjoyed  considerable 
importance,  owing  to  its  position  between  the  Ionian  Sea  and  the  Archipelago  ; 
but  Cape  Malea  has  lost  its  terrors  now,  and  the  harbour  of  refuse  on  the 
island  is  no  longer  sought  after.  Heaps  of  shells,  left  there  by  Phcenician  manu- 
facturers of  purple,  have  been  found  on  the  island ;  and  it  was  the  PhoBnicians 
who  introduced  the  worship  of  Venus  Astarte. 


IV. — The  Islands  of  the  ^Egeax  Sea. 

Islands  and  islets  are  scattered  in  seeming  disorder  over  the  ^o-ean  Sea,  the 
name  of  which  may  probably  mean  "sea  of  goats,"  because  these  islands 
appeared  at  a  distance  like  goats.     By  a  singular  misapplication  the  modern  terra 


70 


GREECE. 


Archipelago,  instciul  of  sea,  is  now  used  to  designate  these  groups  of  islands. 
The  Sporudes,  in  tlie  north,  form  a  long  range  of  islands  stretching  in  the 
direction  of  Mount  Athos.  The  island  of  Scyros,  farther  south,  the  birthplace  of 
Achilles  and  place  of  exile  of  King  Theseus,  occupies  an  isolated  position ;  the 
largo  island  of  Eubcca  extends  along  the  coast  of  the  continent ;  and  in  the 
distance  rise  the  white  mountains  of  the  Cyclades,  likened  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
to  a  circle  of  Oceanides  dancing  around  a  deity. 

All  these  islands  are  so  many  fragments  of  the  mainland.     This  is  proved  by 

Fi?.  23. — EuBiprs  ami  Ciialcis. 
Scale  I :  '2-20,000. 


3HQes. 


their  geological  structure,  or  by  shoals  which  attach  them  to  the  nearest  coast.  The 
Xorthern  Sporadcs  are  a  branch  of  Mount  Pelion.  Eubcca  is  traversed  by  limestone 
mountains  of  considerable  height,  running  parallel  to  the  chains  of  Attica, 
Argolis,  Mount  Olympus,  and  Mount  Athos.  Scyros  is  a  rocky  mountain  mass, 
whose  axis  runs  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the  central  chain  of  Euboea. 
The  summits  of  the  Cyclades  continue  the  ranges  of  Eaba-a  and  Attica  towards 
the  south-east,  and  the  same  micaceous  and  argillaceous  schists,  limestones,  and. 
crystalline  marbles  are  found  in  them.     They  are,  indeed,  "  mountains  of  Greece 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  ^GEAN  SEA.  71 

scattered  over  the  sea."  If  Athens  may  boast  of  the  quarries  of  Mount  Pentelicus, 
the  Cyclades  produce  the  glittering  marbles  of  Naxos,  and  the  still  more  beautiful 
ones  of  Pares,  from  which  were  chiselled  the  statues  of  heroes  and  of  gods. 
Curious  caverns  are  met  with  in  the  limestone  of  the  islands,  especially  that  of 
Antiparos,  the  existence  of  which  was  not  known  to  the  ancients,  and  the  Cave  of 
Sillaka,  on  the  island  of  Cythuos,  or  Thermia,  celebrated  for  its  hot  springs. 
Granite  is  found  on  some  of  the  islands,  and  particularly  in  the  small  island  of 
Delos,  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  In  the  south,  finally, 
the  Cj'clades  are  traversed  by  a  chain  of  volcanic  islands,  extending  from  the 
peninsula  of  Methana,  in  Argolis,  to  Cos  and  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor. 

Euboja  may  be  looked  upon  almost  as  a  portion  of  the  continent,  for  the  strait 
which  separates  it  from  the  mainland  resembles  a  submerged  longitudinal  valley, 
and  is  nowhere  of  great  depth  or  width.  At  its  narrowest  part  it  is  no  more 
than  two  hundred  and  fourteen  feet  across,  and  from  the  most  remote  times, 
Chalcis,  the  capital  of  the  island,  has  been  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a  bridge. 
The  irregular  tidal  currents  flowing  through  this  strait  were  looked  upon  as 
marvellous  by  the  Greeks,  and  Aristotle  is  said  to  have  flung  himself  into  it 
because  he  was  unable  to  explain  this  phenomenon.  The  Italian  name  of  the 
island,  Negroponte,  is  formed  by  a  series  of  corruptions  from  Eiiripus,  by  which 
name  the  ancients  knew  the  strait  between  the  island  and  the  mainland.  Euboea 
has  at  all  times  shared  in  the  vicissitudes  of  the  neighbouring  provinces  of  Attica 
and  BcEotia.  TThen  the  cities  of  Greece  were  at  the  height  of  their  glory,  those 
of  Euba?a — Chalcis,  Eretria,  and  Cerinthus — enjoyed  likewise  a  high  degree  of 
prospsrity,  and  dispatched  colonies  to  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Later  on, 
when  invaders  ravaged  Attica,  Euboea  shared  the  same  fate,  and  at  present  it 
participates  in  every  political  and  social  movement  of  the  neighbouring  continent. 

In  Xorthern  Euboea  there  are  forests  of  oaks,  pines,  elms,  and  plane-trees ; 
the  villages  are  embedded  in  orchards ;  and  the  surrounding  country  resembles 
what  we  have  seen  in  Elis  and  Arcadia.  But  in  the  Cyclades  we  look  in  vain  for 
charming  landscapes.  Foliage  and  running  water  abound  only  in  a  very  few 
spots.  Arid  rocks,  more  arid  even  than  those  on  the  coast  of  Greece,  predomi- 
nate, and  only  in  a  few  favoured  spots  do  we  meet  with  a  few  olive-trees,  valonia 
oaks,  pines,  and  fig-trees.  Everywhere  else  the  hills  are  naked.  And  yet  these 
islands  arouse  feelings  of  devotion  in  us,  for  their  names  are  great  in  history. 
The  highest  summits  of  most  of  them  have  been  named  after  the  prophet 
Elias,  the  biblical  successor  of  Apollo,  the  god  of  the  sun ;  and  justly  so,  for  the 
sun  reigns  supreme  upon  these  austere  rocks,  and  his  scorching  rays  destroy  every 
vestige  of  vegetation. 

Antimilos,  one  of  the  uninhabited  islands  of  this  group,  still  affords  an  asylum 
to  the  wild  goat  {Cnpra  Caucasica),  which  has  disappeared  from  the  remainder  of 
Europe,  and  is  met  with  only  in  Crete,  and  perhaps  Rhodes.  "Wild  pigs  likewise 
haunt  the  rocks  of  Antimilos.  Rabbits  were  introduced  from  the  West,  and  abound 
in  the  caverns  of  some  of  the  Cyclades,  and  especially  on  Myconus  and  Delos. 
The  ancient  authors  never  mention  these  animals.     It   is  a   curious   fact   that 


72 


GREECE. 


hares  and  rabbits  never  inhabit  the  same  island,  with  the  sole  exception  oi 
Andros,  where  the  hares  occupy  the  extreme  north,  whilst  the  rabbits  have  their 
burrows  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  island.  As  a  curiosity,  we  may  also 
mention  that  a  larj^e  species  of  lizard,  called  crocodile  by  the  inhabitants,  is  found 
on  the  islands,  but  not  on  the  neighbouring  continent,  and  we  may  conclude  from 
this  that  the  Cyclades  were  separated  from  the  Balkan  peninsula  at  a  very  remote 
period. 

A  chain  of  volcanic  islands  bounds  the  Cyclades  towards  the  south,  where  they 
are  separated  from  Crete  by  an  ocean  trough  of  great  depth.  Milos  is  the  most 
important  of  these  islands.     It  has  an  irregularly  shaped  crater,  which  has  been 

Fig.  24.— Xea  Kammbsi. 

According  to  DanfiUik. 


V^B  Upheaved,  without  VMirimi-  [.ln-noraena. 

■^B  Upheaved,  attended  by  fuiiuiroles  and  emptiona. 

^^B  Ancient  Coast  (Mount  George,  400  feet), 

invaded  by  the  sea,  and  forms  there  one  of  the  safest  and  most  capacious  harbours 
of  refuge  in  the  Mediterranean.  Milos  has  had  no  eruption  within  historic  times, 
but  the  existence  of  solfataras  and  of  hot  springs  proves  that  its  volcanic  forces  are 
not  yet  quite  extinct. 

The  actual  centre  of  volcanic  activity  has  to  be  looked  for  in  a  small  group  of 
islands  known  as  Santorin,  and  lying  midway  between  Europe  and  Asia.  These 
islands  consist  of  marbles  and  schists,  similar  to  those  of  tlio  other  Cyclades,  and 
they  surround  a  vast  crater  no  less  than  twelve  hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  depth. 
The  crescent-shaped  island  of  Thera,  on  the  east,  presents  bold  cliffs  towards  the 
crater,  while  its  gentle  outer  slopes  are  covered  with  vineyards  producing  exquisite 
wine.      Therasia,  on    the    west,    rises    like   an    immense  wall ;   and    the   islet  of 


THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  ^GEAN  SEA.  73 

Aspronisi,  between  the  two,  indicates  the  existence  of  a  submarine  partition  wall 
which  separates  the  crater  from  the  open  sea.  The  submarine  volcano  occupies 
the  centre  of  this  basin.  It  remains  quiescent  for  long  periods,  and  then 
suddenly  arousing  itself,  it  ejects  immense  musses  of  scoriae.  Nearly  twenty-one 
centuries  ago  the  first  island  rose  to  the  surface  in  the  centre  of  this  basin.  This 
island  is  known  now  as  Palsea  Ivammeni,  or  the  "old  volcano."  Three  years  of 
eruptions  in  the  sixteenth  century  gave  birth  to  the  smallest  of  the  three  islands, 
Mikra  Kammeni.  A  third  cone  of  lava,  Ts^ea  Kamnieni,  rose  in  the  eighteenth 
century ;  and  quite  recently,  between  1866  and  1870,  this  new  island  has  more 
than  doubled  its  size,  overwhelming  the  small  village  of  Yolkario  and  its  port,  and 
extending  to  within  a  very  short  distance  of  Mikra  Kammeni.  No  less  than  half 
a  million  of  partial  eruptions  occurred  during  those  five  years,  and  the  ashes  were 
sometimes  thrown  to  a  height  of  four  thousand  feet.  Even  from  Crete  clouds  of 
ashes  could  be  seen  suspended  in  the  air,  black  during  the  day,  and  lit  up  by  night. 

Thousands  of  spectators  hastened  to  Santorin  from  all  quarters  of  the  world  to 
witness  these  eruptions,  and  amongst  them  were  several  men  of  science — Fouque, 
Gorceix,  Eeiss,  Stiibel,  and  Schmidt — whose  observations  have  proved  of  great 
service.  The  crater  of  Santorin  appears  to  have  been  produced  by  a  violent 
explosion  which  shattered  the  centre  of  the  ancient  island,  and  covered  its  slopes 
with  enormous  masses  of  tufa.* 

Southern  Eubcea  and  the  vicinity  of  Port  Gavrion,  on  the  island  of  Andros, 
are  inhabited  by  Albanians,  but  the  population  in  the  remainder  of  the  Archi- 
pelago is  Greek.  The  families  of  Italian  or  French  descent  on  Scyros,  Syra, 
Naxos,  and  Santorin  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  constitute  an  element  of 
importance.  They  claim  to  be  of  French  descent,  and  are  known  in  the  Archi- 
pelago as  Franks,  and  during  the  war  of  independence  they  claimed  the  pro- 
tection of  the  French  Government.  In  former  times  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
land  was  held  by  these  Franks,  who  had  taken  possession  of  it  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  these  large  estates  are  made  to  account  for  the  sparse  population  of 
Naxos,  which  supported  a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  formerly,  but  is  now 
hardly  able  to  support  one-seventh  that  number. 

The  Cyclades  are  farther  removed  from  the  coast  of  Greece  than  Eubcea,  and 
they  have  not  always  shared  in  the  historical  dramas  enacted  upon  the  neigh- 
bouring continent.  Their  position  in  the  centre  of  the  Archipelago  naturally 
caused  them  to  be  visited  by  all  the  nations  navigating  the  Mediterranean,  and 
their  inhabitants  were  thus  subjected  to  the  most  diverse  influences.  In  ancient 
times  the  mariners  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Phoenicia  called  at  the  Cyclades  on  their 
voyages  to  Greece ;  during  the  Middle  Ages  the  Byzantines,  the  Crusaders,  the 
Venetians,  the  Genoese,  the  Knights  of  Rhodes,  and  the  Osmanli  were  masters 

*  Principal  altitudes  of  the  ishuiJs  of  Greece: — 

Feet.         j  Tect. 

Mount  Delphi,  on  Eutrpa  .         .     5,7.30       [  Sloiint  Oxia,  on  Naxos  .  .  »,2y0 

Mount  St.  F.lias,  on  Eubtea        .         .     4.810       I  Mount  St.  Eli.is,  on  Siplmos  .  .  2,280 

Jlount  Kokliilas,  on  Scyri'S        .         .     2,.'>66  Mount  St.  Elias,on  Nios  .  .  .  2,410 

Jlount  Kovari,  on  Andros  .         .     3,20(1        ,  Mount  St.  ELas,  on  Santorin  .  .  1,887 


74  GREECE. 

there  in   turn  ;   and  in   our  own  days  the  nations  of  Western  Europe,  witli  tlic 
Greeks  themselves,  hold  the  preponderance  in  the  Archipelago. 

These  historical  vicissitudes  have  caused  tlie  centre  of  gnivity  of  the  Cyclades 
to  be  shifted  from  island  to  island.  In  the  time  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  Delos,  the 
island  of  Apollo,  was  looked  upon  as  the  "holy  land,"  where  merchants  congre- 
gated  from  all  quarters,  carried  on  bu.sincss  in  the  shadow  of  sanctuaries,  and 
held  slave  markets  at  the  side  of  the  temples.  The  sale  of  human  flesh  became 
in  the  end  tlie  main  feature  of  the  commerce  of  Delos,  and  in  the  time  of  the 
Eoman  emperors  as  many  as  ten  thousand  slaves  were  bartered  away  there  in  a 
single  day.  But  the  markets,  the  temples,  and  monuments  of  Dclos  have  vanished, 
and  its  stony  soil  supports  now  only  a  few  sheep.  During  the  Jliddle  Ages  Naxos 
enjoyed  the  predominance;  and  at  present,  Tinos,  with  its  venerated  church 
of  the  Panagia  and  its  thousands  of  pilgrims,  is  the  "  holy  land  "  of  the  Archi- 
pelago ;  whilst  Ilermopolis,  on  Syra,  though  without  trees  or  water,  holds  the 
position  of  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Cyclades.  The  latter  was  a  town  of  no 
importance  before  the  war  of  independence  ;  but  it  remained  neutral  during  that 
struggle,  and  thus  attracted  numerous  refugees  from  other  islands,  and,  thanks  to 
its  central  position,  it  has  since  become  the  principal  mart,  dockyard,  and  naval 
station  of  the  ^-Egean  Sea.  Whether  travellers  proceed  to  Saloniki,  Smyrna, 
Constantinople,  or  the  Black  Sea,  they  must  stop  at  Ilermopolis.  The  town 
formerly  occupied  the  heights  only,  for  fear  of  pirates,  but  it  has  descended  now 
to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  its  quaj's  and  warehouses  extend  along  the  sea- 
shore. 

Commerce  has  peopled  the  naked  rocks  of  Syra,  but  it  has  not  yet  succeeded  in 
developing  the  resources  of  the  Archipelago  as  in  ancient  times.  Euboea  is  no 
longer  "  rich  iu  cattle,"  as  its  name  implies,  and  only  exports  corn,  wine,  fruit, 
and  the  lignite  extracted  from  the  mines  near  Kumi.  The  gardens  of  Naxos 
yield  oranges,  lemons,  and  citrons ;  Scojjelos,  Andros,  and  Tinos,  the  latter  one  of 
the  best  cultivated  amongst  the  islands,  export  wines,  which  are  excelled,  however, 
by  those  of  Santorin,  the  Callistc  of  the  earliest  Greeks.  The  volcanic  and  other 
islands  of  the  Cyclades  export  millstones,  china  clay,  lavas,  and  cimolite,  this  being 
used  in  bleaching.  Naxos  exports  emery,  and  that  is  all.  The  marbles  of  Pares 
even  remain  untouched,  and  the  excellent  harbour  of  that  island  only  rarely  sees  a 
vessel.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Cyclades  confine  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  and  to  the  breeding  of  a  few  silkworms,  the  surplus  population  of  Tinos, 
Siphnos,  and  others  emigrating  annually  to  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  or  Greece,  to 
work  as  labourers,  cooks,  potters,  masons,  or  sculptors.  But  whilst  some  of  the 
islands  can  boast  of  a  surplus  population,  there  are  others  which  are  the  abode  of 
a  few  herdsmen  only.  Most  of  the  islands  between  Naxos  and  Amorgos  are 
hardly  more  than  barren  rocks.  Antirailos,  like  Delos,  is  merely  a  pasture- 
ground  sown  over  with  rocks.  Seriphos  and  Giura  are  still  dreary  solitudes,  as  in 
the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors,  when  they  were  set  aside  as  places  of  exile. 
Seriphos,  however,  possesses  iron  of  excellent  quality,  and  may,  in  consequence, 
again  become  of  some  importance.     On  Antiparos  there  are  lead  mines. 


THE  IONIAN  ISLES.  75 

V. — The  Ionian  Isles. 

The  island  of  Corfu,  on  the  coast  of  Epirus,  and  the  whole  of  the  Archipelago 
to  the  west  of  continental  and  peninsular  Greece,  down  to  the  island  of  Cythera, 
which  divides  the  waters  of  the  Ionian  Sea  from  those  of  the  ^gean,  have 
passed  through  the  most  singular  political  vicissitudes  in  the  course  of  the  last 
century.  Corfu,  thanks  to  the  protection  extended  to  it  by  the  Venetian  Republic, 
is  the  only  dependency  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  which  successfully  resisted  the 
assaults  of  the  Turk.  When  Venice  was  handed  over  to  the  Austrians  by 
Bonaparte  in  1797,  Corfu  and  the  Ionian  Islands  were  occupied  by  the  French. 
A  few  years  afterwards  the  Russians  became  the  virtual  masters  in  these  islands, 
which  they  formed  into  a  sort  of  aristocratic  republic  under  the  suzerainty  of 
the  Porte.  In  1807  the  French  once  more  took  possession  of  them;  but  the 
English  captured  one  after  the  other  until  there  remained  to  them  only  Corfu, 
and  this,  too,  had  to  be  given  up  in  1814.  The  Ionian  Islands  were  then  converted 
into  a  "  Septinsular  Reijublic,"  governed  by  the  landed  aristocrac}^  supported  by 
British  bayonets.  Twice  did  England  alter  the  constitution  of  this  republic  in  a 
democratic  sense,  but  the  patriotism  of  the  islanders  refused  to  submit  to  British 
suzerainty  ;  and,  when  Great  Britain  parted  with  her  conquest,  the  Ionian  Islands 
annexed  themselves  to  Greece,  and  they  now  form  the  best  educated,  the 
wealthiest,  and  the  most  industrious  portion  of  that  kingdom.  England,  no  doubt, 
consulted  her  own  interests  when  she  set  free  her  Ionian  subjects ;  but  her  action 
is  nevertheless  deserving  of  approbation.  England  exhibited  her  faith  in  the 
axiom  that  moral  influence  is  superior  to  brute  force,  and  yielded  with  perfect 
good  grace,  not  only  the  commercial  ports  of  the  islands,  but  likewise  the  citadel 
of  Corfu,  which  gave  her  the  command  of  the  Adriatic.  This  magnanimous 
policy  has  not  hitherto  met  with  imitators  in  other  countries,  but  England  herself 
has  still  many  opportunities  of  applying  it  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Corfu,  the  ancient  Corcyra,  has  always  held  the  foremost  place  amongst  the 
Ionian  Islands.  It  owes  this  position  to  the  vicinity  of  Italy,  and  to  the  commer- 
cial advantages  derived  from  an  excellent  port  and  a  vast  roadstead  almost 
resembling  an  inland  lake.  The  inhabitants  are  fond  of  appealing  to  Thucydides 
in  order  to  prove  that  Corfu  is  the  island  of  the  Phaaaces  of  Ulysses.  They  even 
pretend  to  have  discovered  the  rivulet  in  which  beauteous  Nausicaa  washed  the 
linen  of  her  father,  and  the  shaded  walks  near  the  city  are  known  by  them  as  the 
gardens  of  Alcinous,  Corfu  is  the  only  one  of  the  islands  which  can  boast  of  a 
small  perennial  stream,  the  Messongi,  which  is  navigable  for  a  short  distance  in 
barges.  The  hills,  which  are  placed  like  a  screen  in  front  of  the  plains  of  the 
Epirus,  are  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  south-westerly  winds,  which  bring 
much  rain ;  the  vegetation,  consequently,  is  rich :  orange  and  lemon  trees  form 
fragrant  groves  around  the  city,  vines  and  olive-trees  hide  the  barren  ground  of 
the  hills,  and  waving  fields  of  corn  cover  the  plains.  Corfu,  unfortunateh',  is 
exposed  to  the  hot  sirocco,  blowing  from  the  south-east,  and  this  very  much 
curtails  its  advantages  as  a  winter  station  for  invalids. 


7G 


GREECE. 


The  city  occupies  a  triangular  peninsula  opposite  the  coast  of  tho  Epirus, 
and  is  the  largest,  and  commercially  the  most  important,  of  tho  former  republic. 
It  is  stron<;ly  fortified,  and  its  successive  possessors — Venetians,  French,  Russians, 
and  English — have  sought  to  render  it  impregnable.  A  beautiful  prospect  may 
be  enjoj'cd  from  its  bastions  ;  but  far  superior  is  that  from  Mount  Pantokratoros, 
the  "commandant,"  for  it  extends  across  the  Strait  of  Otranto  to  Italy.  The 
commercial   relation.s   with    the    latter,    as   well   as   the   traditions   of  Venetian 


Fiij.  25. — CouFf. 


fe'^S**?' 


dominion,  have  converted  Corfu  into  a  city  almost  half  Italian,  and  numerous 
families  residing  in  it  belong  to  both  nations,  the  Greek  and  the  Italian,  by 
descent  as  well  as  language.  Italian  remained  the  official  language  of  the  island 
until  1830.  Maltese  porters  and  gardeners  constitute  a  prominent  element  amongst 
the  cosmopolitan  population  of  the  city. 

Corfu  formerly  owned  the  tOT^Ti  of  Butrinto  and  a  few  villages  on  the  mainland  ; 
but  an  English  governor  thought  fit  to  surrender  them  to  the  terrible  Ali  Pasha, 


THE  IONIAN  ISLES. 


77 


and  the  only  dependencies  of  Corfu  at  present  are  the  small  islets  near  it,  viz. 
Othonus  (Fano),  Salmastraci,  and  Ericusa,  in  the  north  ;  Paxos,  with  its  caverns, 
and  Antipaxos,  the  rocks  of  which  exude  asphalt,  on  the  south.  Paxos  is  said  to 
produce  the  best  oil  in  Western  Greece. 

Leucadia,  Cephalonia,  Ithaca,  Zante,  and  a  few  smaller  islands,  form  a 
crescent-shaped  archipelago  off  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Patras.  They  are 
the  summits  of  a  half- submerged  chain  of  calcareous  mountains,  alternately 
flooded  by  the  rains  or  scorched  by  the  sun.  Their  valleys,  like  those  of  Corfu, 
produce  oranges,  lemons,  currants  ("  Corinthians  "),  wine,  and  oil,  which  form  the 
objects  of  a  brisk  commerce.  The  inhabitants  very  much  resemble  those  of  Corfu, 
the  Italian  element  being  strongly  represented,  except  on  Ithaca. 

Leucadia,  or  the  "  white  island,"  thus  called  because  of  its  glittering  chalk 
cliffs,  is  evidently  a  dependency  of  the  continent.      The  ancients  looked  upon  it  as 


Fig.  26. — The  Channel  of  Santa  Macra. 
From  the  French  Staff  Map. 


^^=-^-  Leur.j 


Scale  1 :  200,000. 


5  Miles. 


a  peninsula  converted  into  an  island  by  Corinthian  colonists,  who  cut  a  canal 
through  the  isthmus  which  joined  it  to  the  mainland ;  but  this  legend  is  not 
borne  out  by  an  examination  of  the  locality.  These  Corinthians  probably  merely 
dug  a  navigable  channel  through  the  shallow  lagoon  which  separates  the  island 
from  the  coast,  and  does  not  exceed  eighteen  inches  in  depth.  In  fact,  if  there 
were  any  tides  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  the  island  of  Leucadia  would  be  converted  twice 
daily  into  a  peninsula.  A  bridge,  of  which  there  still  exist  considerable 
remains,  formerly  joined  the  island  to  the  mainland  near  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  lagoon,  whilst  an  island  occupied  by  the  citadel  of  Santa  Maura — a  name 
sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  island — defended  its  entrance  to  the  north. 
6 


78  GREECE. 

Until  recently  this  was  the  only  spot  in  Western  Greece  where  a  grove  of  dulc- 
trees  mi"ht  be  seen.  A  magnificent  aqueduct  of  two  hundred  and  sixty  arches,  which 
was  also  used  as  a  viaduct,  joined  the  citadel  to  Amaxiki,  the  chief  town  and  harbour 
of  Leucadia.  This  monument  of  Turkish  enterprise — it  was  constructed  in  tlia 
rein-n  of  Bajazet — has  sustained  much  injury  from  earthquakes.  Amaxiki  might 
be  supposed  to  be  haunted  by  fever,  owing  to  the  salt  swamps  and  lagoons  whicli 
surround  it;  but  such  is  not  the  case:  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  comparatively 
healthy  town,  and  its  women  are  noted  for  freshness  of  complexion  and  beauty. 
To  the  south  of  it  rise  the  wooded  mountains  which  terminate  in  the  promontory 
of  Leucate  (Dukato),  opposite  to  Cephalonia.  On  the  summit  of  this  promontory 
stood  a  temple  of  Apollo,  whence,  at  the  annual  festival  of  the  god,  u  condemned 
criminal  was  hurled  as  an  expiatorj'  victim.  It  was  celebrated,  also,  as  the  lover's 
leap,  whence  lovers  leaped  into  the  sea  to  drown  their  passion. 

Cephalonia,  or  rather  Cephallenia,  is  the  largest  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  its 
highest  summit — Mount  iEnus,  or  Elato — is  the  culminating  point  of  the  entire 
Archipelago.  Mariners  from  the  centre  of  the  Ionian  Sea  can  sec  at  one  and  the 
same  time  Mount  ^Etna  in  Sicily  and  this  mountain  of  Cephalonia.  The  forests  of 
conifers,  to  which  the  latter  is  indebted  for  its  Italian  name  of  Montcnero,  have  for 
the  greater  part  been  destroyed  by  fire,  but  there  still  remain  a  few  clumps  of 
magnificent  firs.  On  its  summit  ma}'  be  seen  the  remains  of  a  temple  of  Jupiter. 
The  island  is  fertile  and  populous,  but  suffers  much  from  want  of  water.  All  its 
rivers  dry  up  in  summer,  the  calcareous  soil  sucking  up  the  rain,  and  most  of  the 
springs  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  far  away  from  the  fields  thirsting  after 
water.  On  the  other  hand,  two  considerable  streams  of  sea-water  find  their  way 
into  the  bowels  of  the  island. 

This  curious  phenomenon  occurs  a  short  distance  to  the  north  of  Argostoli,  a 
bustliTiff  town,  huvinj;  a  safe  but  shallow  harbour.  The  two  oceanic  rivers  are 
sufficiently  powerful  to  set  in  motion  the  liuge  wheels  of  two  mills,  one  of  which 
has  been  regularly  at  work  since  1835,  and  the  other  since  18-59.  Their  combined 
discharge  amounts  to  35,000,000  gallons  daily,  and  naturalists  have  not  yet 
decided  whether  the)'  form  a  vast  subterranean  lake,  in  which  beds  of  .salt  are 
constantly  being  deposited,  or  whether  they  find  their  way  through  numerous 
threads,  and,  by  hydrostatic  aspiration,  into  the  subterranean  rivers  of  the  island, 
rendering  their  water  brackish.  The  latter  is  the  opinion  of  \\'iobel,  the  geologist, 
and  thus  much  we  may  assume  for  certain — that  these  subterranean  waters  and 
caverns  are  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  severe  earthquakes  which  visit 
Cephalonia  .so  frequently.  The  island  of  Asteris,  between  Cephalonia  and  Ithaca, 
upon  which  stood  the  city  of  Alalkomenaj,  exists  no  longer,  and  was  probably 
destroyed  by  one  of  those  earthquakes. 

Ithaca  of  "  divine  Ulysses,"  the  modern  Theaki,  is  separated  from  Cephalonia 
by  the  narrow  channel  of  Viscardo,  thus  named  after  Robert  Guiscard.  The 
island  is  small,  and  all  the  sites  referred  to  in  the  Odyssey  are  still  pointed  out 
there,  from  tlie  spring  of  Arethusa  to  the  acropolis  of  Ulysses;  but  the  black  forests 
which  clothed  the  slopes  of  Mount  JJeritus  have  disappeared.     The  iniiabitants  are 


THE  IONIAN  ISLES. 


79 


excessively  proud  of  their  little  island,  rendered  so  famous  by  the  poetry  of  Homer, 
and  in  every  family  we  meet  with  a  Penelope,  a  Ulysses,  and  a  Telemachus.  But 
the  present  inhabitants  have  no  claim  whatever  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  crafty 
son  of  Laertes,  for  during  the  Middle  Ages  their  ancestors  were  exterminated  by 
invaders,  and  in  1504  the  deserted  fields  were  given,  by  the  Senate  of  Venice,  to 
colonists  drawn  from  the  mainland.  JMost  of  those  immigrants  came  from  the  Epirus, 
and  the  dialect  spoken  by  the  islanders  is  much  mixed  with  Albanian  words.     At 


Fig.  27. — Argostoli. 
According  to  Wiebel. 


Scale  1 :  78,003. 


.  I'J  Miles. 


the  present  time  the  island,  is  well  cultivated,  and  Vathy,  its  chief  port,  carries  on 
a  brisk  commerce  in  raisins,  currants,  oil,  and  wine.  Ithaca,  as  in  the  daj^s  of 
Homer,  is  the  "  nurse  of  valiant  men."  The  inhabitants  are  tall  and  strong,  and 
Dr.  Schlieraann  is  enthusiastic  about  the  high  standard  of  virtue  and  morality  pre- 
vailing amongst  them.  There  are  neither  rich  nor  poor,  but  they  are  great 
travellers,  and  natives  of  Ithaca  are  met  with  in  every  populous  city  of  the  East. 

"  Zunte,  fior  del  Levante,"  say  the  Italians.  And,  indeed,  this  ancient  island, 
Zacynthus,  is  richer  in  orchards,  fields,  and  villas  than  anj'  other  of  this  Archi- 
pelago. An  extensive  plain,  bounded  by  ranges  of  hills,  occupies  the  centre  of  this 
"  golden  isle  " — a  vast  garden,  abounding  in  vines,  yielding  currants  of  superior 
quality.  The  inhabitants  are  industrious,  and  not  content  with  cultivating  their 
own  fields,  they  assist  also  in  the  cultivation  of  those  of  Acarnania,  receiving 
wages  or  a  share  of  the  produce  in  return.  The  city  of  Zante,  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  island,  facing  Elis,  is  the  wealthiest  and  cleanest  town  in  the  Archipelago. 


80  GREECE. 

Unfortunately  it  suffers  frequently  from  earthquakes,  to  which  a  volcanic  orij;in  is 
ascribed.  Nor  is  this  improbable,  for  bituminous  springs  rise  near  the  south-eastern 
cape  of  the  island,  and  though  worked  since  the  days  of  Herodotus,  they  still  yield 
about  a  hundred  barrels  of  pitch  annually.  Oil  springs  discharge  themselves  close 
to  the  shore,  and  even  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  and  near  Cape  .Skinari,  in  the 
north,  a  kind  of  rank  grease  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  waters. 

The  only  islets  dependent  upon  Zante  are  the  Strivall,  or  the  Strophadcs,  to 
which  flew  the  hideous  harpies  of  ancient  mythology.* 


VI. — TiiK  Present  .\nd  the  Fiture  of  Gueece. 

The  Greeks,  although  they  have  not  altogether  fulfilled  the  expectations  of 
Philhellenes,  have  nevertheless  made  great  strides  in  advance  since  they  have 
thrown  off  the  yoke  of  the  Turks.  The  deeds  of  valour  performed  during  the  war 
of  independence  recalled  the  days  of  Marathon  and  Platira ;  but  it  was  wrong  to 
expect  that  a  short  time  would  sufilce  to  raise  modern  Greece  to  the  intellectual 
and  artistic  level  of  the  generation  which  gave  birth  to  an  Aristotle  and  a 
Phidias.  Nor  can  we  expect  that  a  nation  should  throw  off,  in  a  single  genera- 
tion, the  evil  habits  engendered  during  an  age  of  servitude,  and  digest  at  once  the 
scientific  conquests  made  in  the  course  of  twenty  centuries.  We  should  likewise 
bear  in  mind  that  the  population  of  Greece  is  small,  and  that  it  is  thinly  scattered 
over  a  barren  mountain  region.  The  numerous  ports,  no  doubt,  offer  great  facilities 
for  commerce,  nor  have  their  inhabitants  failed  to  avail  them.selves  of  them  ;  but 
there  is  hardly  a  country  in  Eurojie  which  offers  equal  obstacles  to  a  development 
of  its  agricultural  and  industrial  resources.  The  construction  of  roads,  owing  to 
the  mountain.?,  meets  with  difficulties  everywhere,  whiLst  the  blue  sea  invites  its 
beholders  to  distant  climes  and  commercial  expeditions.  No  immigration  from  the 
neighbouring  Turkish  provinces  has  consequently  taken  place,  whilst  many 
Hellenes,  and  more  especially  natives  of  the  Ionian  Islands  and  the  Cyclades, 
annually  seek  their  fortune  in  Constantinople,  Cairo,  and  even  distant  India.  Men 
of  enterprise  leave  the  country,  and  there  remains  behind  only  a  horde  of  intriguers, 
who  look  upon  politics  as  a  lucrative  business,  and  an  army  of  government  officials, 
who  depend  upon  the  favour  of  a  minister  for  future  promotion.  This  state  of 
affairs  explains  the  singular  fact  that  the  most  prosperous  Greek  communities  exist 
beyond  the  borders  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece.  These  foreign  communities  arc 
better  and  more  liberally  governed  than  those  at  home.  In  spite  of  the  Pasha, 
who  enjoys  the  right  of  supervision,  the  administration  of  the  smallest  Greek  com- 
•  Ionian  Islands ; — 


Area. 

Inhabitant*. 

6q.  m. 

Highest  Mountains 

Feet. 

(1870.) 

Corfu 

.        .        . 

.     224 

Puntokri 

iitoros 

.     3,280 

72,450 

Paxos  and  . 

\ntiiiaxo3 

.       27 

3,600 

Lcucadia 

.      183 

Nomali 

. 

.     3,870 

21,000 

Ccphalonia 

.     292 

Elato 

. 

.     5,310 

67,.500 

Ithaca 

. 

.       42 

Keriton 

•         .         . 

.     2,640 

10,000 

Zinte 

O                 0                  * 

.     1C2 

Skopos 

■         • 

.     1,300 

44,500 

THE  PEESENT  AND  THE  PUTUEE  OF  GREECE. 


81 


munity  in  Thracia  or  Macedonia  might  serve  as  a  pattern  to  the  independent  and 
sovereign  kingdom  of  Greece.  Every  one  there  takes  an  interest  in  the  prosperity 
of  the  commonwealth  ;  but  in  Greece  a  rapacious  bureaucracy  takes  care  only  of  its 
own  advancement,  the  electors  are  bribed,  and  the  expenses  thus  illegally  incurred 
are  recovered  by  illegal  exactions  and  robbery,  such  as  have  prevailed  for  many 
years. 

The  actual  population  of  Greece  may  amount  to  1,500,000  souls  ;  that  is  to  say, 
it  includes  about  two-fifths  of  all  the  Greeks  residing  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
population  is  less  dense  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe,  including  Turkey. 
Greece,  at  the  epoch  of  its  greatest  prosperity,  is  said  to  have  supported  6,000,000 
or  7,000,000  inhabitants.  Attica  was  ten  times  more  populous  at  that  time,  and 
many  islands  which  now  support  only  a  few  herdsmen  could  then  boast  of 
populous  towns.  Sites  of  ancient  cities  abound  on  the  barren  plateaux,  on  the 
banks  of  the  smallest  rivulet,  and  crown  every  promontory  throughout  the  ancient 
countries  of  the  Hellenes,  from  Cyprus  to  Corfu,  and  from  Thasos  to  Crete. 

The  country,  however,  is  being  gradually  repeopled.  Before  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, the  population,  including  the  Ionian  Islands,  amounted,  perhaps,  to 
1,000,000;  but  battles  and  massacres  diminished  it  considerably,  and  in  1832  the 
number  of  inhabitants  was  950,000  at  most.  Since  that  epoch  there  has  been  an 
annual  increase  varying  between  9,000  and  14,000  souls.  This  increase,  however, 
is  spread  very  unequally  over  the  country.  The  towns  increase  rapidly,  but 
several  islands,  and  more  especially  Andros,  Santorin,  Hydra,  Zante,  and  Leucadia, 
lose  more  inhabitants  by  emigration  than  they  gain  by  an  excess  of  births  over 
deaths.  The  swamp  fevers  prevailing  in  continental  Greece  much  retard  the 
increase  of  population.  Naturally  the  climate  is  exceedingly  salubrious,  but  the 
water,  in  many  localities,  has  been  permitted  to  collect  into  pestilential  swamps, 
and  the  draining  of  these  and  their  cultivation  would  not  onlv  add  to  the  wealth 
of  the  country,  but  would  likewise  free  it  from  a  dire  plague.* 

Unfortunately  agriculture  progresses  but  slowly  in  Greece,  and  its  produce  is 
not  even  sufficient  to  support  the  population,  still  less  to  supply  articles  for  export. 
And  yet  the  cultivable  soil  of  Greece  is  admirably  suited  to  the  growth  of  vines, 
fruits,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  madder.  Figs  and  oranges  are  delicious  ;  the  wines  of 
Santorin  and  the  Cyclades  are  amongst  the  finest  produced  in  the  Mediterranean  ; 
the  oil  of  Attica  is  as  superior  now  as  when  Athene  planted  the  sacred  olive-tree ; 


*  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Greece  (1S70) :  — 
Towns.                                          Population. 

Athens  and  Piroeus           .         .         .  59,000 

Patras 26,000 

Corfu 24,000 

Hermopolis,  or  Syr.i          .         .         .  21,000 

Zante 20,500 

Lixuri  (Cephalonia).         .         .         .  14,000 

Pyrgos,  or  Letrini    ....  13.600 

Tripolis,  or  Tripolitza       .         .         .  11,500 

Chalcis,  in  Eubcea    ....  11,000 

Sparta 10,700 

Argos 10,600 


Towns. 

Population 

Argostoli  (Cephalonia)     , 

9,5110 

Calamata 

.       9,400 

Histia>a,  in  Euboea  . 

S.900 

Xarystos,  in  Euboea 

8,S0O 

j'Egion,  or  Vostitza . 

8,800 

Nauplia  .... 

.       8.500 

Spezzia    .... 

8,400 

Kranidhi,  in  Argolis 

.       8,400 

Lamia       .... 

.       8,.300 

ilissolonghi 

.       7,500 

Andros     .... 

.       9,300 

82  GREECE. 

but,  excepting  a  little  cotton  grown  in  Phthiotis,  and  the  raisins  known  as 
currants  or  Corinthians,  which  are  exported  from  the  Ionian  Islands  and  Patras 
to  the  annual  value  of  about  £1,500,000,  agriculture  contributes  but  little 
towards  the  exports.  One  of  the  principal  articles  is  the  valonia,  a  species  of  acorn 
picked  up  in  the  forests,  and  used  by  tanners. 

In  a  country  so  far  behindhand  in  agriculture  manufactures  cannot  bo 
expected  to  flourish.  All  manufactured  articles  have  consequently  to  be  imported 
from  abroad,  and  especially  from  England.  Greece  does  not  even  possess  tools  to 
work  its  famous  marble  quarries,  though  they  are  richer  than  those  of  Carrara. 
There  is  only  one  metallurgical  establishment  in  the  whole  of  the  kingdom — that 
of  Laurion.  The  ancients  had  been  working  argentiferous  lead  mines  in  that 
part  of  the  country  for  centuries,  and  vast  masses  of  unexhausted  slag  had 
accumulated  near  them.  This  waste  is  now  being  scientifically  treated  in  the 
smelting-works  of  Ergastiria,  and  nearly  ten  thousand  tons  of  lead,  and  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  .silver,  are  produced  there  annually.  Quite  a  brisk  little  town 
has  arisen  near  the  ^\:orks,  and  its  harbour  is  one  of  the  busiest  in  all  Greece. 
Eut  the  founders  of  this  flourishing  concern  had  to  struggle  against  jealousies, 
and  the  "Laurion  question "  nearly  embroiled  the  Governments  of  France  and 
Italy  with  Greece.* 

The  Greeks  do  not  support  themselves  by  agriculture,  nor  can  they  boast 
of  manufactories,  and  they  would  be  doomed  to  starvation  if  they  did  not  maintain 
six  thousand  vessels  acting  in  the  lucrative  business  of  ocean  carriers  throughout 
the  Mediterranean.  This  Greek  mercantile  marine  is  superior  to  that  of  Kussia, 
almost  equal  to  that  of  Austria,  and  six  times  larger  than  that  of  Belgium,  and 
•we  should  bear  in  mind  that  many  ves.sels  sailing  under  Turkish  colours  are 
actually  owned  by  Greeks.  The  ancient  instinct  of  the  race  comes  out  strongly 
in  this  coast  navigation.  The  large  fleets  of  swift  ocean  steamers  belong  to  the 
powerful  companies  of  the  West,  and  the  Greeks  are  content  to  sail  in  small 
vessels  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  coasting  trade,  which  hardly  ever 
extend  their  voyages  beyond  the  limits  of  the  ancient  Greek  world.  None  can 
compete  with  them  as  regards  low  freight,  for  every  sailor  has  an  interest  in  the 
cargo,  and  all  of  them  are  anxious  to  increase  the  profits.  One  may  have 
furnished  the  wood,  another  the  rigging,  a  third  a  portion  of  the  cargo,  whilst 
their  fellow-citizens  have  advanced  money  for  the  purchase  of  merchandise, 
without  requiring  any  bond  except  their  word  of  honour.  On  many  of  these 
vessels  all  are  partners,  all  work  alike,  and  share  in  the  proceeds  of  the  venture. 

But,  whatever  the  sobriety  and  intelligence  of  these  Greek  mariners,  they 
cannot  escape  the  fate  which  has  overtaken  the  small  trader  and  the  handicrafts- 
man throughout  the  world.  The  cheap  vessels  of  the  Greeks  may  be  able  to  contend 
for  a  long  time  against  the  steamers  of  jiowerful  conijjanies,  but  in  the  end  they 
must  succumb.  The  country  will  lose  its  place  amongst  the  commercial  nations 
of  the  world  unless  its  agricultural  and  industrial  resources  are  quickly  developed, 

•  Commerce  of  Greece  (1S73)  ; — Mercantile  marine:  G.l.'Jo  vcsst-ls  of  419,350  tons  ;  entered,   112,814 
vessels  of  6,336,487  tons  ;  imports,  £4,166,239  ;  exports,  £2,721,877. 


THE  PRESENT  AXD  THE  FUrURE  OF  GREECE.  83 

and  railways  are  constructed  to  convey  the  products  of  the  interior  to  the  sea- 
coast.  Greece,  even  now,  has  only  a  few  carriage  roads,  not  so  much  hecause  the 
mountains  offer  insurmountable  obstacles,  but  because  its  heedless  inhabitants 
are  content  with  the  facilities  for  transport  offered  by  the  sea.  It  would  be 
impossible  in  our  day  to  travel  from  the  Pylos  to  Lacedaemon  in  a  chariot,  as  was 
done  by  Telemachus  ;  for  the  road  connecting  these  places  leads  along  precipices 
and  over  dangerous  goat  paths.  Greece  and  Servia  are  the  European  states 
which  remained  longest  without  a  railway,  and  even  now  the  former  is  content 
with  a  short  line  connecting  Athens  with  its  harbour.  It  has  certainly  been 
proposed  to  construct  several  lines  of  the  utmost  importance,  but,  owing  to  the 
bankrupt  condition  of  the  Greek  exchequer,  these  works  have  not  yet  been  begun. 
The  public  income  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  expenditure,  the  debt  exceeds 
£15,000,000,  and  the  interest  on  the  loans  remains  unpaid.* 

The  poverty  of  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Greece  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  State.  The  peasants  are  impoverished  by  the  payment  of  tithes,  and  of  a 
Government  impost  double  or  even  treble  their  amount.  Though  naturally  very 
temperate,  they  are  hardly  able  to  sustain  life  ;  they  dwell  in  unwholesome  dens, 
and  are  frequently  unable  to  put  by  sufficient  means  for  the  purchase  of  clothing 
and  other  necessaries.  The  young  men  of  the  poorest  districts  of  Greece  thus 
find  themselves  forced  to  emigrate  in  large  numbers,  either  for  a  season  or  for 
an  indefinite  period.  Arcadia  may  be  likened  in  this  respect  to  Auvergne, 
to  Savoy,  and  to  other  mountain  countries  of  Central  Europe.  The  ^tolians, 
however,  exchange  their  fine  savage  valleys  for  foreign  cities  only  very  reluctantly, 
though  they,  too,  suffer  intensely  from  tlie  weight  of  taxation.  In  ancient  times, 
before  their  spirit  was  broken  by  servitude,  they  would  have  resisted  the  tajs- 
gatherer  with  arms  in  their  hands.  They  now  content  themselves  with  sallying 
forth  from  their  villages,  in  order  to  pile  up  a  heap  of  stones  by  the  side  of  the 
high-road,  as  a  testimony  of  the  injustice  with  which  they  have  been  treated. 
This  heap  of  stones  is  anathema.  Every  peasant  passing  it  religiously  adds  a 
stone  to  this  mute  monument  of  execration,  and  the  earth,  the  common  mother  of 
all,  is  thus  charged  with  the  task  of  vengeance. 

Ignorance,  the  usual  attendant  of  poverty,  is  great  in  the  rural  districts  of 
Greece,  and  especially  in  those  difficidt  of  access.  In  Greece,  as  in  Albania  and 
Montenegro,  they  believe  in  perfidious  nymphs,  who  secure  the  affections  of  young 
men,  and  then  drag  them  down  below  the  water  ;  they  believe  in  vampj-res,  in 
the  evil  eye  and  witchcraft.  But  the  Greeks  arc  an  inquiring  race,  anxious 
to  learn,  in  spite  of  their  poverty.  The  peasant  of  Ithaca  will  stop  a  traveller  of 
education  on  the  road,  in  order  that  he  may  read  to  him  the  poetry  of  Homer. 
Elementary  schools  have  been  established  in  nearly  every  village,  in  spite  of  the 
poverty  of  the  Government.  If  no  school  buildings  can  be  secured,  the  classes 
meet  in  the  open  air.  The  scholars,  far  from  playing  truant,  hardly  raise  their 
eyes  from  the  books  to  notice  a  passing  stranger  or  the  flight  of  a  bird.  The 
ccholars  in  the  superior  schools  and  at  the  University  of  Athens  are  equally 

•  Public  income  (1875),  £1,404,053;  expenditure,  £1.409,283  ;  debt,  £l-5,232,202. 


84  GEKECE. 

conscientious  and  assiduous.  It  may  be  that  some  of  them  merely  aspire  to  become 
orators,  but  they  certainly  do  not  resort  to  a  city  on  the  pretence  of  study, 
whilst  in  reality  they  yield  themselves  up  to  debauchery.  Amongst  the  students 
of  the  University  of  Athens  there  are  many  who  work  half  the  night  at  some 
handicraft,  others  who  hire  themselves  out  as  servants  or  coachmen,  to  enable 
them  to  pursue  their  studies  as  lawyers  or  physicians. 

This  love  of  study  cannot  fail  to  secure  to  the  Greek  nation  an  intellectual 
influence  far  greater  than  could  be  koked  for  from  the  smallness  of  its 
numbers.  The  Greeks  of  the  East,  moreover,  look  upon  Athens  as  their  intel- 
lectual centre,  whither  they  send  their  sons  in  pursuit  of  knowledge.  Thoy  found 
scholarships  in  connection  with  the  schools  of  Athens,  and  largely  contribute 
towards  their  support.  And  it  is  not  only  the  rich  Greek  merchants  of  Trieste, 
Saloniki,  Smyrna,  Marseilles,  and  London  who  are  thus  mindful  of  the  true 
interests  of  their  native  country,  but  peasants  of  Thracia  and  ^laccdonia,  too, 
devote  their  savings  to  the  promotion  of  public  education.  The  people  themselves 
support  their  schools  and  museums,  and  pay  their  professors.  The  Academy  of 
Athens,  the  Polytechnic  School,  the  University,  and  the  Arsakeion,  an  excellent 
ladies'  college — these  all  owe  their  existence  to  the  zeal  of  Greek  citizens,  and  not 
to  the  Government.  It  may  readily  be  understood  from  this  how  carefully  these 
institutions  are  being  watched  by  the  entire  nation,  and  how  salutary  must  be  the 
influence  of  young  men  and  women  returning  to  their  native  provinces  after  they 
have  been  educated  at  them. 

It  is  thus  a  common  language,  common  traditions,  and  a  common  hope  for  the 
future  that  have  made  a  nation  of  the  Greeks  in  spite  of  treaties.  Greek 
patriotism  is  not  confined  to  the  narrow  limits  laid  down  by  diplomacy.  Whether 
they  reside  in  Greece  proper,  in  European  or  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  Greeks  feel  as 
one  people,  and  they  lead  a  common  national  life  independently  of  the  Govern- 
ments of  Constantinople  and  Athens.  Nay,  amongst  the  Greeks  dwelling  in 
foreign  lands  this  feeling  of  nationality  is,  perhaps,  most  intense,  for  they  are  not 
exposed  to  the  corrupting  influence  of  a  bureaucracy.  They  have  more  carefully 
guarded  the  traditions  and  practices  of  municipal  government,  and  are  practically 
in  the  enjoyment  of  greater  individual  liberty.  The  Greek  nation,  in  its  entirety, 
numbers  close  upon  4,000,000  souls.  Its  power,  already  considerable,  is  growing 
from  day  to  day,  and  is  sure  to  exercise  a  potent  influence  upon  the  destinies  of 
Mediterranean  Europe. 

We  are  told  sometimes  that  community  of  religion  might  induce  the  Greeks 
to  favour  Hussian  ambition,  aiul  to  open  to  that  power  the  road  to  Constantinople. 
Nothing  can  be  further  from  the  truth.  The  Hellenes  will  never  sacrifice  their 
own  interests  to  those  of  the  foreigner.  Nor  do  there  exist  between  Greece  and 
Russia  those  natural  ties  which  alone  give  birth  to  true  alliances.  Climate, 
geographical  position,  historj',  commerce,  and,  above  all,  a  common  civilisation, 
attach  Greece  to  that  group  of  European  nations  known  as  Greco-Latin.  In 
tripartite  Europe  the  Greeks  will  never  range  themselves  by  the  side  of  the 
Slav,  but  will  be  found  amongst  the  Latin  nations  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 


r 


GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS.  85 

Til. — GOVEKNMENT     .\ND     PoMTICAr,     DIVISIONS. 

The  protecting  powers  have  bestowed  upon  Greece  a  parliamentary  and  con.stitu- 
tional  Government,  modelled  upon  "West  European  patterns.  Thsoretically 
the  King  of  the  Greeks  reigns,  but  does  not  govern,  and  his  ministers  are 
responsible  to  the  Chambers,  whose  majority  changes  with  the  fluctuations  of 
public  opinion.  In  reality,  however,  the  power  of  the  Xing  is  limited  only 
by  diplomacy.  Nor  do  those  "Western  institutions  respond  to  the  traditiims 
and  the  genius  of  the  Greeks,  and  although  the  charter  has  been  modified 
three  times  since  the  declaration  of  independence,  it  has  never  been  strictly 
adhered  to. 

In  accordance  with  the  constitution  of  1864,  every  Greek  citizen  possessing 
any  property  whatever,  or  exercising  a  profession,  has  a  right  to  vote  on  attaining 
his  twenty- fifth  year,  and  becomes  eligible  as  a  deputy  at  thirty.  The  deputies, 
one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  in  number,  are  elected  for  four  years,  and  are  paid 
for  their  services.  The  civil  list  of  the  King,  inclusive  of  a  subvention  granted  by 
the  protecting  powers,  pmounts  to  £46,000  a  year. 

The  orthodox  Greek  Church  of  Hellas  is  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  It  is  governed  by  a  Holy  Synod,  sitting  in  the  capital,  and 
presided  over  by  an  archbishop  as  metropolitan.  A  royal  commissioner  is  present 
at  the  meetings  of  the  Synod,  and  countersigns  every  proposition  that  is  carried. 
Decisions  not  bearing  this  official  signature  are  void.  The  King,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  permitted  to  dethrone  or  remove  a  bishop  only  by  consent  of  the  Synod, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  canon  law.  The  constitution  guarantees  religious 
liberty,  but  this  ofiicial  Church  nevertheless  exercises  considerable  powers,  and 
frequently  calls  upon  the  civil  authorities  to  give  force  to  its  decrees.  The 
Synod  carefully  watches  over  the  observance  of  religious  dogmas;  it  points  out  to 
the  authorities  heretical  or  heterodox  preachers  and  writers,  and  demands  their 
suppression ;  exercises  a  censorship  over  books  and  religious  pictures ;  and  calls 
upon  the  civil  tribunals  to  punish  offenders. 

There  are  no  longer  any  Jlohammedans  in  Greece,  except  sailors  or  tra- 
vellers, and  the  last  Turk  has  quitted  Euboea.  The  only  Church  besides 
the  established  one  which  can  boast  a  considerable  number  of  adherents  is 
the  Eoman  Catholic.  It  prevails  amongst  the  middle  classes  on  Naxos,  and  on 
several  others  of  the  Cyclades,  and  is  governed  by  two  archbishops  and  four 
bishops. 

Greece  is  divided  into  thirteen  nomes,  or  nomarchies,  and  these,  again, 
into  fifty-nine  eparchies.  Each  eparchy  is  subdivided  into  districts,  or  dimes 
(dimarchies),  and  the  latter  into  parishes,  governed  by  paredres,  or  assistant 
dimai'chs.  These  officials  are  appointed  by  the  King,  and  are  in  receipt  of  small 
emoluments.  The  number  of  officials  is  proportionately  greater  in  Greece  than 
in  any  other  part  of  Europe.  They  form  the  sixtieth  part,  or,  including  their 
families,  the  twelfth  part  of  the  population,  and  although  their  pav  is  small,  they 
swallow  up  between  them  more  than  half  the  public  income. 


R6 


GREECE. 


Tho  thirteen  nomes  and  fifty-nine  eparcliics  of  Greece,  with  their  population 
in  1870 : — 


Kparchii'S. 
Malltiniii 
Kyiiuria 
Ciutviiia 
MoKalopoHs     . 

;hia       . 
(Boeotia) 

Population. 
.     46,174 
.     26,733 
.     41,408 
.     17,425 

.   131,740 

Epnrclii :/. 
Khalkis  .... 
Xprochorion  . 
Karystia 
ijkoptdoa          .         .         .         . 

Eavia  (Kiiboea) 

Phthiotis 

Pamasis          .         .         .         . 

Lokris 

Doris      .... 

Phthiotis  and  Phokia 

Mesolongion  (Miasolonglii) 

\'alt(i8     .... 

Triohonia 

Kvrytania 

Navpaktia 

Viinitza  and  Xeromeroj  . 

Akamania  and  JElo 

Pntras     .... 
^ICirialia  .... 
Kalavrvta 

Ilia(Kl'is) 

Achaia  and  His  (IClig 

Keikyra  (Corfu) 

Me.si        .... 

Oro8        .... 

Paxi  (Prtxos)  . 

Leucaa  (Santa  Maura)    . 

Kerkyra  (Corfu) 

Kranoea  .... 
Pali         .... 
.Kami       .... 
Itaki       .... 

Kephalliuia 
Zakyntli03  (Zante) 

Pupil  latioD. 
.  29,013 
.  11.215 
.  33,!»36 
.       8,377 

Arkadia    . 

.     82541 

Tjakeda^mon    . 

(ivtiiion 

llylos  ((Etvlos)       . 

Epidauros  Liuiera   . 

.     46,423 
.     13,957 
.     26,540 
.     18,931 

.  26,747 
.  20,368 
.  20.187 
.     49,119 

Lnkonia   . 

.  10.5,851 

.   106,421 

Kulaniai 

Jlcssiui   .... 

I'ylia       .... 

Tripli^'lia 

Olympia 

.     25.029 
.     29  529 
.     20,946 
.     29,041 
.     25,872 

.  1S,B97 
.  14.027 
.  14,4.i3 
.  33,013 
.     22,219 

llesaonia  . 

.   130,417 

.     18,979 

Naiiplia  .... 

.     15,022 
.     22,138 
.     42,803 
.     19,919 
.     17,301 
.     10,637 

.   127.820 

ia      .          .   121,693 

Ar!j;o9      .... 

Koiiuthia 

Spotsiu  and  Ili-nnioiiis     . 

Hydra  and  Tiiziiiia 

Kythyra 

.  46,.527 
.  12,764 
.  39,204 
.     61,0 :6 

Argolis  and  Korin 

)        .         .  149..')61 

.''vros      .... 
Koa         .... 
Andros    .... 
Tinos      .... 
Naxos     .... 
'lliira  (Theia,  Santnrin) 
Milos      .... 

.     30,643 
.       8,687 
.     19,674 
.      11,022 
.     20,582 
.     21.901 
.     10,784 

.  25,7-'9 
.  21,754 
.  24,983 
.  3,582 
.     20,892 

.     96.940 

.   123,293 

KykladfS 

Attiki      .... 
Jl'ji^ina    .... 
Mcgaris  .... 
Thiva  (ThebaO 
Livadia  .... 

.     76,919 
6,103 
.     14,9t9 
.     20,711 
.     18.122 

.  33,358 
.  17,377 
.  16,774 
.       9,873 

.     77.382 

Attiki  and  Viutia 

.   136.804 

.     41,557 

The  modem  nomenclature  has  been  adopted  in  the  above  table. 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.* 


T. — General  Aspects. 


HE  Balkan  peninsula  is,  perhaps,  that  amongst  the  three  gro:it 
peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe  which  enjoys  the  greatest  natural 
advantages,  and  occupies  the  most  favourahle  geographical  position. 
In  its  outline  it  is  far  less  unwieldy  than  Spain,  and  even  surpasses 
Italy  in  variety  of  contour.  Its  coasts  are  washed  hy  four  sea*  ;  they 
abound  in  gulfs,  harbours,  and  peninsulas,  and  are  fringed  by  numerous  islands. 
Several  of  its  vallej-s  and  plains  vie  in  fertility  with  the  banks  of  the  Guadalqiiivir 
and  the  plains  of  Lombardy.  The  floras  of  two  climes  intermingle  on  its  soil,  and 
add  their  charms  to  the  landscape.  The  mountains  of  Turkey  do  not  yield  to  those 
of  the  two  other  peninsulas  in  graceful  outline  or  grandeur,  and  most  of  them  are 
still  covered  with  virgin  forests.  If  they  are  less  accessible  than  the  Apennines  of 
Italy  or  the  sierras  of  Spain,  that  is  owing  simply  to  the  want  of  roads ;  for  they 
are,  as  a  rule,  of  moderate  elevation,  and  the  plateaux  from  which  they  rise  are 
narrower  and  more  extensively  intersected  by  valleys  than  is  the  table-land  of 
Castile.  Both  Spain  and  Italy  are  closed  in  the  north  by  mountain  barriers 
difficult  to  cross,  whilst  the  Balkan  peninsula  joins  the  continental  trunk  by  almost 
imperceptible  transitions,  and  nowhere  is  it  separated  from  it  by  well-defined 
natural  boundaries.  The  Austrian  Alps  extend  without  a  break  into  Bosnia,  and 
the  Carpathians  cross  the  Danube  in  order  to. effect  a  junction  with  the  system  of 
the  Balkan.  To  the  east  of  the  "Iron  Gate"  there  are  no  mountains  at  all,  and 
Turkey  is  bounded  there  by  the  broad  valley  of  the  Danube. 

•  Aulhotities : — R.  Pashley,  "  Travels  in  Crete  ;  "  Kiiulin,  "  Description  Physique  de  I'lle  de  Crete  ;  " 
G.  Perrot,  "  L'Ue  de  Crete ;  "  Viquesnel,  "  Voyage  dans  la  Turqiiie  d'Europe  ;  "  Ami  Boue,  '■  L:i  Turquie 
d' Europe  ;"'  A.  Dumont,  "Le  Balkan  et  I'Adrialique  ;  "  Lejean,  "Ethnographiede  la  Turquie  d'Europe;  " 
Von  Hammer,  " Konstantinopel  und  der  Bosporus;"  P.  de  Tchihatchef,  "Le  Bosphore  ;  "  Heuzey, 
'■  Voyage  archeologique  en  Maccdoine  ;  "  Fanshawe  Tozer,  "  Researches  in  the  Highlands  of  Tuikey  ;  " 
Barth,  "  Reisen  in  der  europaischen  Tiiikei ;  "  Von  Hahn,  "  Albanesische  Studien  ;  "  Hecqiiard,  "  His- 
toire  et  Description  de  la  Haute-.\lbanie ; "  Dora  d'Istria,  "  Nutionalite  albanaise  ;  "  F.  Slaurer,  "  Reise 
durch  Bosnien  ; "  F.  de  Sainte-JIaiie,  "  L'Heizegorine  ;  "  Kanilz, "  Donau-Bu'garien  und  der  Balkan  ;  " 
H.  Kiepert,  Map  of  Turkey  in  Europe. 

For  changes  made  by  the  Berlin  treaty,  see  page  153. 


88  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

The  proximity  and  parallelism  of  the  coasts  of  two  continents  confer  upon  the 
Balkan  peninsula  an  advantage  unrivalled,  perhaps,  throughout  the  world.  It  is 
separated  from  Asia  only  by  the  narrow  channel  which  joins  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
Jl']gcau  Sea  :  this  channel  is  an  ocean  highway,  and  yet  forms  no  .serious  obstacle 
to  the  misrration  of  nations  from  continent  to  continent.  If  the  Black  Sea  were 
larger  than  it  is  at  present ;  if  it  still  formed  one  sea  with  the  Caspian,  and  extended 
far  into  Asia,  as  it  did  in  a  past  age,  then  Constantinople  would  necessarily  become 
the  great  centre  of  the  ancient  world.  That  proud  position  was  actually  held  by 
it  a  thousand  years  ago,  and  even  if  it  should  never  recover  it,  its  geographical 
position  alone  insures  to  it  an  importance  for  all  time  to  come.  If  the  city  were 
to  be  razed  to  day,  it  would  arise  again  to-morrow  at  some  other  spot  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. In  the  dawn  of  history  powerful  Iliou  kept  watch  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Dardanelles  :  it  survives  in  the  city  on  the  Bosphorus  ;  and  had  there  been  no 
Byzantium,  its  mantle  would  have  descended  upon  some  other  town  in  the  same 
locality. 

We  know  the  part  played  by  ancient  Greece  in  the  history  of  human  culture. 
Macedonia  and  Thracia,  the  two  other  countries  bordering  upon  the  u3*lgean,  have 
played  their  part  too.  It  was  those  provinces  which,  after  the  invasion  of  the 
Persians,  gave  birth  to  the  movement  of  reaction  which  led  the  armies  of  Alexander 
to  the  Euphrates  and  Indus.  The  power  of  the  Ilomans  survived  there  for  a 
thousand  j-ears  after  Rome  itself  had  fallen,  and  the  precious  germs  of  civilisation, 
which  at  a  later  period  regenerated  "Western  Europe,  were  nurtured  there.  It  is 
true,  alas !  that  the  Turk  has  put  a  stop  to  everj^  enterprise  of  a  civilising  nature. 
These  conquerors  of  Turanian  race  were  carried  into  the  Balkan  peninsula  in  the 
course  of  a  general  migration  of  nations  towards  the  west,  which  went  on  for 
three  thousand  years,  and  was  attended  by  perpetual  broils.  It  is  now  five 
hundred  years  since  the  Turks  obtained  a  footing  in  the  peninsula,  and  for  more 
than  four  hundred  years  they  have  been  its  masters,  and  during  that  long  period 
the  old  Boman  empire  of  the  East  has  been  severed,  as  it  were,  from  the  rest  of 
Europe.  The  normal  progress  of  these  highly  favoured  countries  has  been  inter- 
rupted by  incessant  wars  between  Christians  and  Jlohammcdans,  by  the  decay  of 
the  nations  conquered  or  enslaved  by  the  Turks,  and  by  the  heedless  fatalism  of  the 
masters  of  the  country.  But  the  time  is  approaching  when  that  important  portion 
of  Europe  will  resume  the  position  due  to  it  amongst  the  countries  of  the  earth. 

Yast  tracts  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  are  hardly  better  known  to  us  than  the 
wilds  of  Africa.  Kanitz  found  rivers,  hills,  and  mountains  figuring  upon  our 
maps  which  have  no  existence.  Another  traveller,  Lejean,  found  that  a  pretended 
low  pass  through  the  Balkans  existed  only  in  the  imagination.  Russian  geodesists 
engaged  upon  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  a  meridian  found  that  Sofia,  one  of 
the  largest  and  best-known  cities  of  Turkey,  had  been  inserted  upon  the  best  maps 
at  a  distance  of  nearly  a  day's  journey  from  its  true  position.  The  entire  chain  of 
the  Balkans  had  to  be  shifted  considerably  to  the  south,  in  consequence  of  explora- 
tions carried  on  within  the  last  few  years.  Men  of  science  have  hardly  ventured 
)'et  to  explore  the  plateaux  of  Albania  or  Mount  Pindus,  and  much  remains  yet  to 


GENEEAL  ASPECTS.  89 

be  done  before  our  knowledge  of  the  topograpby  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  can  be 
called  even  moderately  complete.  The  voyages  and  explorations  of  a  host  of 
travellers  *  have,  however,  made  known  to  us  its  general  features  and  its  geological 
formations.  Their  task  was  by  no  means  an  easy  one,  for  the  mountain  masses  and 
mountain  chains  of  the  peninsula  do  not  constitute  a  regular,  well-defined  system. 
There  is  no  central  range,  with  spurs  running  out  on  both  sides,  and  gradually 
decreasing  in  height  as  they  approach  the  plains.  Xor  is  the  centre  of  the  penin- 
sula its  most  elevated  portion,  for  the  culminating  summits  are  dispersed  over  the 
country  apparently  without  order.  The  mountain  ranges  run  in  all  the  directions 
of  the  compass,  and  we  can  only  say,  in  a  general  way,  that  those  of  Western  Turkey 
run  parallel  with  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  coasts,  whilst  those  in  the  east  meet  the 
coasts  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  iEgean  at  right  angles.  The  relief  of  the  soil  and 
the  water-sheds  make  it  appear  almost  as  if  Turkey  turned  her  back  upon  con- 
tinental Europe.  Its  highest  mountains,  its  most  extensive  table-lands,  and  its  most 
inaccessible  foi-ests  lie  towards  the  west  and  north-west,  as  if  they  were  intended  to 
cut  it  off  from  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  and  the  plains  of  Hungary,  whilst  all  its 
rivers,  whether  they  run  to  the  north,  cast,  or  south,  finallj-  find  their  way  into  the 
Black  Sea  or  the  JEgean,  whose  shores  face  those  of  Asia. 

This  irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  the  mountains  has  its  analogue  in  the 
distribution  of  the  various  races  which  inhabit  the  peninsula.  The  invaders  or 
peaceful  colonists,  whether  they  came  across  the  straits  from  Asia  Minor,  or  along 
the  valley  of  the  Danube  from  Scj^thia,  soon  found  themselves  scattered  in 
numerous  valleys,  or  stopped  by  amphitheatres  having  no  outlet.  They  failed  to 
find  their  way  in  this  labj-rinth  of  mountains,  and  members  of  the  most  diverse  races 
settled  down  in  proximity  to  each  other,  and  frequently  came  into  conflict.  The 
most  nimierous,  the  most  warlike,  or  the  most  industrious  races  gradually  extended 
their  power  at  the  expense  of  their  neighbours ;  and  the  latter,  defeated  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  have  been  scattered  into  innumerable  fragments,  between 
which  there  is  no  longer  any  cohesion.  Hungary  has  a  homogeneous  population, 
if  we  compare  it  with  that  of  TulTiey  ;  for  in  the  latter  country  there  are  districts 
where  eight  or  ten  difl'erent  nationalities  live  side  by  side  within  a  radius  of  a  few 
miles. 

Time,  however,  has  brought  some  order  into  this  chaos,  and  commercial  inter- 
course has  done  much  to  assimilate  these  various  races.  Speaking  broadly,  Turkey 
in  Europe  may  now  be  said  to  be  divided  into  four  great  ethnological  zones.  The 
Greeks  occupy  Crete,  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the  shores  of  the  -SIgean  Sea, 
and  the  eastern  slopes  of  Mounts  Pindus  and  Olympus ;  the  Albanians  hold  the 
country  between  the  Adriatic  and  Mount  Pindus  ;  the  Slavs,  including  Servians, 
Croats,  Bosnians,  Herzegovinians,  and  Tsernagorans  (Montenegrins),  occupy  the 
lUyrian  Alps,  towards  the  north-west  ;  whilst  the  slopes  of  the  Balkan,  the 
Despoto  Dagh,  and  the  plains  of  Eastern  Turkey  belong  to  the  Bulgarians,  who, 
as  far  as  language  goes,  are  Slavs  likewise.     As  to  the  Turks,  the  lords  of  the  land, 

•  We  mention  Palma,  Vaudoncourt,  Lapic,  Boue,  Viquesnel,  I.ejean,  Kanitz,  Burtb,  Hoclistetter, 
and  Abdullali  Bey. 


!)0  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

they  are  to  be  met  with  in  most  places,  and  pirticuhirly  ia  the  large  towns  and 
fortresses  ;  but  the  only  portion  of  the  country  which  they  occupy  to  the  exclusion 
of  other  races  is  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  peninsula,  bounded  by  the  Balkans, 
the  Danube,  and  the  Black  Sea. 

11. CuETIi    AND    THE    IsL.\NI)S    OF    THE    AuCIIlPEI..\GO. 

CuETE,  next  to  Cyprus,  is  the  largest  island  inhabited  by  Greeks.  It  is  a  natural 
dependency  of  Greece,  but  treaties  made  without  consulting  the  wishes  of  the  people 
have  handed  it  over  to  the  Turks.  It  is  Greek  in  s[)it('  of  this,  not  only  because 
the  majority  of  its  inhabitants  consider  it  to  be  so,  but  also  because  of  its  soil,  its 
climate,  and  its  geographical  position.  On  all  sides  it  is  surrounded  by  deep  seas, 
except  towards  the  north-west,  where  a  submarine  plateau  joins  it  to  Cythera  and 
the  Peloponnesus. 

There  are  few  countries  in  the  world  more  favoured  by  nature.  Its  climate  is 
mild,  though  sometimes  too  dry  in  summer ;  its  soil  fertile  in  spite  of  the  waters 
being  swallowed  up  by  the  limestone  rocks;  its  harbours  spacious  and  well  sheltered; 
and  its  scenery  exhibits  both  grandeur  and  quiet  beauty.  The  position  of  Crete,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Archipelago,  between  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  seems  to  have 
destined  that  island  to  become  the  great  commercial  emporium  of  that  part  of  the 
world.  Aristotle  already  observed  this,  and,  if  tradition  can  be  trusted,  Crete 
actually  held  that  position  for  more  than  three  thousand  years.  During  that  time 
it  "ruled  the  waves ; "  the  Cyclades  acknowledged  the  sway  of  Minos,  its  king; 
Cretan  colonists  established  themselves  in  Sicily ;  and  Cretan  vessels  found  their 
way  to  every  part  of  the  Mediterranean.  But  the  island  unfortunately  became 
divided  into  innumerable  small  republics  jealous  of  each  other,  and  was  therefore 
imable  to  maintain  this  commercial  supremacy  in  the  face  of  Dorian  and  other 
Greeks.  At  a  subsequent  period  the  Romans  subjected  the  island,  and  it  never 
recovered  its  independence.  Byzantines,  Arabs,  Venetians,  and  Turks  have  held 
it  in  turn,  and  by  each  of  them  it  has  been  laid  waste  and  impoverished. 

The  elongated  shape  of  the  island,  and  the  range  of  mountains  which 
runs  through  it  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  enable  us  to  understand  how 
it  was  that  at  a  time  when  most  Greeks  looked  upon  the  walls  of  their  cities 
as  sj'nonynious  with  the  limits  of  their  fatherland,  Crete  became  divided  into 
a  multitude  of  small  republics,  and  how  every  attempt  at  federation  ("  syncretism  ") 
miserably  failed.  The  inhabitants,  in  fact,  were  more  eiiectually  separated 
from  each  other  than  if  they  had  inhabited  a  number  of  small  islands  forming 
an  archipelago.  Most  of  the  coast  valleys  are  enclosed  by  high  mountains, 
the  only  ea.'sy  access  to  them  being  from  the  sea,  and  communications  between 
the  towns  occupying  their  centres  are  possible  only  by  crossing  diflicult  mountain 
paths  easily  defended.  In  all  Crete  there  exists  but  one  plain  deserving  the 
name,  viz.  that  of  Messara,  to  the  south  of  the  central  mass  of  mountains.  It 
is  the  granary  of  the  island,  and  the  leropotamo,  or  "holy  river,"  which  traverses 
it,  has  a  little  water  even  in  the  middle  of  summer. 


CRETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  ARCHIPELAGO. 


91 


The  contour  of  Crete  corresponds  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  the  height 
of  its  mountains.  Where  these  are  high,  the  island  is  broad ;  where  they  sink 
down,  it  is  narrow.  In  the  centre  of  the  island  rises  Mount  Ida  (Psiloriti),  where 
Jupiter  was  educated  by  the  Corybantes,  and  where  his  tomb  was  shown.  Its 
lofty  summit,  covered  with  snow  almost  throughout  the  year,  its  gigantic 
buttresses,  and  the  verdant  valleys  at  its  base  render  it  one  of  the  most  imposing 
mountains  in  the  world;    but  it  was   still  more  magnificent  in  the  time  of  the 


Fig.  28. — The  Gorge  op  Hagio  ErMELt. 


ancient  Greeks,  when  forests  covered  its  slopes,  and  justified  its  being  called  ilount 
Ida,  or  "  the  wooded."  On  the  summit  of  this  mountain  the  whole  island  lies 
spread  out  beneath  our  feet ;  the  horizon  towards  the  north,  from  Mount  Taygetus 
to  the  shores  of  Asia,  is  dotted  with  islands  and  peninsulas;  and  in  the  south  a 
wide  expanse  of  water  extends  beyond  the  barren  and  inhospitable  island  of  Gaudo. 
The  Leuca-Ori,  or  "  White  Mountains,"  in  the  western  extremity  of  the  island, 
are  thus  called  on  account  of  the  snow  which  covers  their  summits,  or  because 


92  TUBKEY  IN  EUEOPE. 

of  tlii'ir  wliite  limestone  cliffs.  They  are  exceedingly  steep,  and  pi'ilVctly  bare, 
hardly  any  verdure  being  met  with  even  in  the  valleys  at  their  foot.  They  are 
known,  also,  as  the  ^fountains  of  the  Sphakiotes,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Dorians,  who  have  retired  into  their  fastnesses,  where  they  are  protected  by 
nature  against  every  attack.  Some  of  their  villages  are  accessible  only  by 
following  the  stony  bed  of  mountain  torrents  leaping  down  from  the  heights 
in  small  cascades.  During  the  rains  the  water  rushes  down  these  ravines  in 
mighty  torrents.  The  "  gates  are  closed  "  then,  as  it  is  said.  One  of  these  gates, 
or  pharynghi,  is  that  of  Ilagio  Rumeli,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Leuca-Ori. 
AVhon  rain  threatens  it  is  dangerous  to  enter  these  gorges,  for  the  waters  rush 
down  and  carry  everything  before  them.  During  the  war  of  independence 
the  Turks  vainly  endeavoured  to  force  this  "  gate  "  of  the  strong  mountain  citadel. 
The  level  pieces  of  ground  on  these  heights  are  sufficiently  extensive  to  support 
a  considerable  population,  if  it  were  not  for  the  cold.  The  villages  of  Askyfo 
occupy  one  of  these  plains,  which  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  an  amphitheatre 
of  mountains.  In  former  times  this  cavity  was  occupied  by  a  lake.  This  is 
proved  by  ancient  beaches  and  by  other  evidence.  But  the  waters  of  the  lake 
found  an  outlet  through  some  katavothras  {khoiiOH,  "  sinks  "j  and  discharged 
themselves  into  the  sea. 

The  remaining  mountains  of  the  island  are  less  elevated  and  fur  less  sterile 
than  the  White  Mountains.  The  most  remarkable  amongst  them  are  the  Lasithi, 
and,  still  farther  west,  those  of  Dicte,  or  Sitia,  a  sort  of  pendant  to  the  Mountains  of 
the  Sphakiotes.  liaised  soa-beaches  have  been  traced  along  their  nortlicrn  slopes, 
covered  with  shells  of  living  species,  and  they  prove  that  that  portion  of  the 
island  has  been  upheaved  more  than  sixty  feet  during  a  recent  geological  epoch. 
The  northern  coast,  between  the  White  Mountains  and  Mount  Dicte,  offers  a 
greater  variety  of  contour  than  does  the  south  coast.  Its  capes,  or  acrofcn'a, 
project  fiir  into  the  sea,  and  thence  are  gulfs,  bays,  and  secure  anchorages.  For 
these  reasons  most  corflmercial  cities  have  been  built  upon  that  side  of  the  island, 
which  faces  the  Archipelago  and  presents  a  picture  of  life,  whilst  the  south  coast, 
facing  Africa,  is  comparatively  deserted.  AH  the  modern  cities  on  the  northern 
coasts  have  been  built  upon  the  sites  of  ancient  ones.  Megalokastron,  better 
known  by  its  Italian  name  of  Candia,  is  the  Heracleum  of  the  ancients,  the 
famous  haven  of  Cnossus.  Retimo,  on  the  western  front  of  Mount  Ida,  is  easily 
identified  with  the  ancient  Rithymna ;  whilst  Khanca  (Cunea),  whose  wliite 
houses  are  almost  confounded  with  the  arid  slopes  of  the  White  ^Mountains, 
represents  the  Cydonia  of  the  Greeks,  famous  for  its  forests  of  quince-trees. 
Canea  is  the  actual  capital,  and  although  not  the  most  populous,  it  is  never- 
theless the  most  important  and  the  busiest  city  of  the  island.  It  has  a 
second  haven  to  the  east,  Azizirge,  on  Suda  Bay,  one  of  the  best  .sheltered  on  the 
island,  and  promises  to  become  one  of  the  i^rincipal  maritime  stations  on  the 
Mediterranean.* 

•  Heights  of  principul  mountiins  : — Aspra  Vuna  (White  iklotmtain  of  Leuca-Ori),  8,100  feet ;  Psiloriti, 
rr  Ida,  8,000  feet;  L:isithi,  or  Dicte,  7,100  feet.  Towns: — Canea,  12,000  inhabitants;  ilcgalokastrOD, 
12,000;  Eetimo,  9,000.     Total  popuhition  of  tho  island,  210,000. 


CRETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  ARCHIPELAGO. 


93 


Crete  has  certainlj'  lost  much  in  population  and  wealth,  and  the  epithet  of 
the  "  isle  of  a  hundred  cities,"  which  it  received  from  the  ancient  Greeks,  no  longer 
applies  to  it.  Miserable  villages  occupy  the  sites  of  the  ancient  cities,  their 
houses  built  from  the  materials  of  a  single  ruined  wall,  whilst  immense  quarries 
had  to  be  opened  in  order  to  supply  the  building  materials  required  in  former 
times.  The  famous  "labyrinth"  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  of  these  ancient 
quarries.  Crete,  in  spite  of  its  great  fertility,  exports  merelj^  a  few  agricultural 
products,  and  nothing  now  reminds  us  of  the  fruitful  island  upon  which  Ceres 
gave  birth  to  Plutus.  The  peasants  are  the  reputed  owners  of  the  land,  but  they 
take  little  heed  of  its  cultivation.  Their  olives  yield  only  an  inferior  oil,  and 
though  the  wine  they  make  is  good  in  spite  of  them,  it  is  no  longer  the  Malvoisie 
so  highly  prized  by  the  Venetians.  The  cultivation  of  cotton,  tobacco,  and  of 
fruit  of  all  sorts  is  neglected.  The  only  progress  in  agriculture  which  can  be 
recorded  during  the  present  century  consists  in  the  introduction  of  orange-trees, 

Fig.  29. — Ckete,  ok  Caxdia. 


gt"i£.  of  ■t.r 


V'/"»A//7 


^ 


.^Sil 


.Scale  1:  2  470,000. 
The  district  inhabited  by  Mohammedans  is  shaded  vertically. 


whose  delicious  fruit  is  highly  appreciated  throughout  the  East.  M.  Georges 
Perrot  has  drawn  attention  to  the  singular  fact  that,  with  the  exception  of  the 
olive-trees  and  the  vine,  the  cultivated  trees  of  the  island  are  confined  to 
particular  localities.  Thus  chestnuts  are  met  with  only  at  the  western  extremity 
of  the  island  ;  vigorous  oaks  and  C3'presses  are  confined  to  the  elevated  valleys  of 
the  Sphakiotes ;  the  valonia  oaks  are  met  with  only  in  the  province  of  Retimo ; 
Mount  Dicte  alone  supports  stone-jDines  and  carob-trees ;  and  a  promontory  in 
South-eastern  Crete,  jutting  out  towards  Africa,  is  surmounted  by  a  grove  of 
date-trees — the  finest  throughout  the  Archipelago. 

The  inhabitants  of  Crete  and  the  neighbouring  islets  are  still  Greek,  in  spite  of 
successive  invasions,  and  they  still  speak  a  Greek  dialect,  recognised  as  a  corrupted 
Dorian.  The  Slavs,  who  invaded  the  island  during  the  Middle  Ages,  have  left 
no  trace  except  the  names  of  a  few  villages.  The  Arabs  and  Venetians,  too,  have 
been  assimilated  by  the  aboriginal  Cretans ;   but  there  still  exist  a  considerable 


94  TURIvEY  IN  EUROPE. 

number  of  Albanians,  the  descendants  of  soldiers,  who  have  retained  their 
language  and  their  customs.  As  to  the  Moliainmedans  or  pretended  Turks,  who 
constitute  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  population,  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  the 
descendants  of  Cretans  who  embraced  Islamism  in  order  to  escape  persecution. 
They  are  the  only  Hellenes  throughout  the  East  who  have  embraced,  in  a  body, 
tlie  religion  of  their  conquerors  ;  but  since  religious  persecution  has  subsided 
several  of  those  Mohammedan  Greeks  have  returned  to  the  religion  of  their 
ancestors.  The  Greeks  of  Crete  are  thus  not  only  vastly  in  the  majority,  but 
they  hold  the  first  place  also  in  industry,  commerce,  and  wealth  ;  it  is  they  who 
buy  up  tli(>  land,  and  the  ^lohammedan  gradually  retires  before  them.  All 
Cretans,  with  the  exception  of  the  Albanians,  speak  Greek,  and  only  in  the  capital 
and  in  a  portion  of  Messara,  where  the  Mohammedans  live  in  compact  masses,  has 
the  Turkish  language  made  any  progress. 

We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  if  the  Greeks  lay  claim  to  a  country  in 
which  their  preponderance  is  so  marked.  But,  in  spite  of  their  valour,  thej'  were 
no  match  against  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  armies  which  were  brought 
against  them. 

The  Cretans  are  said  to  resemble  their  ancestors  in  the  eagerness  with  which 
they  do  business,  and  in  their  disregard  of  truth.  They  may  possibly  be  "  Greeks 
amongst  Greeks — liars  amongst  liars  ;  "  but  they  certainly  cannot  be  reproached 
with  being  bad  patriots.  On  the  contrary,  they  have  suffered  much  for  the  sake 
of  their  fatherland,  and  during  the  war  of  independence  their  blood  was  shed  in 
torrents  on  many  a  battle-field.  The  vast  cavern  of  Melidhoni,  on  the  western 
slope  of  Mount  Ida,  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  terrible  events  of  this  war. 
In  1822  more  than  three  hundred  Hellenes,  most  of  them  women,  children, 
and  old  men,  had  sought  refugfe  in  this  cavern.  The  Turks  lit  a  fire  at  its 
mouth,  and  the  smoke,  penetrating  to  its  farthest  extremity,  suffocated  the  unfortu- 
nate beings  who  had  hoped  to  find  shelter  there. 

The  profound  "  Sea  of  Minos,"  to  the  north  of  Crete,  separates  that  island 
from  the  Archipelago.  All  the  islands  of  the  latter  have  been  assigned  to  the 
kingdom  of  Greece — Astypalpca,  vulgarly  called  AstropaUca  or  Stampalia,  alone 
excepted,  which  still  belongs  to  the  Turks.  The  ancients  called  this  island  the 
"  Table  of  the  Gods,"  although  it  is  only  a  barren  rock.  It  clearly  belongs  to 
the  eastern  chain  of  the  Cyclades,  as  far  as  geological  formation  and  the 
configuration  of  the  sea-bottom  go  ;  but  the  diplomats  allowed  its  fifteen  hundred 
inhabitants  to  remain  under  the  dominion  of  Turkey. 

Amongst  the  other  islands  inhabited  by  Greeks,  but  belonging  to  Turkey, 
Thasos  is  that  which  lies  nearest  to  the  coast  of  Europe.  The  strait  which 
separates  it  from  Macedonia  is  hardly  four  miles  across,  and  in  its  centre  there  is 
an  island  (Thasopulo),  as  well  as  several  sand-banks,  which  interfere  much  with 
navigation.  Tliough  a  natural  dependency  of  Macedonia,  this  island  is  governed 
by  a  mudir  of  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  to  whom  the  Porte  made  a  present  of  it. 
When  Mohammed  II.  put  an  end  to  the  B3'Zantine  empire,  Thasos  and  the  neigh- 


CRETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  AECIIU'ELAGO. 


95 


bouring  islands  formed  a  principality,  the  property  of  the  Italian  family  of  the 
Gateluzzi. 

Thasos  is  one  of  those  countries  of  the  ancient  world  the  present  condition  of 


Fig.  30. — Thb  jEgean  Sea. 
According  to  Robiquet.    Scale,  1 :  5,170,000. 


Tlie  map  is  shaded  to  express  the  depth  of  the  sea.    The  palest  tint  indicate';  a  deptli  of  less  than  55  fathoms  ;  the  next  tint 
a  depth  of  55  to  275  fathoms ;  the  next  a  depth  of  275  to  .'>50  fathoms ;  and  the  darkest  tint  a  depth  of  over  550  fathoms. 


I  no  Miles. 


which  contrasts  most  unfavourably  with  former  times.  Thasos,  an  ancient  Pho9- 
nician  colony,  was  once  the  rival,  and  subsequently  the  wealthy  and  powerful  ally, 
of  Athens  :   its  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  worked  the  gold  and  iron  mines  of 


96  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

the  island;  they  quarried  its  beautiful  white  marble;  cultivated  vineyards  yielding 
a  famous  wine  ;  and  extended  their  commercial  expeditions  to  every  part  of  the 
^gean  Sea.  But  now  there  are  neither  mines  nor  quarries,  the  vines  yield  only 
an  inferior  jjroduct,  the  agricultural  produce  hardly  suffices  for  the  six  thousand 
inhabitants  of  the  island,  and  the  ancient  haven  of  Thasos  is  frequented  only  by 
the  tiniest  of  vessels.  The  island  has  recovered  very  slowly  from  the  blow 
inflicted  upon  it  by  Mohammed  II.,  wlio  carried  nearly  the  whole  of  its  inhabitants 
to  Constantinople.  Thasos  after  this  became  a  haunt  of  j)irates.  and  its  inha- 
bitants sought  shelter  within  the  mountains  of  the  interior.  They  are  Hellenes, 
but  their  dialect  is  ver^''  much  mixed  with  Turkish  words.  Unlike  other  Hellenes, 
they  are  not  anxious  to  improve  their  minds.  They  are  degenerate  Greeks,  and 
they  know  it.  "  We  are  sheep  and  beasts  of  burden,"  thej'  repeatedly  told  the 
French  traveller.  Per  rot. 

Thasos,  however,  is  the  only  island  of  the  Archipelago  where  wooded  moun- 
tains and  verdant  landscapes  sur\'ive.  Rains  are  abundant,  and  its  vegetation 
luxuriant.  I'ainning  streams  of  water  murmur  in  every  valley  ;  lar'ge  trees  throw 
their  shade  over  the  hill-sides ;  •  the  villages  near  the  foot  of  the  mountain  are 
hidden  by  cypresses,  walnut,  and  olive-trees ;  the  valleys  which  radiate  in  all 
directions  from  the  centre  of  the  island  abound  in  planes,  laurels,  j-oke-clms,  and 
vigorous  oaks ;  and  dark  pine  forests  cover  the  higher  slopes  of  the  hills,  the 
glittering  barren  summits  of  Mount  St.  Elias  and  of  other  high  mountains  alone 
rising  above  them. 

Saniothrace,  though  smaller  than  Thasos,  is  much  more  elevated.  Its  moun- 
tains are  composed  of  granite,  schists,  limestones,  and  trachyte,  and  form  a  sort 
of  pendant  to  Mount  Athos,  on  the  other  side  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  If  we  approach 
Samothrace  from  the  north  or  the  south,  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a  huge 
coffin  floating  upon  the  waters ;  from  the  east  or  west  its  profile  resembles  a 
pyramid  rising  from  the  waves.  From  its  summit  Neptune  watched  the  fight 
of  the  Greeks  before  Troy.  In  the  dark  oak  forests  of  the  Black  Mountains 
were  carried  on  the  mysteries  of  Cybele  and  her  Corybantes,  as  well  as  the  Cabiric 
worship,  which  was  intimately  connected  with  them,  and  Samothrace  was  to  the 
ancient  Greeks  what  Mount  Athos  is  to  the  moderns — a  sacred  land.  Numerous 
ruins  and  inscriptions  remain  to  bear  witness  to  the  zeal  of  devout  travellers 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  But  with  the  downfall  of  the  heathen  temples  the 
pilgrims  disappeared.  There  is  only  one  village  on  the  island  now.  Its  inha- 
bitants lead  a  secluded  life,  and  the  only  strange  faces  they  see  are  those  of  the 
sponge-fishers  who  frequent  the  island  during  summer.  The  entire  absence  of 
harbours,  and  the  dangerous  current  which  separates  Samothrace  from  Imbro," 
keep  ofi"  the  mariner,  and  though  the  valleys  are  extremely  fertile,  they  have 
not  hitherto  attracted  a  single  immigrant  from  the  neighbouring  continent. 

Imbro  and  Lemnos  are  separated  from  Samothrace  by  a  deep  sea,  and  appear 
to  continue  the  range  of  the  Thracian  Chersoncsus.  Imbro,  which  is  nearest 
to  the  continent,  is  the  more  elevated  of  the  two  islands,  but  its  St.  Elias  does  not 
attain  half  the  height  of  the  mountains  of  Samothrace.      There  are  no  forests 


CEETE  AND  THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  AECHIPELAOO.  97 

upon  the  slopes  of  this  mountain,  the  valleys  are  covered  with  stones,  and  hardly 
an  eighth  of  the  surface  of  the  island  is  capable  of  cultivation.  Still,  the  position 
of  Imbro,  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  Dardanelles  and  upon  an  international  ocean 
highway,  will  always  secure  to  it  a  certain  degree  of  importance.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  live  in  a  small  valley  in  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the 
island,  and  though  the  rivulet  which  flows  through  this  valley  regularly  dries 
up  in  summer,  it  is  nevertheless  called  emphatically  the  ilegalos  Potamos,  or 
"  big  river." 

Lemnos,  or  Limni,  is  the  largest  island  of  Thracia,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
least  elevated  and  the  most  barren.  You  may  walk  for  hours  there  without 
seeing  a  tree.  Even  olive-trees  are  not  met  with  in  the  fields,  and  the  village 
gardens  can  boast  but  of  few  fruit  trees.  Timber  has  to  be  procured  from  Thasos 
or  the  continent.  Lemnos,  in  spite  of  all  this,  is  exceedingly  fertile ;  it  produces 
barley  and  other  cereals  in  plenty,  and  the  pastures  amongst  its  hills  sustain 
40,000  sheep.  The  island  consists  of  several  distinct  mountain  groups  of  volcanic 
origin,  1,200  to  1,500  feet  in  height,  and  separated  by  low  plains  covered  with 
scoriae,  or  by  gulfs  penetrating  far  inland.  In  the  time  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
the  volcanoes  of  Lemnos  had  not  yet  quenched  their  fires,  for  it  was  in  one  of 
them  that  Vulcan,  when  hurled  from  heaven,  established  his  smithy,  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Cyclops,  forged  his  thunderbolts  for  Jupiter.  About  the 
beginning  of  our  era  Mount  Mosychlos  and  the  promontory  of  Chryse  were 
swallowed  up  by  the  sea,  and  the  vast  shoals  which  extend  from  the  eastern  part 
of  the  island  in  the  direction  of  Imbro  probably  mark  their  site.  Since  the  disap- 
pearance of  Mount  Mosychlos,  Lemnos  has  not  again  suffered  from  volcanic  erup- 
tions or  earthquakes.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Greeks,  and  the  Turks 
who  have  settled  amongst  them  are  being  evicted  by  the  conquered  race,  which  is 
superior  to  them  in  intelligence  and  industry.  Commerce  is  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Greeks.  Its  principal  seat  is  at  Kastro — the  ancient  Mvrhina — which 
occupies  a  headland  between  two  roadsteads.  Sealed  earth  is  one  of  the  articles 
exported,  and  is  found  in  the  mountains.  In  ancient  times  it  was  much  prized 
as  an  astringent,  and  is  so  still  throughout  the  East.  It  is  not  considered  to  possess 
its  healing  qualities  unless  it  has  been  collected  before  sunrise  on  Corpus  Christi 
day. 

The  small  island  of  Stratio  (Hagios  Eustrathios)  depends  politically  and 
commercially  upon  Lemnos.  It,  too,  is  inhabited  by  Greeks.  As  to  the  islands 
along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  they  form  a  portion  of  Turkey  in  Europe  as 
far  as  their  political  administration  is  concerned,  but  geographically  they  belong 
to  Asia.* 

•  The  islanda  of  Thracia  :  — 

Sq.  m. 

Thasos 74 

Samothrace  ....  66 
Imbro  .....  85 
Lfrnmos  .         .         .  .170 


:nUabitanta. 

Highest  Mountains. 

Feet. 

10,000 

Mount  rpsario 

.     3,000 

200 

Mount  Phengaii  . 

.     5.240 

4,0U0 

Mount  St.  Elias  . 

.      1,950 

22,000 

Mount  Skopia 

.     1,410 

98  TUBKEY  IN  EUEOPE. 

III.- — TrUKKY    OF    TIIK    GkKKKS     (TnKAflA,    JiArKDONIA,     AND    TiIKSSALY). 

TiiK  whole  of  the  -il-Cgean  seaboard  of  European  Turkey  is  occupied  hy  Greeks, 
and  this  proves  the  great  influence  which  the  sea  has  exercised  upon  the  migra- 
tions of  the  Mediterranean  nations.  Thessaly,  Macedonia,  Chalcis,  and  Thrace 
are  more  or  less  Greek  countries,  and  even  Constantinople  lies  within  Greece, 
as  defined  by  ethnological  boundaries.  The  geographical  distribution  of  race 
there  does  not,  in  fact,  coincide  with  the  phy.sical  features  of  the  country — its 
mountains,  rivers,  and  climate.  The  Turkey  of  the  Greeks  is,  in  realitj',  no 
geographical  unit,  and  the  only  tie  which  unites  it  arc  the  waters  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, which  wash  all  its  shores. 

Nowhere  else  does  the  Balkan  peninsula  exhibit  such  varied  features  as  on  the 
shores  of  the  -35gean  Sea,  and  of  the  adjoining  basin  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara. 
Bluffs,  hills,  and  mountain  masses  rise  abruptly  from  the  plain  ;  arms  of  the 
sea  extend  far  inland  ;  and  ramified  peninsulas  project  into  the  deep  waters  of  the 
ocean.  It  appears  almost  as  if  nature  were  making  an  efibrt  to  create  an  archipelago 
similar  to  that  in  the  south. 

The  tongue  of  land  upon  which  Constantinople  has  been  built  offers  a 
remarkable  example  of  the  features  whicli  characterize  the  coast  lands  of  this 
portion  of  Europe.  Geologically  the  whole  of  this  peninsula  belongs  to  Asia. 
Its  hollow  hills  are  separated  from  the  granitic  mountains  of  Europe  by  a  wide 
plain  covered  with  rcociit  formations,  and  the  wall  of  Athanasius,  now  in  ruins, 
which  was  built  as  a  defence  to  the  city,  approximatelj^  marks  the  true  boundarj' 
between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  rocks  on  both  sides  of  the  Bosphorus  belong 
to  the  Devonian  formation.  They  contain  the  same  fossils,  exhibit  the  same 
outward  aspects,  and  date  from  the  same  epoch.  A  patch  of  volcanic  rocks  at 
the  northern  entrance  to  the  Bosphorus  likewise  exhibits  the  same  characteristics 
on  both  sides  of  the  strait,  and  there  cannot  be  the  least  doubt  that  this  European 
peninsula  at  a  former  epoch  constituted  a  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  but  was  severed 
from  it  by  an  irruption  of  the  waters. 

Apollo  himself,  it  is  said,  pointed  out  the  site  where  to  build  the  city 
which  is  now  known  as  Constantinople,  and  no  better  could  have  been  found. 
In  fact,  the  city  occupies  the  most  favoured  spot  on  the  Bosphorus.  It  stands  on 
a  peninsula  of  gently  undulating  hills,  bounded  by  the  Sea  of  Marmara  and  by 
the  curved  inlet  called,  from  its  .shape,  its  beaut}-,  and  the  valuable  cargoes 
floating  upon  its  waters,  the  "Golden  Horn."  The  swift  current  of  the  Bosphorus 
penetrates  into  this  inlet,  and  sweeps  it  clean  of  all  the  refuse  of  the  city.  It  then 
passes  into  the  open  sea  at  the  extreme  angle  of  the  peninsula,  and  sailing  vessels 
are  thus  able  to  reach  their  anchorage  without  having  to  struggle  against  a 
contrary  current.  This  haven  not  only  affords  a  secure  anchorage  to  a  multitude 
of  vessels,  but  it  likewise  abounds  in  fish  ;  for,  in  spite  of  the  constant  agitation 
of  its  waters  bj'  the  oars  of  caiques  and  the  paddles  or  screws  of  steamers,  it 
is  visited  annuallj'  by  shoals  of  tunnies  and  other  fish.  The  haven  of  Con- 
stantinople, though    easy   of  access   to   peaceable    merchantmen,   can  readily   be 


b-- 


o 


TURKEY  OF  THE  GREEKS. 


S9 


closed  in  case  of  war.  The  surrounding  heights  command  every  approach  to 
it,  and  a  chain  has  more  than  once  been  drawn  across  the  narrow  entrance  to 
its  roadstead  when  the  city  was  besieged.  The  latter,  too,  can  be  defended 
easily,  for  it  is  built  upon  liills,  bounded  on  the  land  side  by  an  extensive 
plain.     An  assailant,  to    insure  success,  must  dispose  not  only  of  an  army,  but 


Fig.  31. — Geological  Map  of  the  Peninsula  of  Coxstaxtixople. 
Recording  to  F.  von  Hoohstetter.    Scale  1 : 1.370,000. 


BL.ACK  SEA 


^aaternapy 


Tertiary 


Crvstalline 


Volcanic  Lower  Devoaiaa 


also  of  a  powerful  navv.  In  addition  to  all  these  natural  advantages  of  its 
site,  Constantinople  is  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  climate  far  superior  to  that  of 
the  cities  of  the  Black  Sea,  for  it  is  screened  by  hills  from  cold  northerly 
winds. 

In  the  dawn  of  history,  when  migration  and  commerce  marched  only  at  a 
slow  pace,  a  site  as  favoured  as  that  of  Byzantium  was  capable  only  of  attracting 
the  dwellers  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood.  But  after  commerce  had  become 
developed,  the  blind  alone — so  said  the  oracle  of  Apollo — could  fail  to  appreciate 
the  great  advantages  held  out  by  the  Golden  Horn.  Indeed,  Constantinople 
lies  not  only  on  the  ocean  highway  which  connects  the  world  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  the  Black  Sea,  but  also  on  the  high-road  which  leads  from  Asia 
into  Europe.      Geographically   it  may   be   described  as  occupying  a  position  at 


100  TURKEY  IN  EUKOPE. 

the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  Dniester,  Dnieper,  Don,  Eion,  and  Kizil  Irmak,  whose 
common  outlet  is  the  Bosphorus.  When  Constantine  the  Great  constituted 
it  the  metropolis  of  the  Roman  empire,  it  grew  rapidly  in  population  and  wealth ; 
it  soon  became  the  city  of  cities ;  and  its  Turkish  appellation,  Stamboul,  is 
nothing  but  a  corruption  of  the  expression  es  tarn  polin,  used  by  the  inhabitants 
to  denote  their  going  into  the  city.  Amongst  the  distant  tribes  of  Asia  it  repre- 
sents Rome.  They  know  it  by  no  other  name  than  that  of  "  Rum,"  and  the 
country  of  which  it  is  the  capital  they  call  "  Rumelia." 

Constantinople  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  world :  it  is  the 
"  paradisiacal  city  "  of  Eastern  nations.  It  may  compare  with  Naples  or  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  and  many  travellers  accord  it  the  palm.  As  we  approach  the  entrance 
of  the  Golden  Horn,  seated  in  a  caique  more  gracefid  than  the  gondolas  of 
Venice,  the  vast  and  varied  panorama  around  us  changes  with  every  stroke 
of  the  oars.  Beyond  the  white  walls  of  the  Seraglio  and  its  masses  of  verdure 
rise  here,  amphithcatrically  on  the  seven  hills  of  the  peninsula,  the  houses  of 
Stamboul — its  towers,  the  vast  domes  of  its  mosques,  with  their  circlets  of  smaller 
domes,  and  its  elegant  minarets,  with  their  balconies.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
haven,  which  is  crossed  by  bridges  of  boats,  there  are  more  mosques  and  towers, 
seen  through  a  forest  of  masts  and  rigging,  and  covering  the  slope  of  a  hill  whose 
summit  is  crowned  by  regularly  built  houses  and  the  palatial  residences  of  Pera. 
On  the  north  vast  villa-cities  extend  along  both  shores  of  the  Bosphorus. 
Towards  the  east,  on  a  promontory  of  Asia,  there  is  still  another  city,  cradled 
amidst  gardens  and  trees.  This  is  Scutari,  the  Asiatic  suburb  of  Constantinople, 
with  its  pink  houses  and  vast  cemeterj'  shaded  by  beautiful  cypress  groves. 
Farther  in  the  distance  we  perceive  Kadi-koei,  the  ancient  Chalcedon,  and  the 
small  town  of  Prinkipo,  on  one  of  the  Princes'  Islands,  whose  yellow  rocks  and 
verdant  groves  are  reflected  in  the  blue  waters  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara.  The  sheet 
of  water  connecting  these  various  portions  of  the  huge  city  is  alive  with  vessels 
and  boats,  whose  movements  impart  animation  to  the  magnificent  picture.  The 
prospect  from  the  heights  above  the  town  is  still  more  magnificent.  The  coasts  of 
Europe  and  Asia  are  beneath  our  feet,  the  eye  can  trace  the  sinuosities  of  the 
Bosphorus,  and  far  away  in  the  distance  looms  the  snow-capped  pyramidal  summit 
of  Mount  Olj'mpus,  in  Bithynia. 

But  this  enchantment  vanishes  as  soon  as  we  penetrate  into  the  streets  of 
Constantinople.  There  are  many  parts  of  the  town  with  narrow  and  filthy  streets, 
which  a  stranger  hesitates  to  enter.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  blessing,  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  \'iew,  that  conflagrations  so  frequently  lay  waste  and  scour  large  portions 
of  the  city.  Scarcely  a  night  passes  without  the  watchman  on  the  tower  of  the 
Seraskieriate  giving  the  alarm  of  fire,  and  thousands  of  houses  are  devoured 
by  that  element  every  year.  The  city  thus  renews  itself  by  degrees.  It  rises 
from  its  ashes  purified  by  the  flames.  But  formerly,  before  the  Turks  had  built 
their  city  of  stone  on  the  heights  of  Pera,  the  quarters  destroyed  by  fire  were 
rebuilt  as  wretchedly  as  they  were  before.  It  is  different  now.  The  use  of  stone 
has  become  more  general ;  wooden  structures  are  being  replaced  by  houses  built 


TUEKEY  OF  THE  GEEEKS.  101 

of  a  fossiliferous  white  limestone,  which  is  quarried  at  the  very  gates  of  the  citj' ;  and 
free  use  is  made  of  the  bluo  and  grey  marbles  of  Marmara,  and  of  the  flesh-coloured 
ones  of  the  Gulf  of  Cyzica,   in  Asia  Minor,  in  decorating  the  palaces  of  the  great. 

Nearly  every  vestige  of  the  monuments  of  ancient  Byzantium  has  been  swept 
away  by  fires  or  sieges.  There  only  exists  now  the  precious  tripod  of  bronze,  with 
its  three  serpents,  which  the  Plataeans  had  placed  in  the  temple  of  Delphi  in 
commemoration  of  their  victory  over  the  Persians.  The  relics  of  the  epoch 
of  the  Byzantine  emperors  are  limited  to  columns,  obelisks,  arches  of  aqueducts, 
the  breached  walls  of  the  city,  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  Justinian,  only 
discovered  recently,  and  the  two  churches  of  Santa  Sophia,  which  have  been 
converted  into  mosques.  The  grand  church  of  Santa  Sophia,  close  to  the 
Seraglio,  is  no  longer  the  most  magnificent  edifice  in  the  universe,  as  it  was 
in  the  time  of  Justinian,  for  even  the  neighbouring  mosque  of  Sultan  Ahmed 
far  exceeds  it  in  beauty  and  elegance.  It  is  a  clumsy  building,  supported  by 
buttresses  added  at  various  times  to  keep  it  from  falling.  The  character  of  the 
interior  has  been  changed  by  the  Turks,  who  have  introduced  additional  pillars, 
and  the  once  bright  mosaics  have  been  covered  over ;  but  the  dome  never  fails  to 
strike  the  beholder :  it  is  a  marvel  of  strength  and  lightness. 

The  Seraglio,  or  Serai,  near  Garden  Point,  may  boast  of  fine  pavilions  and  shady 
walks,  but  the  dark  memories  of  crime  will  always  cling  to  it.  The  spot  from 
which  sacks  containinar  the  bodies  of  living'  sultanas  or  odalisks  were  hurled  into 
the  dark  waters  of  the  Bosphorus  is  still  pointed  out  to  the  traveller.  Far  more 
attractive  than  this  ancient  residence  of  the  sultans  are  the  marvellous  structures 
in  the  Arab  or  Persian  style  which  line  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  which 
impart  to  the  suburbs  of  Constantinople  an  aspect  of  oriental  splendour. 

The  bazaars  are  amongst  the  most  curious  places  in  the  city,  not  so  much 
because  of  the  rich  merchandise  which  is  displaj-ed  in  them,  but  because  they  are 
frequented  by  a  variety  of  nations  such  as  cannot  be  met  with  in  any  other  city 
of  the  world.  The  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire  is  a  centre  of  attraction  not  only 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  but  also  to  those  of  Anatolia, 
Syria,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Tunis,  and  even  of  the  oases.  There  are  "  Franks  "  from 
every  country  of  Europe,  drawn  thither  by  a  desire  to  share  in  the  profits  of  the 
ever-increasing  commerce  of  the  Bosphorus.  This  mixture  of  races  is  rendered 
still  greater  by  the  surreptitious  importation  of  slaves ;  for,  whatever  diplomatists 
may  assert,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  "  honourable  guild  of  slave-dealers  " 
still  does  an  excellent  business  in  negresses,  Circassians,  and  white  and  black 
eunuchs.  Nor  is  anything  else  to  be  expected  amongst  a  people  who  look  upon 
a  well-stocked  harem  as  a  sign  of  respectability.  Dr.  Millingen  estimates  the 
number  of  slaves  at  Constantinople  at  30,000  souls,  most  of  whom  have  been 
imported  from  Africa.  From  an  anthropological  point  of  view  it  is  certainly  very 
remarkable  that  the  negro  should  not  have  taken  root  in  Constantinople.  In  the 
course  of  the  last  four  centuries  a  million  of  negroes  at  least  have  been  imported, 
and  yet,  owing  to  difiiculties  of  acclimation,  ill-usage,  and  want,  they  would  die 
out  but  for  fresh  importations. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  LIBRARX 


102  TUBKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Our  statistics  do  not  rnalilc  us  to  classify  the  000,000  inhabitants  of  Constan- 
tinople and  its  suburbs  according  to  race.*  One  of  the  principal  sources  of  error 
in  estimates  of  this  kind  consists  in  our  confoundinfj  JIussulmans  with  Turks.  In 
the  provinces  it  is  generally  possible  to  avoid  this  error,  for  Bosnians,  Bulgarians, 
and  Albanians  recognise  each  other  as  members  of  the  same  race,  whatever  religious 
differences  may  exist  between  them.  But  in  the  turmoil  of  a  great  citj'  this 
distinction  is  no  longer  made,  and,  in  the  end,  all  those  who  frequent  the  mosque? 
are  lumped  together  as  if  they  were  members  of  the  same  race.  Of  the  supposed 
Osmanli  of  Constantinople  a  third,  perhaps,  consists  of  Turks,  whilst  the  remaining 
two-thirds  are  made  up  of  Arnauts,  Bulgarians,  Asiatics,  and  Africans  of  various 
races.  Amongst  the  boatmen  there  are  many  Lesghians  from  the  Caucasus.  The 
Mohammedans,  if  not  in  the  minority  already,  will  be  so  very  soon,  for  they  lose 
ground  almost  visibly.  In  old  Stamboul,  in  which  a  Frank  hardly  dared  to  enter 
some  twenty  years  ago,  they  still  enjoy  a  numerical  preponderance,  but  in  the 
"  agglomeration  of  cities  "  known  as  Constantinople,  and  extending  from  Prinkipo 
to  Therapia,  tliey  are  outnumbered  by  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Franks,  and 
certain  quarters  of  the  town  have  been  given  up  to  the  Christians  altogether. 

The  Greeks  are  the  most  influential,  and  perhaps  most  numerous,  element 
amongst  the  rayas.  Their  head-quarters,  like  those  of  the  Turks,  are  at  Stamboul, 
where  they  occupy  a  quarter  of  the  town  called  Phanar,  from  an  old  lighthouse. 
The  Greek  patriarch  and  the  wealthiest  Greek  families  reside  there.  These 
Phanariotes,  in  former  times,  almost  monopolized  the  government  of  the  Christian 
provinces  of  Turkey,  but  they  fell  into  disfavour  after  the  Greek  war  of  liberation. 
The  religious  influence,  too,  which  they  exercised  until  (juite  recently,  has  been 
destroyed  in  consequence  of  the  separation  of  the  Servian,  Rumanian,  and 
Bulgarian  Churches  from  the  orthodox  Greek  Church — a  separation  brought  about 
almost  entirely  through  the  rapacity  of  the  Greek  patriarch  and  his  satellites. 
If  the  Greeks  would  continue  to  preserve  their  pre-eminence  amongst  the  races  of 
Constantinople,  they  must  trust,  in  tlie  future,  to  their  superior  intelligence,  their 
commercial  habits,  education,  patriotism,  and  unanimity.  To  the  Turks  the 
members  of  the  orthodox  Church  are  known  as  the  "  Roman  nation,"  and  thej' 
enjo)'  a  certain  amount  of  self-government,  exercised  through  their  bishops, 
■which  extends  to  marriages,  schools,  hospitals,  and  a  few  other  matters. 

The  "  nation  "  of  the  Armenians  is  likewise  very  strong  at  Constantinople,  and, 
like  that  of  the  "  Romans,"  it  governs  itself  through  an  elective  Executive 
Council.  Much  of  the  commei-ce  of  Constantinople  passes  through  the  hands  of 
Armenians,  who,  though  the)'  came  to  that  city  almost  simultaneously  with  the 
Turks,  have  down  to  the  present  day  preserved  their  jjeculiar  manners.  They  are 
cold  and  reserved,  and  full  of  self-respect,  dift'ering  widely  from  their  rivals  in 
trade,  the  Jews,  who  slink  furtively  to  their  poor  suburb  of  Balata,  at  the  upper 

•  Consul  Sax  (1873)  estimates  the  population  as  follows : — Stamboul,  210,000  ;  Pera,  130,000  ;  Kiiropean 
miturlis,  1.50,000;  Asiatic  suburbs,  110,000;  total,  600,000  souls,  including  200,000  jrohaiiimr-dans. 
Dr.  Vakshity,  on  the  other  hand,  estimates  the  population  of  Cnnstantinople  (exclusive  of  its  Asiatic 
suburbs)  at  358,000  souls,  uf  whom  193,340  are  Mohammedans,  144,210  oi-iental  Christians,  and  30,000 
Franlcs. 


TURKEY  OF  THE  GREEKS.  103 

extremity  of  the  Golden  Horn.  The  Armenians  are  clannish  in  the  extreme,  they 
readily  assist  each  other,  and,  like  the  Parsees  of  Bombay,  delight  in  acts  of 
munificence.  But,  unlike  the  Greeks,  they  are  not  sustained  in  their  undertakings 
by  an  ardent  belief  in  the  destinies  of  their  race.  Most  of  them  are  not  even 
able  to  speak  their  native  language  freely,  and  prefer  to  converse  in  Turkish  or 
Greek. 

The  Franks  are  much  inferior  in  number  to  either  of  the  races  named,  but 
their  influence  is  nevertheless  far  more  decisive.  It  is  through  them  that  Constan- 
tinople is  attached  to  the  civilisation  of  Western  Europe,  and  their  institutions  are 
by  degrees  getting  the  better  of  the  fatalism  of  the  East.  It  is  they  who  built 
the  manufacturing  suburbs  to  the  west  of  Constantinople  and  near  Scutari,  and 
who  introduced  railways.  Every  civilised  nation  of  the  world  is  represented 
amongst  them — Italians  and  French  most  numerously  ;  and  to  the  Americans  is 
due  the  credit  of  having  established  the  first  geological  museum  in  Turkey, 
in  connection  with  Robert  CoUeg. 

Constantinople,  owing  to  the  influx  of  strangers,  is  steadily  increasing  in  popu- 
lation, and  one  by  one  the  villages  in  its  vicinity  are  being  swallowed  up  by  the 
city.  The  whole  of  the  Golden  Horn  is  surrounded  by  houses  now,  and  they 
extend  far  up  the  valleys  of  the  Cydaris  and  Barbyzes,  which  fall  into  it. 
Industrial  establishments  extend  along  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara,  from  the 
ancient  fort  of  the  Seven  Towers  far  to  the  west,  and  from  Chalcedon  to  the 
south-east,  in  the  direction  of  the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia.  Both  banks  of  the 
Bosphorus  are  lined  with  viUas,  palaces,  kiosks,  cafes,  and  hotels.  This  remarkable 
channel  extends  for  nineteen  miles  between  the  shores  of  Europe  and  of  Asia. 
Like  a  huge  mountain  valley  it  winds  between  steep  promontories,  now  contract- 
ing and  then  expanding,  until  it  finally  opens  out  into  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
Black  Sea.  VThen  northern  winds  hurl  the  agitated  waters  of  the  latter  against 
the  sombre  clifis  which  guard  the  entrance  to  the  Bosphorus,  the  contrast  between 
this  savage  sea  and  the  placid  waters  of  the  strait  and  its  charming  scenery  is 
striking  indeed.  At  every  turn  we  are  arrested  by  unexpected  charms.  Rocks, 
palaces,  woods,  vessels  of  every  description,  and  the  curious  scaffoldings  of 
Bulgarian  fishermen  succeed  each  other  in  infinite  vai'iety. 

Amongst  the  innumerable  country  residences  which  nestle  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bosphorus,  those  of  Balta-Liman,  Therapia,  and  Bimikdere  are  the  best  known, 
for  the}-  have  been  the  scenes  of  historical  events ;  but  there  is  no  spot  throughout 
this  marine  valley  which  does  not  excite  admiration.  These  marvels  of  nature 
will,  before  long,  have  added  to  them  a  marvel  of  human  ingenuity.  The  mdth 
of  the  channel  between  the  castles  of  Rumili  and  AnadoU  is  only  600  yards. 
It  was  here  Mandroclus  of  Samos  constructed  the  bridge  of  boats  across  which 
Darius  marched  his  army  of  700,000  men  when  he  made  war  upon  the  Scythians, 
and  on  this  identical  spot  it  is  proposed  now  to  construct  a  railway  bridge  which 
will  join  the  railways  of  Europe  to  those  of  Asia.  A  current  runs  through  the 
Bosphorus,  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Sea  of  Marmara,  at  a  rate  of  from  two  to  six 
miles  an  hour ;  and  although  several  geographers  conclude  from  this  that  the  level 


104  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

of  the  fonner  is  higher  than  that  of  the  latter,  tliis  must  by  no  means  be  looked 
upon  as  an  established  fact.  AVe  have  already  noticed  the  exchange  between  the 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean  and  of  the  open  Atlantic,  which  takes  place  through 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  A  similar  exchange  is  going  on  here,  and  the  outflowing 
surface  current  is  compensated  for  by  an  inflowing  under-current. 

The  outlying  houses  and  villas  of  Constantinople  extend  northwards  along  the 
Bosphorus  as  far  as  the  two  Genoese  castles  of  Rumili-kavak  and  Anadoli-kavak. 
This  extension  coincides  with  the  geological  features  of  the  ground,  for  no  sooner 
have  we  turned  our  backs  upon  the  houses  than  we  find  ourselves  shut  in  between 
cliffs  of  dolerite  and  porphyry,  which  extend  as  far  as  the  Black  Sea,  where  they 
terminate  in  the  precipices  of  the  Cyanea,  or  Symplegades,  the  famous  rocks  which 
opened  and  shut,  crushing  the  vessels  that  ventured  to  pass  through  the  strait, 
until  Minerva  fixed  them  for  ever.  These  volcanic  rocks  are  barren,  but  the 
Devonian  strata  to  the  south  of  them  are  beautifully  wooded.  The  Turks,  unlike 
the  Spaniards  and  other  Southern  nations,  love  and  respect  nature ;  plane-trees, 
cypresses,  and  pines  still  shade  the  shores  of  the  Bos2>horus ;  and  the  vast  forest  of 
Belgrade  covers  the  hills  to  the  east  of  Constantinople,  from  which  the  city  draws 
its  supply  of  water.  Birds,  too,  are  better  protected  than  in  many  a  Christian 
land.  The  plaintive  cooing  of  doves  is  heard  wherever  we  turn,  flights  of 
swallows  and  aquatic  birds  skim  over  the  surface  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  now  and 
then  we  encounter  a  grave  stork  perched  upon  the  top  of  a  tree  or  of  a  minaret. 

The  whole  aspect  of  the  place  is  southerly,  yet  the  climate  of  Constantinople 
has  its  rigour.  The  cold  winds  of  the  steppes  of  Russia  freely  jx'nctratc  through 
the  strait,  and  the  thermometer  has  been  known  to  fall  four  degifecs  below  zero  in 
the  winter.  The  neighbouring  sea  renders  the  climate  more  cqiuible  than  it  would 
otherwise  be ;  but  as  the  winds,  from  whatever  direction  they  blow,  meet  with  no 
obstacle,  sudden  changes  of  temperature  are  frequent.  The  average  temperature 
varies  very  considerably  in  different  years.  Sometimes  it  sinks  to  the  level  of 
that  of  Pekin  or  Baltimore,  at  others  it  is  as  high  as  that  of  Toulon  or  of  Nice.  In 
exceptional  cases  the  Bosphorus  has  become  covered  with  ice,  but  thaws  always  set 
in  rapidly,  and  then  may  be  witnessed  the  magnificent  spectacle  of  masses  of  ice 
striking  against  the  walls  of  the  Seraglio,  and  floating  away  across  the  Sea  of 
Marmara.  In  a.d.  762  these  masses  of  ice  were  so  stupendous  that  they  became 
wedged  in  the  Dardanelles,  and  the  tepid  waters  of  the  ^gean  Sea  then  assumed 
the  aspect  of  a  bay  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  geological  features  of  the  coast  region  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara  differ 
essentially  from  those  of  the  rest  of  Turkey.  Low  ranges  of  hills  rise  close  to  the 
coast,  increasing  in  height  towards  the  west,  until  they  attain  an  elevation  of 
2,930  feet  in  the  Tckir  Dagh,  or  "holy  mountains,"  the  grey  slopes  of  which, 
covered  here  and  there  with  patches  of  shrubs  or  pasturage,  are  visible  from  afar. 

A   narrow    neck    of    land    joins    the    peninsula    of    Gallipoli — the    Thracian 

•  Length  of  the  Bosphorus,  98,500  feet,  or  18-6  miles;  avemge  wiJth,  6.250  feet;  average  depth, 
90  feet;  greatest  depth,  170  feet. 


TURKEY  OF  THE  GREEKS. 


105 


Chersonesus  of  the  ancients — to  this  coast  range.  This  peninsula  is  composed  of 
quaternai'}'  rocks,  which  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  met  with  on  the  shore 
of  Asia  opposite.  Anciently  a  huge  fresh-water  lake  covered  a  portion  of  Thracia 
and  more  than  half  the  area  now  occupied  by  the  ^gean  Sea.  When  the  land 
first  emerged  above  the  waters,  the  Chersonesus  formed  an  integral  portion  of 
Asia.  Subsequently  the  waters  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  had  forced  themselves  a 
passage  through  the  Bosphorus,  likewise  found  their  way  through  the  Hellespont 
into  the  ^-Egean  Sea.  The  geological  formation  of  the  countrj^  and  the  configura- 
tion of  the  sea-bottom  prove  this  to  have  been  the  ease,  and  this  irruption  of  the 
waters  was  attended,  jirobably,  by  volcanic  eruptions,  traces  of  which  still  exist  on 

Fig.  32. — The  Hellespont,  ok  Daudaxelles.  axd  the  Gulf  of  Sards. 
Scale  1  :  l,220,iXiO. 


I'he  dark  shading  expresses  a  depth  exceeding  5.5  fathoms. 
30  Statute  Miles. 


the  islands  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Maritza,  the  former 
to  the  east,  the  latter  to  the  west  of  the  peninsula. 

If  the  statements  of  Pliny  and  Strabo  may  be  relied  upon,  the  Hellespont  must 
have  been  much  narrower  in  former  times  than  it  is  now.  At  x\.bydos — the 
modern  Naghara — the  width  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  seven  stadia,  or  less  than 
a  mile,  anciently,  whilst  at  the  present  time  it  is  6,500  feet.  It  was  here  Xerxes 
constructed  his  double  bridge  of  boats.  The  strait  is  deep  at  that  spot,  and  its 
current  strong,  but  no  wooden  ship  could  hope  to  force  a  passage  if  covered  by  the 
guns  in  the  batteries  on  both  coasts.     The  Hellespont,  like  the  Bosphorus,  has  two 


lOG  TURKEY  IN  EUEOPE. 

currents  flowing  through  it.  In  winter,  when  the  rivers  which  flow  into  the 
Black  Sea  are  frozen  up,  and  the  Sea  of  Marmara  is  no  longer  fed  by  the  waters 
of  the  Bosphorus,  a  highly  saline  under-current  penetrates  from  the  ^-Egean  Sea 
into  the  Dardanelles,  whilst  a  feebler  current  of  comparatively  fresh  water  flows  in 
a  contrary  direction  on  the  surface.* 

Gallipoli,  the  Constantinople  of  the  Hellespont,  stands  near  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Marmara.  It  is  the  first  city  which  the  Turks  captured 
upon  the  soil  of  Europe ;  but  though  they  settled  down  there  nearly  a  hundred 
years  earlier  tluiu  thi'v  did  at  Constantinople,  they  are  no  more  in  the  majority 
here  than  they  are  in  the  capital.  Gallipoli,  like  Rodosto  and  other  towns  on  the 
Sea  of  Marmara,  is  inhabited  by  M(jhammedans  of  A'arious  races,  by  Greeks, 
Armenians,  and  Jews,  forming  separate  coiiimiinities  dwelling  within  the  walls  of 
the  same  town.  The  country  population  consists  almost  exclusively  of  Greeks, 
who  are  the  proprietors  and  cultivators  of  the  land  ;  and  in  .sight  of  the  coasts  of 
Asia,  and  within  that  portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  which  has  been  longest 
under  the  rule  of  the  Turk,  the  Greek  is  stronger  numerically  than  anywhere  else 
to  the  north  of  Mount  Pindus.  He  does  not  there  confine  himself  to  the  coast, 
and,  if  we  except  a  few  Bulgarian  villages  and  the  larger  towns,  the  whole  of 
Eastern  Thracia  belongs  to  him. 

The  lowlands  of  this  region  form  a  vast  triangular  plain,  bounded  by  the  Tekir 
Dagh  and  the  coast  range  on  the  south,  by  oflshoots  from  the  Rhodope  on  the  west, 
and  by  the  granitic  mountains  of  Stranja  on  the  east.  This  is  one  of  the  dreariest 
districts  of  all  Turkey.  Swampy  depressions  and  untilled  land  recall  the  steppes 
of  Russia ;  and  in  summer,  when  the  wind  raises  clouds  of  dust,  we  can  imagine 
ourselves  in  the  midst  of  a  desert.  The  dreary  monotony  of  this  plain  is  relieved 
only  by  the  pale  contours  of  distant  mountains,  and  by  innumerable  artificial 
mounds  of  unknown  origin.  So  numerous  are  these  tumuli  that  they  form  an 
essential  feature  of  the  landscape,  and  no  artist  could  convey  a  just  idea  of  it 
without  introducing  into  his  picture  one  or  more  of  them. 

Near  the  northern  extremity  of  this  unattractive  plain,  at  the  confluence  of 
Maritza  and  Tunja,  lies  the  city  of  Adrianople,  enveloped  in  trees,  whose  sight 
delights  the  eye  of  the  weary  traveller.  Adrianople,  in  reality,  consists  of  a 
number  of  villages,  separated  from  each  other  by  orchards,  poplars,  and  cypresses, 
above  which  peep  out  the  minarets  of  some  hundred  and  fifty  mosques.  The 
sparkling  waters  of  the  Maritza  and  Tunja,  of  rivulets  and  of  aqueducts,  lend 
animation  to  the  picture,  and  render  Adrianople  one  of  the  most  delightful  places. 
But  it  is  more  than  this.  It  is  the  great  centre  of  population  in  the  interior 
of  Turkey,  and  its  favourable  geographical  position  has  always  secured  to  the  city 
a  certain  amount  of  importance.  The  ancient  city  of  Orestis,  the  capital  of  the 
Kings  of  Thracia,  stood  on  this  site,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Hadrianopolis  of  the 
Romans,  which  the  Turks  changed  into  Edirneh,  and  made  their  capital  until 
Constantinople  fell  into  their  power.     The  old  palace  of  the  Sultan,  built  in  the 

•  Dimensions  of  the  Dardanelles: — Length,  42-3  miles;    average  width,  2'7  miles,  or  13,100   feet; 
minimum  width,  6,400  feet;  average  depth,  180  feet;  gieatest  depth,  320  feet. 


TURKEY  OF  THE  GREEKS.  107 

Persian  style  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  stiU  remains,  though  in 
a  dilapidated  condition.  But  here,  likewise,  the  Osmanli  are  in  the  minority. 
The  Greeks  are  their  equals  in  numbers,  and  far  surpass  them  in  intelligence, 
whilst  the  Bulgarians,  too,  muster  strongly,  and,  as  in  other  towns  of  the  East,  we 
meet  with  a  strange  mixture  of  races,  from  Persian  merchants  down  to  gipsy 
musicians.  The  Jews  are  proportionately  more  numerous  in  Adrianople  than  in 
any  other  town  of  Turkey,  and,  strange  to  relate,  they  differ  from  their  co-reli- 
gionists in  every  other  part  of  the  world  by  a  lack  of  smartness  in  business 
transactions.  A  local  proverb  says  that  "  it  requires  ten  Jews  to  hold  their  own 
against  one  Greek ;  "  and  not  Greeks  alone,  for  AVallachians,  and  even  Bulgarians, 
are  able  to  impose  upon  the  poor  Israelite  at  Adrianople. 

The  communications  between  Adrianople  and  Midea,  the  ancient  Greek  colony, 
famous  for  its  subterranean  temples,  and  with  other  cities  on  the  Black  Sea,  are 
difficult.  Its  natural  outlets  are  towards  the  south — on  the  one  hand  to  Rodosto, 
on  the  Sea  of  Marmara  ;  on  the  other,  down  the  Maritza  valley  to  the  Gulf  of  Saros. 
The  railway  follows  the  latter,  and  the  Eimielian  Railway  Company  has  constructed 
an  artificial  harbour  at  Dede  Aghach,  enabKng  merchantmen  to  lie  alongside 
a  pier.  The  allurements  of  commerce,  however,  have  not  hitherto  induced  the 
inhabitants  of  Enos  to  exchange  their  walled  and  turreted  acropoKs  for  the  marshy 
tract  on  the  Lower  Maritza,  with  its  deadly  atmosphere. 

The  zone  occupied  by  the  Greeks  grows  narrower  as  we  go  west  of  the  Maritza, 
where  the  Rhodope  Mountains  form  a  kind  of  international  barrier.  Only  the 
coast  is  occupied  there  by  Greek  mariners  and  fishermen,  whilst  the  hills  in  sight 
of  it  are  held  almost  exclusively  by  Turkish  and  Bulgarian  peasants  and  herdsmen. 
The  marshy  littoral  districts,  the  small  valleys  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  and  a  few  isolated  hiUs  of  volcanic  or  crj-stalline  formation  constitute 
a  narrow  band  which  connects  the  Greeks  of  Thracia  with  their  compatriots  of 
Chalcidice  and  Thessaly.  The  Yuruks,  or  "  "Wanderers,"  a  Turkish  tribe  which 
has  retained  its  nomadic  habits  do'wn  to  the  present  day,  sometimes  even  extend 
their  excursions  to  the  sea-coast.  Their  principal  seat  is  in  the  Pilav  Tepe,  a 
mountain  mass  to  the  north-west  of  Thasos,  famous  in  the  time  of  the  Macedonian 
kings  for  its  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  A  wide  plain  extends  immediately  to  the 
west  of  these  mountains,  watered  by  the  Strymon,  or  Karasu,  and  is  of  marvellous 
fertility.  Seres,  a  considerable  city,  occupies  its  centre,  and  hundreds  of  villages, 
surrounded  by  orchards,  rice,  and  cotton  fields  are  scattered  over  it.  Looked  at 
from  the  heights  of  the  Rhodope,  this  plain  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  huge 
garden-city.     Unfortunately  many  parts  of  it  are  very  insalubrious. 

The  triple  peninsula  of  Chalcidice  has  no  connection  whatever  with  the 
Rhodope,  and  is  attached  to  the  mainland  b}'  an  isthmus  covered  with  lakes, 
swamps,  and  alluvial  plains.  It  extends  far  into  the  sea  like  a  huge  hand  spread 
out  upon  the  waters.  Chalcidice  is  a  Greece  in  miniature,  with  coasts  of  fantastic 
contours,  deep  bays,  bold  promontories,  and  mountains  rising  in  the  midst  of 
plains,  like  islands  in  an  archipelago.  One  of  these  mountain  masses  rises  in  the 
trunk  of  the  peninsula,  and  culminates  in  Mount  Kortach,  whilst  each  of  its  three 


108 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


ramifications  possesses  its  own  system  of  scarped  hills.  Greek  in  aspect,  this 
curious  appendage  to  the  continent  is  Greek,  too,  in  its  population  ;  and,  a  rare 
thing  in  Turkey,  all  its  inhabitants  are  of  the  same  race,  if  we  except  the  Turks 
in  the  town  of  Nisvoro  and  the  Slav  monks  of  Mount  Athos. 

Tlio  easternmost  of  the  three  tongues  of  land  of  Chalcidice,  which  jut  out 
far  into  the  waters  of  the  ^gean,  is  almost  entirely  detached.  Only  a  low  and 
narrow  neck  of  land  connects  it  with  the  mainland,  and  it  was  across  this 
isthmus  that  Xerxes  dug  a  canal,  3,950  feet  in  length,  either  to  enable  his  fleet  to 
avoid  the  dangerous  promontory  of  Mount  Athos,  or  to  give  the  awe-struck 
inhabitants  a  proof  of  his  power.  This  is  tlie  peninsula  of  Ilagion  Ores,  the 
Monte  Santo  of  the  Italians.  At  its  extremity  rises  a  limestone  mountain,  one  of 
the   most   beautiful   in    the   Eastern  Mediterranean.     This  is  the  famous  Mount 


Fig.  33. — The  Peninsula  of  Mount  Athos. 

Sciilo  1  :  I.O'iO.noft, 


1.^                    1 

' 

>-v. 

^7 

''\; 

'■'■'>,                 ; 

■      1.  Cr 

•2.')  Miles. 


Athos,  which  an  ancient  sculptor  proposed  to  convert  into  a  .statue  of  Alexander, 
holding  a  city  in  one  hand  and  a  spring  in  the  other,  and  which  Eastern  legends 
point  out  as  the  "  exceeding  high  mountain  "  to  which  the  devil  took  Jesus,  to 
show  him  "all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world."  But  whatever  old  legends  may  say, 
the  panorama  is  not  as  vast  as  this,  though  the  shores  of  Chalcidice,  Macedonia, 
and  Thraeia  lie  spread  out  beneath  our  feet,  and  the  eye  can  range  across  the  blue 
waters  of  the  j35gean  Sea  from  Mount  Olympus,  in  Thessaly,  to  Mount  Ida,  in 
Asia  Minor.  Tlie  bold  outlines  of  the  fortified  monasteries  which  appear  here  and 
there,  in  the  mid.st  of  chestnuts,  oak.^,  or  pines,  on  the  slope  of  the  moimtain, 
contrast  Tuost  happily  with  the  faint  oulline  of  the  coasts  on  the  distant  liorizon.* 
This  peninsula,  which  a  traveller  has  compared  to  a  sphinx  crouching  upon 
the  bosom  of  the  sea,  is  the  property  of  a  republic  of  monks,  who  govern  them- 
•  Altitudes :— Mount  Pilav  Tepe,  6,183  feet;  Kortach,  3,893  feet;  Athos,  6,786  feel. 


TUEKET  OP  THE  GREEKS.  109 

selves  according  to  their  own  fancj'.  In  return  for  a  tribute,  which  they  pay  to 
the  Porte,  they  alone  have  the  right  to  live  there,  and  strangers  require  their 
permission  before  they  are  allowed  to  enter.  A  company  of  Christian  soldiers  is 
stationed  at  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  to  prevent  the  sacred  soil  being  desecrated 
by  the  footsteps  of  a  woman.  Even  the  Turkish  governor  cannot  gain  admittance 
without  leaving  liis  harem  behind  him.  For  fourteen  hundred  years,  we  are  told 
in  the  chronicles  of  Mount  Athos,  no  female  has  set  foot  upon  this  sacred  soil,  and 
this  prohibition  extends  to  animals  as  well  as  to  human  beings.  Even  the  presence 
of  poultry  would  profane  the  monasteries,  and  the  eggs  eaten  by  the  monks  are 
imported  from  Lemnos.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  purveyors,  who  reside  at 
the  village  of  Karyes,  the  6,000  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  are  monks,  or 
their  servants,  and  they  live  in  the  monasteries,  or  in  the  hermitages  attached  to 
the  935  churches  and  chapels.  Nearly  all  the  monks  are  Greeks,  but  amongst 
the  twenty  large  monasteries  there  are  two  which  were  built  by  the  ancient 
sovereigns  of  Servia,  and  one  which  was  founded  by  Russia.  Most  of  these 
edifices  occupy  promontories,  and,  with  their  high  walls  and  strong  towers,  they  arc 
exceedingly  picturesque.  One  amongst  them,  that  of  Simopetra,  appears  to  be 
almost  inaccessible.  It  is  in  these  retreats  the  good  fathers  of  the  order  of  St. 
Basil  spend  their  lives  in  contemplative  inaction.  They  are  bound  to  pra)-  eight 
hours  in  the  day  and  two  in  the  night,  and  during  the  whole  of  that  time  they 
are  not  allowed  to  sit.  They  have,  therefore,  neither  time  nor  strength  for  study 
or  manual  labour.  The  books  in  their  libraries  are  incomf)rehensible  mysteries 
to  them,  and,  in  spite  of  their  sobriety,  they  might  die  of  starvation  if  there  were 
not  lay-brothers  to  work  for  them,  and  numerous  farms  on  the  mainland  which 
are  their  property.  A  few  shiploads  of  hazel  nuts  is  aU  this  fertile  peninsula 
produces. 

The  ancient  cities  of  Olynthus  and  Potidroa,  on  the  neck  of  the  western 
peninsula  of  Chalcidice,  have  dwindled  down  into  insignificant  villages ;  but  the 
city  of  Therma,  called  afterwards  Thessalonica,  and  now  known  as  Saloniki,  still 
exists,  for  its  geographical  position  is  most  favourable,  and  after  every  siege  and 
every  conflagration  it  again  rose  from  its  ashes.  Yestiges  of  every  epoch  of 
history  may  still  be  seen  there :  Cyclopean  and  Hellenic  walls,  triumphal  arches, 
and  remains  of  Roman  temples,  Byzantine  structures,  and  Venetian  castles.  Its 
harbour  is  excellent,  its  roadstead  well  sheltered  ;  and  the  high-roads  into  Upper 
Macedonia  and  Epirus  lead  from  it  along  the  valleys  of  the  Vardai  and  Inje 
Karasu.  These  favourable  circumstances  have  not  been  without  their  influence, 
and  Saloniki,  next  to  Constantinople  and  Adrianople,  is  the  most  important  city 
of  European  Turkey.  Its  population  is  mixed,  like  that  of  other  cities  in  the  East, 
and  Jews  are  exceptionally  numerous.  Most  of  them  are  the  descendants  of 
Spanish  Jews,  expelled  by  the  Inquisition,  and  they  still  talk  Spanish.  3Iany 
have  outwardly  embraced  Mohammedanism  to  escape  persecution,  but  the  true 
Mussulman  spurns  these  converts  with  disdain.  They  are  generally  known  as 
"  Mamins." 

The   commerce    of  Saloniki   is   important    even  now,  but  greater  things  are 
8 


no 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


expected  of  the  future.  Like  Marseilles,  Trieste,  and  15rindisi,  Suloniki  aspires  to 
become  a  connecting  link  in  the  trade  between  England  and  the  East.  It  actually 
lies  on  the  most  direct  road  between  the  Channel  and  the  Suez  Canal,  and  once 
connected  by  railways  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  it  is  sure  to  take  a  large  share 
in  the  world's  commerce.  This  emporium  of  Macedonia  is  interesting,  too,  from 
an  ethnological  point  of  view,  for,  with  the  exception  of  Burgaz,  on  the  Black 
Sea,  it  is  the  only  place  where  tlie  Bulgarians,  the  most  numerous  race  of 
European  Turkey,  have  reached  the  sea-coast.  Everywhere  else  they  are  cut  off 
from  it  bj'  alien   races,   but  Saloniki   brings  them  into  direct  contact  with  the 

Fig.  34. — Mount  Olympus. 


remainder  of  Europe.  Saloniki,  however,  not  only  suffers  from  bad  government, 
but  also  from  the  marshes  which  surround  it,  and  in  summer  many  of  its  inha- 
bitants flock  to  the  healthier  town  of  Kalameria,  to  the  west.  Miasmatic  swamps 
unfortunately  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  iEgean,  and 
they  separate  the  interior  of  Macedonia  more  effectively  from  the  coast  than  do  its 
mountains.     There  is  hardly  any  commerce  except  at  Saloniki. 

On  the  western  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Saloniki,  beyond  the  ever-changing 
mouths  of  the  Vardar  and  the  briny  waters  of  the  Inje  Karasu,  or  Haliacmon,  the 
laud  graduallj'  rises.     Hills  are   succeeded  by  mountains,  until  bold  precipices 


TUEKEY  OF  THE  GEEEKS. 


Ill 


approach  close  to  the  coast,  and  summit  rises  beyond  summit,  up  to  the  triple  peak  of 
Mount  Olympus.  Amongst  the  many  mountains  which  have  borne  this  name,  this 
is  the  highest  and  the  most  beautiful,  and  the  Greeks  placed  upon  it  the  court  of 
Jupiter  and  the  residence  of  the  gods.  It  -was  in  the  plains  of  Thessaly,  in  the 
shadow  of  this  famous  mountain,  that  the  Greeks  lived  in  the  springtide  of  their 
history,  and  their  most  cherished  traditions  attach  themselves  to  this  beautiful 
country.  The  mountains  which  had  sheltered  the  cradle  of  their  race  remained 
to  them  for  ever  afterwards  the  seat  of  their  protecting  deities.  But  Jupiter, 
Bacchus,  and    the   other   great    gods  of  antiquity   have    disappeared    now,   and 


Fig.  35. — Mount  Olympus  and  the  Valley  of  Tempe. 

AccordiDS  to  Heuzey  and  Kiepert.    Scale  1  :  660,000. 


20  Jlfles, 


monasteries  have  been   built  in   the   woods  which   witnessed  the   revels   of    the 
Bacchantes. 

Until  recently  the  upper  valleys  of  Mount  Olympus  were  inhabited  only  by 
monks,  and  ly  kle];htes,or  bandits,  who  sought  shelter  there  from  the  Arnaut 
soldiers  sent  in  their  pursuit.  The  mountain,  in  fact,  constitutes  a  world  apart, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  formidable  declivities.  Forty-two  peaks  form  the 
battlements  of  this  mountain  citadel,  fifty-two  springs  rise  within  it,  and  the 
bold  klepht  is  secure  within  its  fastnesses  from  the  abhorred  Turk.  Jlagnificent 
forests  of  laurel-trees,  planes,  and  oaks  cover  its  lower  maritime  slopes,  and  in 
times  of  trouble  they  have  served  as  a  refuge  to  entire  populations.     But  Italian 


112  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

speculators  have  purchased  these  forests,  and  the  time  is  not,  perhaps,  very  distant 
when  Mount  Olympus,  deprived  of  its  verdure,  will  be  reduced  to  a  barren  mass  of 
rock,  like  most  of  the  mountains  of  the  Archipelago.  Wild  cats  abound  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  Olympus,  chamois  still  climb  its  rugged  pinnacles,  but  bears  are  no 
longer  met  with :  St.  Denys,  who  dwelt  upon  the  mountain,  required  beasts  to  ride 
upon,  and  changed  them  into  horses  ! 

Xenagoras,  an  ancient  geometrician,  was  the  first  to  measure  the  height  of 
Mount  Olj'mpus,  but  his  result,  6,200  feet,  is  far  from  the  truth,  for  the  highest 
summit  attains  an  elevation  of  9,750  feet.*  It  may  possibly  be  the  culminating 
point  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Snow  remains  in  some  of  its  crevices  throughout 
the  year,  and  no  human  being  hitherto  apjiears  to  have  succeeded  in  ascending  its 
highest  pinnacle.  According  to  the  Greek  legend,  even  Pelion  heaped  upon  Ossa 
did  not  enable  the  Titans  to  reach  the  abode  of  the  gods,  and,  in  reality,  the 
combined  height  of  these  two  mountains  hardly  exceeds  that  of  Olympus.  But, 
in  spite  of  this  inferior  height,  "pointed"  Ossa  and  "long-stretched"  Pelion, 
known  to  us  moderns  as  Kisovo  and  Zagora,  impress  the  beholder,  because  of 
their  savage  valleys,  their  precipitous  walls  of  rock,  and  cliffy  promontories. 

These  mountains  continue  southward  through  the  hook-shaped  peninsula  of 
Magnesia,  and  terminate  opposite  the  island  of  Eubwa.  They  formed  a  strong 
bulwark  of  defence  in  tlie  time  of  ancient  Greece.  The  hordes  of  the  barbarians 
stopped  in  front  of  this  insurmountable  barrier.  They  were  compelled  to  seek  a 
practicable  road  to  the  west  of  it,  through  the  valley  of  the  Peneus,  which  is  rightly 
looked  upon  as  the  natural  frontier  of  Hellas.  Hence  the  great  strategical  impor- 
tance of  Pharsalus,  in  Southern  Thessaly,  which  protects  the  gorges  of  the  <  )tlir}-s 
and  the  only  access  to  the  plains  of  the  Sperchius.  The  pass  of  Petra,  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  Olympus,  was  carefully  guarded  for  similar  reasons. 

A  large  portion  of  the  area  bounded  by  (he  crystalline  rocks  of  Olympus  and 
Ossa,  and  by  the  cretaceous  range  of  the  Pindus,  running  parallel  with  the  former, 
consists  of  plains  originally  covered  by  vast  lakes.  The  Gulf  of  Volo  approaches  close 
to  the  shrunken  remains  of  one  of  these  lakes — that  of  Karla,  or  Ba>beis — into  which 
the  waters  of  the  swampy  plain  of  Larissa  discharge  themselves.  The  dwellers  on 
the  shores  of  tliis  lake  say  that  a  dull  rumbling  noise  may  now  and  then  be  heard 
at  its  bottom,  which  they  ascribe  to  the  bellowing  of  some  invisible  animal, 
^but  which  is  more  probably  the  gurgling  sound  of  the  water  penetrating  into  a 
sink-hole.  Other  lake  basins  arc  met  with  at  the  foot  of  Olympus  towards  the 
west  and  north-west,  and  some  of  the  valleys  of  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Peneus 
are  covered  with  alluvium  left  behind  by  the  receding  waters.  Hercules,  according 
to  some — Neptune,  according  to  others — drained  all  these  lakes  of  Thessaly  into 
the  -i3?]gean,  by  opening  the  narrow  gorge  between  Oh'mpus  and  Ossa,  known  to 
the  ancients  as  the  Valley  of  Tempe.  This  narrow  valley  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  the 
slow  erosive  action  of  water.  To  the  Hellenes  it  realised  their  ideals  of  refreshing 
coolness  and  beauty,  and  once  every  nine  years  an  embassy  arrived  from  Delphi 
to  pluck  the  laurel-leaves  destined  for  the  victors  in  the  Pythian  games.  The 
•  Mount  Olympus,  9,750  feet ;  Mount  Oasa,  .5,250  feet ;  Mount  Pelion,  5,130  feet. 


TUEKEY  OF  THE  GEEEKS.  113 

Yalley  of  Tempe  is  indeed  most  beautiful ;  the  transparent  and  rapid  waters  of  the 
Peneus,  the  foliage  of  the  planes,  the  shrubberies  of  laurel-roses,  and  the  red-hued 
cliffs — these  combine  frequently,  and  form  pictures  which  delight  the  senses  and 
impress  the  mind.  But,  taken  as  a  whole,  this  narrow  and  sombre  valley  fairly 
deserves  its  modem  name  of  Lykostomo,  or  "  wolf's  gorge."  Even  in  Thessaly, 
and,  above  all,  in  the  Pindus,  there  are  localities  more  smiling  and  more  beautiful 
than  this  famous  Valley  of  Tempe. 

The  upper  valleys  of  the  Peneus,  or  Salembria,  abound  in  natural  curiosities, 
such  as  defiles,  sinks,  and  caverns.  To  the  north-west  of  ilount  Olympus,  the 
turbid  Titaresius  flows  through  the  narrow  gorge  of  Saranta  Poros,  or  of  the 
Four  Fords,  which  was  looked  upon  in  former  times  as  one  of  the  gates  of  hell. 

To  the  west,  on  the  Upper  Peneus,  are  the  limestone  hQls  of  Khassia,  rising 
to  a  height  of  5,000  feet,  and  the  elevated  spurs  of  Mount  Pindus,  which  have 
become  celebrated  through  the  "  works  of  the  gods,"  or  theoktkia,  which  surmount 
them.  These  "works"  consist  of  isolated  towers,  crags,  and  pillars,  the  most  famous 
amongst  them  being  those  on  the  banks  of  the  Peneus,  not  far  from  Trikala. 
Zealous  followers  of  Simeon  the  Stylite  conceived  the  idea  of  building  their 
monasteries  on  the  tops  of  some  of  the  larger  of  these  natural  columns  or  pedestals. 
Perched  on  these  heights,  and  condemned  never  to  leave  them,  they  receive  their 
provisions  and  visitors  in  a  basket  attached  to  the  end  of  a  long  rope,  and  hoisted 
aloft  by  means  of  a  windlass.  An  aerial  voyage  of  no  less  than  220  feet  has 
to  be  performed  in  order  to  reach  in  this  manner  the  monastery  of  Barlaam,  and 
visitors  are  at  liberty  to  effect  this  ascent  by  means  of  ladders  fastened  against 
the  rocky  precipices.  The  religious  zeal,  however,  which  led  monks  to  select 
these  eyries  for  their  habitations  is  gradually  dying  out.  Out  of  twenty 
monasteries  which  existed  formerly,  there  remain  now  but  seven,  and  only  one  of 
these,  that  of  Meteora,  is  inhabited  by  as  many  as  twenty  monks. 

Of  all  the  Greek  countries  which  still  remain  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks, 
there  is  none  which  has  so  frequently  sought  to  regain  its  independence,  none  which 
is  claimed  by  the  Hellenes  with  equal  ardour  as  a  portion  of  their  common  father- 
land and  the  cradle  of  their  race.  Thessaly  is,  in  truth,  a  portion  of  Greece,  as  far 
as  the  traditions  of  the  past,  a  common  language,  and  the  general  aspects  of  the 
country  can  make  it  so.  But  it  is  a  more  fertile  country,  its  vegetation  is  more 
luxuriant,  its  landscapes  are  more  smiling  and  delightful.  We  may  not  frequently 
meet  with  the  deep  blue  sky  which  calls  forth  our  admiration  in  Southern  Greece, 
for  the  vapours  rising  from  the  ^gean  Sea  are  attracted  by  Olympus  and  other 
mountains  ;  but  this  moisture  imparts  a  charm  to  distant  views,  and,  by  protecting 
the  earth  against  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  in  summer,  it  contributes  largely 
towards  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

The  Greek  population  of  Thessaly  is  strongly  mixed  with  foreign  elements, 
which  it  has  gradually  assimilated.  Neither  Serbs  nor  Bulgarians  remain  now  iu 
the  country,  although  the  Upper  Titaresius  is  known  as  Yurgari,  or  "  river  of  the 
Bulgarians."  The  Zinzares,  or  Macedo-Walakhs,  who  were  so  numerous  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  now  only  occupy  a  few  villages.     Though  proud  of  theii*  Roman 


114  TURKFA*  IN  EUEOPE. 

descent,  they  gradually  become  Hcllenized.  Most  of  the  words  by  wliit-li  they 
designate  objects  of  civilised  life  are  Greek,  their  priests  and  schoolmasters  preach 
or  teach  in  Greek,  and  thoy  themselves  speak  Greek  in  addition  to  their  native 
language.  They  lose  ground,  moreover,  through  an  excessive  emigration.  Even 
the  cultivators  of  the  soil  amongst  them  have  not  quite  given  up  their  nomadic 
habits,  and  the  roving  life  of  a  herdsman  or  of  a  pedlar  exercises  an  irresistible 
attraction  upon  them.  The  Turks  inhabit  in  compact  masses  the  lowlands  around 
Larissa,  and  that  town  itself  is  Mussulman  to  a  large  extent.  The  liilly  tracts  to 
the  north,  between  the  Inje  Karasu  and  the  Lakes  of  Kastoria  and  Ostrovo,  are 
likewise  inhabited  by  Turks,  who  differ  from  the  Osmanli  of  the  rest  of  the 
empire,  and  are  known  as  Koniarides.  Turks  also  occupy  a  portion  of  !Mount 
Ossa.  It  is  easy  to  tell  from  a  distance  whether  a  village  is  inhabited  by  Turks 
or  by  Greeks.  M.  M^zieres  has  observed  that  "  the  Turks  plant  trees  for  the 
sake  of  shade,  the  Greeks  for  the  sake  of  profit."  Near  the  villages  of  the  former 
we  find  cypresses  and  plane-trees,  near  those  of  the  latter  orchards  and  vineyards. 
The  Koniarides  are  believed  by  some  authors  to  have  come  to  Thcssaly  and 
Macedonia  as  colonists  in  the  eleventh  century,  by  invitation  of  the  Eastern 
emperor.  They  govern  themselves  through  democratic  representative  bodies,  and 
are  respected  by  all,  because  of  their  probity,  their  hospitality,  and  their  rustic 
virtues. 

The  Greeks  are  morally  inferior  to  the  Turkish  peasantry,  but  they  surpass 
them  in  intelligence  and  industry.  In  the  seventeenth  century  there  took  place 
amongst  them  even  a  sort  of  revival  similar  to  the  Renaissance  of  Western  Europe, 
and  the  love  of  art  was  developed  sufficiently  far  to  give  rise  to  a  school  of 
painters  in  the  villages  of  Olympus.  Faithful  to  their  national  traditions  and  the 
instincts  of  their  race,  the  Greeks  of  Thessaly  have  sought  to  organize  themselves 
into  self-governing  commonwealths.  In  their  free  towns,  or  kvphalokhori,  the}''  are 
permitted  to  elect  their  town  councils,  establish  schools,  and  appoint  what  teachers 
they  like.  They  know  how  to  get  the  Turkish  pasha  not  to  meddle  in  their  local 
affairs.  They  pay  the  taxes  demanded  by  the  Turks,  as  their  ancestors  paid  them 
to  Athens  or  some  other  Greek  city,  but  in  every  other  respect  they  are  free 
citizens  governing  themselves.  The  contrast  between  these  independent  common- 
wealths and  the  chiflUis  of  Mussulman  proprietors  cultivated  by  Greek  farmers  is 
most  striking.  The  land  of  the  free  proprietors  is,  as  a  rule,  far  less  fertile  than 
that  included  within  these  chifliks;  yet  it  produces  more,  and  its  cultivators  live  in 
comparative  ease. 

The  Greeks  of  Thessaly  bestow  much  care  upon  the  education  of  growing 
generations.  Even  the  most  miserable  Greek  village  in  the  Pindus  can  boast  of 
a  school,  which  is  visited  by  the  young  people  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen.  As  an 
instance  of  the  commercial  spirit  of  the  Thessalians  we  may  mention  the  Weavers' 
Co-operative  Association,  formed  in  the  last  century  in  the  town  of  Ambelakia, 
delightfully  situated  amongst  orchards  and  vineyards  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Valley  of  Tempo.  This  powerful  association  wisely  limited  its  dividends  to  six 
per  cent.,  and  expended  the  surplus  profits  upon  an  extension  of  its  business.    For 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIEUS.  115 

manj^  years  it  enjoyed  the  greatest  prosperity,  but  the  wars  of  the  empire,  which 
closed  the  markets  of  Germany  against  it,  brought  about  its  ruin.  Co-operatiou 
likewise  partly  accounts  for  the  flourishing  cloth  manufacture  of  the  twenty-four 
wealthy  Greek  villages  on  the  peninsula  of  Magnesia,  to  the  north  of  the  Gulf 
of  Volo.  This  district,  together  ^ith  that  of  Verria,  to  the  north  of  the  Inje 
Karasu,  is  probably  the  most  prosperous  in  all  the  Greek  provinces  of  Turkey, 
and  it  is  at  least  partly  indebted  for  this  prosperity  to  its  happy  geographical 
position,  being  far  away  from  great  strategical  high-roads.* 


lY, — Albania  and  Epirds. 

The  name  of  Shldperij  which  the  Albanians  give  to  the  country  they  inhabit,  is 
supposed  to  mean  "  land  of  rocks,"  and  no  designation  could  be  more  appropriate. 
Stony  mountains  occupy  the  whole  of  the  country,  from  the  frontiers  of  Monte- 
negro to  those  of  Greece.  The  only  plain  of  any  extent  is  that  of  Scutari 
(Shkodra),  to  the  south  of  the  Montenegrin  plateau,  which  forms  the  natural  fron- 
tier of  Albania  towards  the  north.  The  bottom  of  this  depression  is  occupied  by 
the  Lake  of  Scutari;  and  the  Drin,  the  only  river  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  which  is 
navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  sea,  debouches  upon  it.  The  Drin 
is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  White  and  the  Black  Drin,  and  in  former  times 
it  only  discharged  a  portion  of  its  waters  temporarily  into  the  Boyana  River,  which 
drains  the  Lake  of  Scutari.  But  in  I808  it  opened  itself  a  new  channel  opposite  to 
the  village  of  Miet,  about  twenty  miles  above  its  mouth,  and  since  that  time  the 
greater  volume  of  its  waters  flows  in  the  direction  of  Scutari,  frequently  inundating 
the  lower  quarters  of  that  town.  The  marshy  tracts  on  the  Lower  Drin  are 
dangerous  to  cross  during  the  heat  of  summer,  and  the  fevers  of  the  Boyana  are 
the  most  dreaded  along  the  whole  of  that  coast. 

Most  of  the  southern  ramifications  of  the  Bosnian  Alps  are  inhabited  by 
Albanians,  but  they  are  separated  from  their  kinsmen  in  Albania  proper  by  the 
deep  valley  of  the  Drin,  a  kind  of  caiion  similar  to  those  of  the  Eocky  Mountains, 
enclosed  between  precipitous  walls  several  thousand  feet  in  height,  and  hardly  ever 
trodden  by  the  foot  of  a  wanderer.  The  mountain  systems  of  Bosnia  and  Albania 
are  only  indirectly  connected  by  a  series  of  ranges  and  plateaux  stretching  from  the 
mountain  of  Glieb  in  a  south-easterly  direction  as  far  as  the  Skhar,  or  Scardus  of 
the  ancients.  The  crest  of  this  latter  runs  at  right  angles  to  most  of  the  ranges 
of  Western  Turkey,  and  although  its  culminating  point  is  inferior  in  height  to 
those  of  Slav  Turkey,  it  is  the  point  of  junction  between  the  Balkan  and  the 

*  The  following  are  the  priucip  il  towns  of  the  Greek  provincea  of  Turkey,  together  with  the  number 
of  their  inhabitants  : — 


Adrjanople  (Edimeh) 
Saloniki  (Salonica) 
Serea  .        .        ,        . 


L-anssa 
Rodosto 


110,000 

Gallipoli  (Geliboli) 

80,000 

Trikala  (Tirhala) 

30,000 

Demotika    . 

25,000 

Verria 

20,000 

Eoos 

20.000 
11,000 
10,000 
10,000 
7.000 


116  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

mountain  systems  of  Bosnia  and  Albania.  The  Skliar  is  of  great  importance, 
too,  in  the  liyclron^rapliy  of  Turkey ;  for  two  great  rivers,  the  Bulgarian  Morava 
and  the  Yardar,  descend  from  its  flanks,  one  flowing  to  the  Danube,  the  other 
to  the  Gulf  of  Saloniki.  Chamois  and  wild  goats  are  still  met  with  in  the 
Skhar,  as  in  the  Pindus  and  Rhodope,  and  M.  Wiet  mentions  an  animal  known 
to  the  Jlirdits  as  a  hiccrhal,  whieh  appears  to  be  a  species  of  leop;ir(l. 

A  mountain  region,  hardly  3,000  feet  in  elevation,  but  exceedingly  diflicult  of 
access,  rises  to  the  west  of  the  Skhar,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Black  Drin  :  this 
is  the  citadel  of  Upper  Albania,  the  country  of  the  Mirdits  and  Dukajins. 
Enormous  masses  of  serpentine  have  erupted  there  through  the  chalk,  tlie  valleys 
are  hemmed  in  by  bold  precipices,  and  the  torrents  rapidly  run  down  the 
hollowed-out  beds  on  the  exterior  slopes.  As  a  rule,  the  direction  of  the  tortuous 
ranges  of  this  mountain  country  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  southern  spurs  of 
the  Skhar.  They  gradually  decrease  in  height,  enclosing  fine  upland  vallej-s, 
where  the  waters  arc  able  to  accumulate.  The  Lake  of  Okhrida,  the  largest  sheet 
of  water  in  Upper  Albania,  has  not  inaptly  been  likened  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 
Its  waters  are  bluer  even  than  those  of  its  Swiss  rival,  and  more  transparent,  and 
fish  may  be  seen  chasing  each  other  at  a  depth  of  sixty  feet  bcneatli  its  surface : 
hence  its  ancient  Greek  name  of  Lychnidos.  The  delightful  little  town  of 
Okhrida  and  Mount  Pieria,  with  its  old  Roman  castle,  guard  its  shores,  and  the 
white  houses  of  numerous  villages  peep  out  amongst  the  chestnut  forests  which 
cover  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding  hills.  This  lake  is  drained  towards  the 
north  through  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Black  Drin.  If  the  statements  of  the 
inhabitants  may  be  credited,  the  waters  of  the  double  basin  of  Lake  I'rcsba  reach 
Lake  Okhrida  through  subterranean  channels. 

The  isolated  peak  of  Tomor  commands  this  lake  region  on  the  west.  To  the 
south  of  it  commences  the  chain  of  the  Pindus,  locally  known  as  Grammes.  At 
first  of  moderate  height,  and  crossed  by  numerous  mountain  roads  affording  easy 
communication  between  Albania  and  Macedonia,  these  mountains  gradually 
increase  in  height  as  we  proceed  south,  and  exactly  to  the  east  of  Yanina  they 
form  the  mountain  mass  of  Metzovo,  with  which  the  Pindus,  properly  so  called, 
takes  its  rise.  This  mountain  mass  is  inferior  in  altitude  to  the  peaks  of  Bosnia  or 
Northern  Albania,  but  it  is  far  more  picturesque  than  either,  its  slopes  being 
covered  with  forests  of  conifers  and  beech-trees,  and  the  plains  extending  along  its 
foot  having  a  more  southern  aspect.  Mount  Zygos,  or  Lachmon,  which  rises  in  the 
centre  of  this  mountain  mass,  does  not  afford  a  very  extended  panorama,  but  if  we 
climb  the  craggy  peaks  of  the  Pcristcra-Yuna,  or  Smolika,  near  it,  we  are  able  to 
look  at  the  same  time  upon  the  waters  of  the  ^gean  and  Ionian  Seas,  and  even 
the  shore  of  Greece  may  be  descried  beyond  the  Gulf  of  Arta. 

A  famous  lake  occupies  the  bottom  of  the  limestone  basin  at  the  western  foot 
of  the  mountain  mass  of  Metzovo.  This  is  the  Lake  of  Yanina,  and  nowhere  else 
throughout  Epirus  do  we  meet  with  an  equal  number  of  natural  curiosities  as  on 
the  shores  of  this  lake.  Its  depth  is  inconsiderable,  nowhere  exceeding  forty  feet, 
and  it  is  fed  only  by  numerous  springs  rising  at  the  foot  of  the  rocks.     There  is  no 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIEUS. 


117 


visible  outlet  ;  but  Colonel  Leake  assures  us  tbat  each  of  the  two  basins  into  which 
it  is  divided  is  drained  by  a  subterranean  channel.  The  northern  lake  pours  its 
waters  into  a  sink,  or  roiinkova,  and  reappears  towards  the  south-west  as  a 
considerable  river,  which  flows  into  the  Ionian  Sea.  This  is  the  Thyamis  of  the 
ancients,  our  modern  Kalamas.  Farther  to  the  south  the  ancient  Acheron  bursts 
from  the  rocks,  and  having  received  the  nauseous  waters  of  the  equally  famous 
Cocytus,  throws  itself  into  the  "  bay  of  sweet  waters,"  thus  called  on  account  of 
the  large  volume  of  water  discharged  into  it  by  rivers. 

"When  the  waters  of  the  southern  and  larger  basin   of  Lake  Yanina  are  low%  there 
is  but  a  single  effluent,  v  hich  plunges  down  into  an  abyss,  and  in  doing  so  turns 

Fi}f.  Sfi. — Southern  Epirus. 
Accordinf?  to  Kiepert.    Scale  1 : 1,400,000, 


fl^ 

f«^ 

N:  '"^i 

At 

V 

?: 

^1  .  ^r^ 

25  Miles. 


K.  Katavothra. 


the  wheels  of  a  mill.  The  Cj'clopean  ruins  of  the  Pelasgic  city  of  Hellas  command 
this  huge  chasm  with  its  roaring  waters.  The  subterranean  river  reappears  far  to 
the  south,  and  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  But  when  the  level  of  the  lake  is  high, 
four  other  sinks  swallow  up  its  superabundant  waters,  and  convey  them  into 
the  main  channel,  the  direction  of  which  is  indicated  by  a  few  small  lakes.  The 
important  part  played  in  the  mythology  of  ancient  Greece  by  these  subterranean 
effluents,  and  particularly  by  the  infernal  Acheron  and  the  Cocytus,  amply  proves 
the  influence  exercised  by  the  Pelasgians  upon  the  civilisation  of  the  Hellenes. 
The  myths  of  the  Hellopians  became  the  common  propertv  of  all  Greece,  and 
9 


118  TUEICEY  IN  EUROPE. 

there  was  no  temple  in  all  Hellas  more  venerated  than  their  sanctuary  at  Dodona, 
where  the  future  might  he  foretold  by  listening  to  the  rustling  of  the  leaves  of 
sacred  oaks.  This  sacred  grove  existed,  probably,  near  one  of  the  Cyclopean 
towns  so  numerous  in  the  countrj-,  if  not  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  itself.  Some, 
erroneously  no  doubt,  have  looked  for  it  near  the  castle  inhabited  in  the  beginning 
of  this  century  by  Ali  Tepeleni,  the  terrible  Pasha  of  Epirus,  who  boasted  of  being 
a  "  lighted  torch,  devouring  man." 

The  mountains  of  !Suli,  to  the  west  of  the  basin  of  Yanina,  attain  an  altitude 
of  3,500  feet,  but  the  neighbouring  hills  are  of  moderate  height,  though  abrupt  and 
difficult  of  access,  and  near  the  coast  they  sink  down  into  small  rocky  promontories, 
scantily  clothed  with  shrubs  and  overrun  by  jackals.  Swamps  abound  near  the 
shore,  and  during  summer  their  miasmatic  air  spreads  over  the  neighbouring 
villages.  To  the  north  of  the  swamps  of  Butrinto  and  of  the  channel  of  Corfu, 
and  to  the  west  of  the  isolated  peak  of  Kundusi,  however,  the  coast  rises  again,  and 
the  austere  chain  of  the  Chimocra  Mala,  or  Acroceraunii,  extends  along  it.  It  was 
dreaded  by  the  ancients  on  account  of  its  tempests,  and  the  torrents  which  poured 
down  its  sides.  Squalls  and  changes  of  wind  are  frequent  near  the  "  Tongue 
(Linguetta)  of  Rocks,"  the  most  advanced  promontory  of  this  coast,  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Adriatic  Sea.  These  are  the  "  infamous  rocks  "  referred  to  by  the  Roman 
poet,  upon  which  many  a  vessel  suffered  shipwreck.  The  channel  which  separates 
Turkey  at  that  place  from  Italy  has  a  width  of  only  45  miles  ;  it  is  less  than  100 
fathoms  in  depth,  and  at  some  former  period  an  isthmus  may  have  united  the  two 
countries.* 

The  Shkipetars,  or  Albanians,  are  subdivided  into  two  leading  tribes  or  nations, 
the  Tosks  and  the  Gheges,  both  of  whom  are  no  doubt  descended  from  the  ancient 
Pelasgians,  but  have  in  many  places  become  mixed  with  Slavs,  Bulgarians,  and 
Rumanians,  and  perhaps  even  with  other  nations  ;  for  whilst  in  some  tribes  we 
meet  with  the  purest  Hellenic  types,  there  are  others  the  members  of  which  are 
repulsively  ugly.  The  Gheges  are  the  purest  of  their  race,  and  they  occupy, 
under  various  tribal  names,  the  whole  of  Northern  Albania  as  far  as  the  river 
Shkumbi.  The  territory  of  the  Tosks  extends  from  that  river  southward.  The 
dialects  of  these  two  nations  differ  much,  and  it  is  not  easy  for  an  Acroceraunian 
to  understand  a  Mirdit  or  other  Albanian  from  the  north.  Gheges  and  Tosks 
detest  each  other.  In  the  Turkish  army  they  are  kept  separated  for  fear  of  their 
coming  to  blows,  and,  when  an  insurrection  has  to  be  suppressed  amongst  them, 
the  Turkish  Government  always  avails  itself  of  these  tribal  jealousies,  and  is  certain 
of  being  served  with  the  zeal  and  fury  which  hatred  inspires. 

Up  to  the  period  of  the  migration  of  the  barbarians,  the  whole  of  AYestern 
Turkey,  as  far  as  the  Danube,  was  held  by  Albanians.  But  they  were  then 
pushed  back,   and  .tMbania  was  entirely  occupied   by   Servians  and    Bulgarians. 

*  Altitudes  in  Albania  :—  Feet. 

Skhar 8,200 

Tomor 5,413 

Zygos  (Lachmon)  .        .        .        .  5,600 

Smolika 6,970 


Feet. 

Eundiisi          .... 

6,-270 

Acroceraunian  Mountain 

6,700 

LakeOklirida 

2.270 

Lake  of  Yanina 

1,700 

AXBANIANS. 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIEUS.  119 

The  names  of  numerous  localities  throughout  the  country  recall  that  period  of 
obscuration,  during  which  the  name  of  an  indigenous  race  was  not  even  mentioned 
by  the  historian.  But  when  the  Osmanli  had  broken  the  power  of  the  Serb,  the 
Albanians  again  raised  their  heads,  and  ever  since  they  have  kept  encroaching 
upon  their  Slav  neighbours.  In  the  north  they  have  gradually  descended  into 
the  valley  of  the  Bulgarian  Morava,  and  one  of  their  colonies  has  even  penetrated 
into  independent  Servia.  Like  the  waters  of  a  rising  ocean,  they  overwhelm 
the  detached  tracts  of  territory  still  occupied  by  Servians.  This  progress  of  the 
Albanians  is  explained,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  voluntary  expatriation  of  the 
Servians.  Thousands  of  them,  headed  by  their  patriarchs,  fled  to  Hungary,  in 
order  to  escape  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  and  the  Albanians  occupied  the  wastes 
they  left  behind.  The  Servians  still  hold  their  ground  near  Acroceraunia,  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Okhrida,  and  in  the  hills  looking  down  upon  the  fatal  plain  of 
Kosovo,  where  their  ancestors  were  massacred ;  but  they  gradually  become 
Albanians  in  language,  religion,  and  customs.  They  speak  of  themselves  as 
Turks,  as  do  the  Arnauts,  and  apply  the  name  of  Servian  only  to  the  Chris- 
tians dwelling  beyond  the  frontier.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  customs 
of  the  Gheges  agree  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  those  of  their  Slav  neigh- 
bours, and  this  proves  that  there  has  taken  place  a  thorough  blending  of  the  two 
races. 

But  whilst  the  Albanians  are  gaining  ground  in  the  north,  they  are  losing  it 
in  the  south.  A  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Albania,  though 
undoubtedly  of  Pelasgic  origin,  are  Greek  by  language.  Arta,  Yanina,  and  Prevesa 
are  Hellenized  towns,  and  only  a  few  Mohammedan  families  there  still  speak 
Albanian.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  tract  between  the  Pindus  and  the  Adriatic 
coast  ranges  has  become  Greek  as  far  as  language  goes,  and  throughout  the 
mountain  region  extending  westward  to  the  sea  the  inhabitants  are  "  bilingual ; " 
that  is  to  say,  they  speak  two  languages.  The  famous  Suliotes,  for  instance,  who 
talk  Tosk  within  the  bosom  of  their  family,  make  use  of  Greek  in  their  intercourse 
with  strangers.  Wherever  the  two  races  come  into  contact,  it  is  always  the 
Albanian  who  takes  the  trouble  to  learn  Greek. 

This  influence  of  the  Hellenes  is  all  the  more  powerful  as  it  meets  with 
support  amongst  the  Zinzares,  known  also  as  Macedo-Walakhs,  "  Limping " 
Walakhs,  or  Southern  Rumanians,  who  are  met  with  throughout  the  country. 
These  Zinzares  are  the  kinsmen  of  the  Rumanians  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  and 
live  in  a  compact  body  only  on  the  two  slopes  of  the  Pindus,  to  the  south  and  east 
of  the  Lake  of  Yanina.  Like  the  Rumanians  of  the  Danube,  they  are  most 
probably  Latinised  Dacians.  They  resemble  the  "Walakhs  in  features,  character, 
and  disposition,  and  speak  a  neo-Latin  tongue  much  mixed  with  Greek.  The 
Zinzares  in  the  valleys  of  the  Pindus  are,  for  the  most  part,  herdsmen,  and  wander 
away  from  their  villages  sometimes  for  months.  Others  carry  on  trades,  exhi- 
biting much  manual  skill  and  intelligence.  Nearly  all  the  bricklayers  of  Turkey, 
those  of  the  large  towns  excepted,  are  Zinzares;  and  the  same  individual  sometimes 
erects  an  entire  house,  doing  in  turn    the  work  of  architect,  carpenter,  joiner. 


120  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

and  locksmith.     The  Rumanians  of  the  Pindus  are  likewise  esteemed  as  clever 
goldsmiths. 

Their  capacity  for  business  is  great,  and  the  commerce  of  the  interior  of 
Turkey  is  almost  entirely  in  their  hands,  as  is  that  of  the  maiitimc  districts  in 
those  of  the  Greeks.  The  Wulakhs  of  Metzovo  are  said  to  have  stood  formerly 
under  the  direct  protection  of  the  Porte,  and  every  traveller,  whether  Mussulman 
or  Christian,  was  bound  to  unshoe  his  horses  before  he  left  their  territory,  for  fear 
"  of  his  carrying  away  a  clod  of  earth  which  did  not  belong  to  him."  Commercial 
houses  conducted  by  Walakhs  of  the  Pindus  are  met  with  in  every  town  of  the 
Orient,  and  even  at  Vienna  one  of  the  most  influential  banks  has  been  founded  by 
one  of  them.  Abroad  they  are  generally  taken  for  Greeks,  and  the  wealthier 
amongst  them  send  their  children  to  Athens  to  be  educated.  Surrounded  by 
Mussulmans,  the  Zinzarcs  of  the  Pindus  feel  the  necessity  of  attaching  themselves 
to  some  country  through  which  they  might  obtain  their  freedom,  and  they  hope 
for  a  union  with  Greece.  It  is  only  quite  recently  that  they  have  learnt  to  look 
upon  the  Rumanians  of  the  North  and  the  Italians  as  their  kinsmen.  They  do 
not,  however,  set  much  store  upon  their  nationality,  and  have  no  aspirations  as 
a  distinct  race.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  course  of  ages  many  of  these 
Macedo- Walakhs  have  become  Hellenized.  Nearly  all  Thessaly  was  inhabited 
by  Zinzares  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Byzantine  authors  speak  of  that  country  as 
"  Great  Wallachia."  Whether  these  Zinzares  ^ave  emigrated  to  Rumania,  as 
some  think,  or  have  become  assimilated  with  the  Greeks,  the  fact  remains  that  at 
the  present  day  they  are  not  very  numerous  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Pindus. 
Thousands  of  Rumanian  families  have  settled  in  the  coast  towns,  at  Avlona,  Berat, 
and  Tirana,  embracing  ^lobammedanism,  but  still  retaining  their  native  idiom. 

If  we  exclude  these  Zinzares,  the  Greeks  of  Epirus,  the  Servians,  and  the  few 
Osmanli  dwelling  in  the  large  towns,  there  remain  only  the  semi-barbarous  Gheges 
and  Tosks,  w-hose  social  condition  has  hardly  undergone  any  change  in  the  course 
of  three  thousand  years.  In  their  manners  and  modes  of  thought  these  modern 
Albanians  are  the  true  successors  of  the  ancient  Pelasgians,  and  many  a  scene  that 
a  traveller  may  witness  amongst  them  carries  him  back  to  the  days  of  the  Odyssey. 
G.  von  Ilahn,  who  has  most  thoroughly  studied  the  Shkipctars,  looks  upon  theni 
as  veritable  Dorians,  whose  ancestors,  led  by  the  Heraclida',  burst  forth  from  the 
forests  of  Epirus  to  conquer  the  Peloponnesus.  They  are  as  courageous,  as  war- 
like, as  fond  of  dominion,  and  as  clannish  as  were  their  ancestors.  Their  dress, 
likewise,  is  nearly  the  same,  and  the  white  tunic  {fmtanellc)  neatly  fastened 
round  the  waist  fairly  represents  the  ancient  chlamya.  The  Gheges,  like  the 
Dorians  of  old,  are  addicted  to  that  mysterious  passion  which  the  historians  of 
antiquity  have  confounded,  unfortunately,  with  a  nameless  vice,  and  which  links 
men  to  children  by  a  pure  and  ideal  love,  in  which  the  senses  have  no  part. 

There  is  no  modern  people  respecting  whom  more  astounding  acts  of  bravery 
are  recorded  than  of  the  Albanians.  In  the  fifteenth  centurj'  they  had  their 
Scanderbcg,  who,  though  the  theatre  of  his  glory  was  more  circumscribed  than 
that   of  his  namesake  of  Macedonia,  was  hardly  inferior  to  him  in  genius,  and 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIEUS.  121 

certainly  surpassed  him  in  justness  and  goodness  of  heart.  Or  what  nation  has 
ever  exceeded  in  courage  the  Suliote  mountaineers,  amongst  whom  not  an  aged 
man,  a  woman,  or  a  child  was  foimd  to  beg  for  mercy  from  Ali  Pasha's  executioners? 
The  heroism  of  these  Suliote  women,  who  set  fire  to  the  ammunition  waggons,  and 
then  hand  in  hand  precipitated  themselves  from  the  rocks,  or  sought  death  in  the 
mountain  torrents,  chanting  their  own  funeral  song,  will  at  all  times  stand  forth 
in  history  as  an  astounding  fact. 

This  valour,  unfortunately,  is  associated  amongst  many  tribes  with  a  fearful 
amount  of  savageness.  Human  life  is  held  cheap  amongst  these  warlike  popula- 
tions ;  blood  calls  for  blood,  and  victim  for  victim.  They  believe  in  vampires  and 
phantoms,  and  occasionally  an  old  man  has  been  burnt  alive,  on  suspicion  of  his 
being  able  to  kill  by  the  breath  of  his  mouth.  Slavery  does  not  exist,  but  woman 
is  held  in  a  state  of  servitude  ;  she  is  looked  upon  as  an  inferior  being,  having  no 
riffhts  or  mind  of  her  own.  Custom  raises  a  more  formidable  barrier  between  the 
sexes  than  do  walls  and  locked  doors  elsewhere.  A  3'oung  girl  is  not  permitted  to 
speak  to  a  young  man  ;  such  an  act  is  looked  upon  as  a  crime,  which  her  father  or 
brother  may  feel  called  upon  to  punish  by  a  deed  of  blood.  The  parents  sometimes 
consult  the  wishes  of  their  son  when  about  to  marry  him,  but  never  those  of  their 
daughter.  The  latter  is  frequently  affianced  in  her  cradle,  and,  when  twelve  years 
of  age,  she  is  handed  over  to  a  young  man  on  his  presenting  a  wedding  outfit  and 
a  sum  of  money  fixed  by  custom,  and  averaging  twenty  shillings.  From  that 
moment  he  becomes  the  absolute  master  of  his  bride,  though  not  without  first 
going  through  the  farce  of  an  abduction,  as  is  customary  amongst  nearly  all 
ancient  nations.  The  poor  woman,  thus  sold  like  a  slave,  is  bound  to  work  for  her 
husband.  She  is  his  housekeeper  as  well  as  his  labourer,  and  the  national  poets 
compare  her  to  the  "ever-active  shuttle,"  whilst  the  father  of  the  family  is 
likened  to  the  "majestic  ram  marching  at  the  head  of  the  flock."  Yet  woman, 
scorned  though  she  be,  and  brutalised  by  heavy  work,  may  traverse  the  whole 
country  without  fear  of  being  insulted,  and  the  life  of  an  unfortunate  who  places 
himself  under  her  protection  is  held  sacred. 

Family  ties  are  very  powerful  amongst  the  Albanians.  The  father  retains  the 
rights  of  sovereign  lord  up  to  an  advanced  age,  and  as  long  as  he  lives  the 
earnings  of  his  children  and  grandchildren  are  his  own.  Frequently  this  com- 
mimism  continues  after  his  death,  the  eldest  son  taking  his  place.  The  loss  of  a 
member  of  the  family,  and  particularly  of  a  young  man,  gives  rise  to  fearful 
lamentations  amongst  the  women,  who  frequently  swoon  away,  and  even  lose  their 
senses.  But  the  death  of  persons  who  have  reached  the  natural  limits  of  human 
life  is  hardly  mourned  at  all.  The  descendants  of  the  same  ancestor  never  lose 
sight  of  their  parentage.  They  form  clans,  called  })his  or  p/iaras,  which  are 
bound  firmly  together  for  purposes  of  defence  or  attack,  or  in  the  pursuit  of  their 
common  interests.  Brotherhood  by  election  is  known  amongst  the  Albanians,  as 
well  as  amongst  the  Servians  and  other  a'ncient  nations,  and  its  ties  are  as  strono- 
as  those  of  blood.  Young  men  desirous  of  becoming  brothers  bind  themselves  by 
solemn  vows  in  the  presence  of  their  families,  and,  having  opened  a  vein,  they 


122  TURKKY  IX  EUROPE. 

drink  eacb  other's  blood.  The  need  of  these  family  bonds  is  felt  so  strongly  in 
Albania,  that  young  people  brought  up  together  frequently  remain  united  during 
the  remainder  of  tlieir  lives,  forming  a  regular  community,  having  its  days  of 
meetings,  its  festivals,  and  a  common  purse. 

I3ut  in  spite  of  these  family  associations  and  clans,  in  spite  of  the  enthusiastic 
love  which  the  Albanian  bears  his  native  land,  there  exists  no  political  cohesion 
amongst  the  various  tribes.  Tlie  physical  conditions  of  the  country,  no  less  than 
an  unhappy  passion  for  war,  have 'scattered  their  forces,  and  rendered  them 
unable,  consequently,  to  maintain  their  independence.  The  religious  animosities 
between  Mussulman  and  Christian,  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic,  have  contributed 
to  the  like  result. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  majority  of  the  Albanians  are  Mohammedans. 
When  the  Turks  became  masters  of  the  country  the  most  valiant  amongst  them 
fled  to  Italy,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  tribes  that  remained  behind  were  compelled 
to  embrace  Islamism.  Many  of  the  chiefs,  moreover,  turned  Mussulmans,  in  order 
that  they  might  continue  their  life  of  brigandage,  on  pretence  of  carrying  on  a 
holy  war.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  of  the  aristocracy  of  the  country  being  for 
the  most  part  Mohammedan,  and  in  possession  of  the  land.  The  Christian  peasant 
who  tills  it  is  nominally  a  free  man,  but  in  reality  he  is  at  the  mcrcj-  of  his  lord, 
who  keeps  him  at  the  point  of  starvation.  These  Albanian  Mussulmans,  however, 
are  fanatic  warriors  rather  than  religious  zealots,  and  many  of  their  ceremonies, 
particularly  those  connected  with  their  native  land,  differ  in  nothing  from  those 
of  their  Chri-stian  compatriots.  They  have  been  converted,  but  not  convinced,  and 
cynically  they  say  of  themselves  that  their  "  sword  is  wherever  their  faith  is." 

In  many  districts  the  conversion  has  been  nominal  only,  and  zealous  Christians 
have  continued  to  conduct  their  worship  in  secret.  Many  Mohammedans  of  this 
class  returned  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers  as  soon  as  the  tolerance  of  Government 
permitted  them  to  do  so.  As  to  the  w^arlike  mountain  clans,  the  Mirdits,  Suliotes, 
and  Acroceraunians,  they  had  no  need  to  bend  to  the  will  of  the  Turks,  and 
remained  Greek  or  Roman  Christians.  The  boundary  between  Gheges  and  Tosks 
coincides  approximately  with  the  boundary  between  these  two  denominations, 
the  Roman  Catholics  living  to  the  north  of  the  Shkumbi,  the  orthodox  Greeks  to 
the  south  of  the  river.  The  Hellenes  and  Zinzares  in  Southern  Albania  are 
orthodox  Greeks.  The  hatred  between  these  two  denominations  of  Christians  is 
intense,  and  this  is  the  principal  reason  why  the  Albanians  have  not  succeeded  in 
regaining  their  independence,  as  have  the  Servians. 

Southern  Albania  and  Epirus  had  feudal  institutions  up  to  the  dose  of  last 
century.  The  chiefs  of  the  clans  and  the  semi-independent  Turkish  pashas  lived 
in  strong  castles  perched  upon  the  rocks,  from  which  they  descended  from  time 
to  time,  followed  by  bands  of  servitors.  War  existed  in  permanence,  and  property 
changed  hands  continuously,  according  to  the  fortunes  of  the  sword.  Ali  the 
Terrible,  of  Yanina,  put  a  stop  to  this 'state  of  affairs.  lie  reduced  high  and 
low  to  the  same  level  of  servitude,  and  the  central  Government  now  wields  the 
power  formerly  exercised  bj'  lords  and  heads  of  families. 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIKUS.  123 

If  we  would  become  acquainted  with  a  social  condition  recalling  the  Middle 
Ages,  we  must  go  amongst  the  independent  tribes  of  Northern  Albania.  On 
crossing  the  Matis  we  at  once  perceive  a  change.  Every  one  goes  armed  ; 
shepherds  and  labourers  carry  a  carbine  on  the  shoulder  ;  and  even  women  and 
children  place  a  pistol  in  their  belts.  Families,  claus,  and  tribes  have  a  military 
organization,  and  at  a  moment's  notice  are  ready  to  take  the  field.  A  sheep 
missing  in  a  flock,  an  insult  offered  in  the  heat  of  passion,  may  lead  to  war.  Not 
long  since  the  Montenegrin  was  the  most  frequent  disturber  of  the  peace,  for,  shut 
up  in  his  sterile  mountains,  he  was  often  obliged  to  turn  brigand  in  order  to 
sustain  life,  and  laid  under  contribution  the  fields  of  his  neighbours.  The  Turks 
have  at  all  times  nourished  this  hatred  between  Albanians  and  Montenegrins. 
They  recompense  the  warlike  services  of  the  tribes  of  the  border  clans  by 
exempting  them  from  taxation,  and  allowing  them  to  govern  themselves  aecordino- 
to  their  own  laws.  Let  these  immunities  be  touched,  and  they  will  make  common 
cause  with  their  hereditary  foes  of  the  Black  Mountains. 

The  Mirdits  are  typical  of  the  independent  tribes  of  Northern  Albania.  They 
inhabit  the  high  valleys  to  the  south  of  the  gorge  of  the  Drin,  and,  though 
hardly  numbering  12,000  souls,  they  exercise,  in  consequence  of  their  warlike 
valour,  a  most  important  influence  in  all  Western  Turkey.  Their  country  is 
accessible  only  through  three  difficult  defiles,  and  they  hold  command  of  the  roads 
which  the  Turkish  troops  must  follow  when  operating  against  the  Montenegrins. 
The  Sublime  Porte,  well  aware  how  difficult  it  would  be  to  subdue  these  redoubt- 
able mountaineers,  has  endeavoured  to  attach  them,  showering  honours  upon  them, 
and  granting  them  the  most  complete  self-government.  The  Mirdits,  on  their 
side,  though  Christians,  have  at  all  times  fought  most  valiantly  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Turkish  army,  in  Greece  and  the  Morea,  as  wcU  as  against  their  fellow-Christians 
of  Montenegro.  They  are  formed  into  three  "  banners  "  of  the  mountains  and 
two  of  the  plains,  and  in  time  of  war  are  joined  by  the  five  banners  of  Lesh, 
or  Alessio.  The  banner  of  the  renowned  clan  of  Orosh  takes  precedence  of  aU 
others. 

The  country  of  the  Mirdits  is  governed  by  an  oligarchy,  of  which  the  Prince 
or  Pasha  of  Orosh  is  the  hereditary  head.  His  power,  however,  is  merely 
nominal,  for  in  reality  the  country  is  governed  by  a  council  consisting  of  the 
elders  {vecfhianli)  of  the  villages,  the  delegates  of  the  banners,  and  the  heads  of 
clans.  The  proceedings  of  this  council  are  regulated  by  ancient  traditions. 
Wives  are  taken  by  force  from  the  enemy,  for  the  members  of  the  five  banners 
look  upon  each  other  as  relatives,  and  the  Mohammedan  girls  in  the  lowland 
-s-illages  look  forward  with  little  fear  to  their  being  carried  off  by  Mirdit  warriors. 
The  vendetta  is  exercised  in  an  inexorable  manner,  and  blood  cries  for  blood.  A 
violation  of  hospitality  is  punished  with  death.  The  adulteress  is  buried  beneath 
a  heap  of  stones,  and  her  nearest  relative  is  bound  to  deliver  the  head  of  her 
accomplice  to  the  injured  husband.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  education  is  at 
a  very  low  ebb  amongst  these  savages.  There  are  no  schools,  and  in  1860  hardly 
fifty  Christians   of  the  Mirdit  countrv  and  of  the  district  of  Lesh  were  able  to 


124  TUEKEY  IX  EUROPE. 

read.  Agriculture,  nevertheless,  is  in  a  relatively  advanced  state.  The  vallovs  of 
the  sterile  mountains  are  cultivated  with  a  certain  amount  of  care,  and  they 
produce  finer  crops  than  do  the  fertile  plains,  inhabited  by  an  indolent  population. 

By  a  strange  contrast,  these  direct  descendants  of  the  ancient  Pelasgians,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  beginning  of  civilisation  in  Europe,  still  number 
amongst  the  most  savage  populations  of  our  continent.  But  they,  too,  must  yield 
in  time  to  the  influence  of  their  surroundings.  UntQ  recently  the  Epirotes  and 
southern  Shkipetars  left  their  country  only  in  order  to  lead  the  easy  but  degrading 
life  of  mercenaries.  In  the  last  century  the  young  men  of  Acroccraunia  sold 
themselves  to  the  King  of  Naples,  to  be  embodied  in  his  regiment  of  "  Roval 
Macedonians ; "  and  even  in  our  own  days  not  only  Mohammedans,  but  also  Christian 
Tosks,  enter  the  service  of  pashas  and  beys.  These  men,  known  as  Arnauts,  may 
be  met  with  in  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  empire — in  Armenia,  at  Bagdad,  and 
in  Arabia.  On  the  expiration  of  their  term  of  service,  the  majority  of  these 
veterans  retire  to  estates  granted  them  by  Government,  and  this  accounts  for 
the  large  number  of  Arnaut  villages  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the  empire. 

But  wars  are  less  frequent  now,  the  life  of  a  mercenary  offers  fewer  advantages, 
and  increasing  numbers  of  Albanians  leave  their  country  annually  in  order  to  gain 
a  living  abroad  by  honest  labour.  Like  the  Swiss  of  the  canton  of  Grisons,  many 
Shkipetars  descend  from  their  moimtains  at  the  commencement  of  winter  in  order 
to  work  for  wages  in  the  plains.  Most  of  these  return  to  their  mountain  homes  in 
spring,  enriched  by  their  earnings  ;  but  there  are  others  who  remain  abroad  for 
years,  or  who  never  return.  The  advantages  of  a  division  of  labour  appear  to  be  well 
understood  by  these  mountaineers  of  Epirus  and  Southern  Albania,  and  each  moun- 
tain valley  is  noted  for  the  exercise  of  some  special  craft.  One  valley  sends  forth 
butchers,  another  bakers,  a  third  gardeners.  A  village  near  Argyrokastro  supplies 
Constantinople  with  most  of  its  well-sinkers.  The  district  of  Zagori,  perhaps  the 
home  of  the  ancient  Asclepiads,  sends  its  doctors,  or  rather  "  bone-setters,"  into 
every  town  of  Turkey.  JIany  of  these  emigrants,  when  they  become  wealthy, 
return  to  their  native  land,  where  they  build  themselves  fine  houses  in  the  midst 
of  sterile  mountains,  and  these  take  the  places  of  the  old  seigneurial  towers,  which 
were  erected  only  for  purposes  of  defence. 

The  Albanians  are  thus  being  carried  along  by  a  general  movement  of  progress, 
and  if  once  they  enter  into  the  common  life  of  Europe,  we  may  expect  them  to  play 
a  prominent  part,  for  they  possess  a  penetrating  mind  and  much  strength  of 
character.  The  Albanians  enjoy  the  advantage  of  having  ready  access  to  the  sea, 
b'lt  hitherto  they  have  derived  only  small  benefit  from  it,  not  only  owing  to  the 
disturbed  state  of  the  country  and  the  absence  of  roads,  but  also  because  of  the 
alluvial  deposits  formed  by  the  rivers  and  the  malaria  of  the  marshes.  Still, 
making  every  allowance  for  these  disadvantages,  they  hardly  account  for  the 
almost  entire  absence  of  maritime  enterprise.  One  would  scarcely  fancy  these 
Epirotes  and  Gheges  to  be  of  the  same  race  as  those  Hydriote  corsairs  who  launched 
whole  fleets  upon  the  waters  of  the  Archipelago  at  the  time  of  the  war  for  Hellenic 
independence,  and  who  still  maintain  the  foremost  place  amongst  the  mariners  of 


WEALTHY    AESAUT8. 


ALBANIA  AND  EPIEUS.  125 

Greece.  The  ports  of  Albania — Antivari,  Porto  Medua  (one  of  the  safest  on  the 
Adriatic),  Durazzo,  Avlona,  Parga  (lost  in  a  forest  of  citron-trees),  and  even  strong 
Prevesa,  surrounded  by  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  olive-trees — can  boast  but 
of  a  trifling  commerce,  and  two-thirds  of  that  are  carried  on  in  Austrian  vessels 
from  Trieste.  With  the  exception  of  the  Acroceraunians  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Dulcigno,  which  is  the  port  of  Scutari,  no  Mohammedan  Albanian  ventures  upon 
the  sea,  not  even  as  a  fisherman.  In  spite  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  there  are 
hardly  any  articles  to  export.  The  mines  of  the  country  are  imexplored,  agricul- 
ture is  in  a  most  backward  state,  and  in  Epirus  hardly  any  industry  is  known 
except  the  rearing  of  sheep  and  goats. 

At  the  time  of  the  Romans  these  countries  were  equally  forsaken.  There  was 
one  magnificent  city,  Nicopolis,  built  by  Augustus  on  a  promontory  to  the  north 
of  the  modern  Prevesa  to  commemorate  his  victory  at  Actium.  The  only  other 
town  of  importance  was  Dyrrhachium,  called  Durazzo  by  the  Italians.  It  formed 
the  terminus  of  the  Via  Egnatia,  which  traversed  the  whole  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula from  west  to  east,  and  constituted  the  great  highway  between  Italy  and  the 
Orient.  Avlona  may  aspire  one  day  to  take  the  place  of  ancient  Dyrrhachium. 
Its  geographical  position  is  superior  to  that  of  Durazzo,  for  it  is  nearer  to  Italy, 
and  its  deep  and  secure  harbour  enjoys  the  shelter  of  the  island  of  Suseno  and  of 
the  Linguetta  of  Acroceraunia. 

In  the  meantime  all  the  commerce  of  the  country  is  concentrated  in  Scutari 
and  Yanina,  and  in  some  other  towns  of  the  interior.  The  most  considerable 
amongst  the  latter  are  Prisrend,  at  the  foot  of  the  Skhar,  whose  nobles  boast  of 
their  magnificent  dresses  and  fine  weapons;  Ipek  (Pech),  Prishtina,  Jakovitza 
(Yakova),  in  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the  country,  and  on  roads  which  lead 
from  Macedonia  into  Bosnia.  Nearer  the  coast  are  Tirana,  Berat,  and  Elbasan, 
the  ancient  Albanon,  whose  name  recalls  that  of  the  entire  country.  Gvorcha 
(Koritza),  to  the  south  of  the  Lake  of  Okhrida,  is  likewise  a  place  of  much  trade, 
thanks  to  its  position  on  a  road  joining  the  Adriatic  to  the  ^gean  Sea.  Scutari 
and  Yanma  occupy  sites  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  whose  natural  advantages 
could  not  fail  to  attract  a  numerous  population.  Yanina,  the  capital  of  Epirus,  is 
the  more  picturesque  of  these  two  cities.  It  is  situated  on  the  shore  of  a  fine 
lake,  opposite  the  somewhat  heavy  masses  of  the  Pindus,  but  in  sight  of  the 
mountains  of  Greece,  which  are  of  a  "luminous  grey,  glittering  like  a  tissue  of 
silk."  At  the  time  of  AH  Pasha,  Yanina  became  the  capital  of  an  empire,  and  its 
population  then  exceeded  that  of  Scutari.  But  the  latter  has  now  regained  its 
pre-eminence.  It  is  admirably  situated,  and  the  roads  from  the  Danube  and  the 
^gean,  from  the  Lower  Drin  and  the  Adriatic,  converge  upon  it.  Scutari,  or 
Shkodra,  is  the  first  oriental  city  which  a  traveller  coming  from  Italy  meets 
with,  and  the  first  impression  made  by  its  numerous  gardens  enclosed  by  hio-h 
walls,  its  deserted  streets  and  irregular  buildings,  is  sufficiently  curious.  Lonw 
after  he  has  entered  the  town,  the  traveller  will  remain  uncertain  as  to  its 
whereabouts.  But  let  him  climb  to  the  summit  of  the  limestone  rock  surmounted 
by  the  old  Venetian  castle  of  Rosapha,  and  the  most  magnificent  panorama  will 


126  TURKKY  IN  EUROPE. 

unfold  itself  before  his  eyes.  The  domes  of  Scutari,  its  twenty  minarets,  the 
emerald  verdure  of  the  plain,  the  surrounding  anii)liithcatre  of  fantastically  shaped 
mountains,  the  winding  waters  of  the  I5oyana  and  Drin,  and  the  placid  surface  of 
the  lake  glittering  in  the  sun — these  all  combine  to  produce  a  spectacle  of  rare 
magnificence.  The  sea  alone  is  wanting  to  render  this  picture  perfect,  but,  though 
near,  it  is  not  within  eight.* 


V. — The  Iixyriax   Alps,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina. 

Bosnia,  in  the  north-western  corner  of  Turkey,  is  the  Switzerland  of  the 
European  Orient,  but  it  is  a  Switzerland  whose  mountains  do  not  reach  the 
zone  of  perennial  snow  and  ice.  In  many  respects  the  mountain  ranges  of  Bosnia, 
and  of  its  southern  province,  the  Herzegovina,  resemble  those  of  the  Jura.  They, 
too,  are  composed  principally  of  limestone,  and  rise  in  parallel  ridges,  surmounted 
here  and  there  by  sharp  crests.  Like  the  successive  ridges  of  the  Jura,  thej-  are 
of  unequal  height,  and,  taken  as  a  whole,  assume  the  appearance  of  a  plateau 
traversed  by  parallel  furrows,  and  gently  sloping  in  one  direction.  The  most 
elevated  chain  of  Northern  Bosnia  is  that  which  separates  it  from  the  coast  of 
Dalmatia,  and  the  less  elevated  ridges  running  parallel  with  it  gradually  decrease 
in  height  towards  the  north-east,  in  the  direction  of  the  plains  of  the  Save. 

Rocks  not  belonging  to  the  Jurassic  system,  such  as  crystalline  slates,  dolo- 
mites, tertiary  deposits,  and  serpentine,  are  met  with  in  various  localities,  and 
impart  some  variety  to  the  orographical  features  of  Bosnia.  Several  crater-shaped 
depressions  in  the  east  and  south-east  separate  the  mountains  of  Bosnia  from  the 
mountain  masses  of  Scrvia.  The  most  remarkable  amongst  these  plains  is  that 
of  Novibazar,  into  which  numerous  torrents  discharge  themselves,  and  which 
commands  roads  diverging  in  various  directions.  This  is  the  strategical  key  of 
the  country,  and  is  destined  on  this  account  to  become  an  important  railway 
junction. 

Nearly  all  the  mountain  ranges  which  pass  from  Carniola  and  Austrian  Croatia 
into  Bosnia  increase  in  height  as  we  advance  towards  the  centre  of  the  peninsula. 
The  bleached  pyramid  of  the  Durinitor,  close  to  the  northern  frontier  of 
Montenegro,  attains  an  elevation  of  nearly  8,000  feet,  and  the  plateau  surrounding 
it  is  cut  up  by  deep  cavities,  some  of  which,  like  the  troughs  of  the  Herzegovina, 
open  out  in  one  direction,  whilst  others  are  completely  shut  in  by  declivities.  The 
Prokletya,  or  "cursed"  mountain,  still  farther  to  the  south-east,  ri.ses  to  a  height 
even  more  considerable,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  most  formidable  mountain 
masses  of  all  Turkey.  A  huge  depression  occupies  its  centre,  the  bottom  of  which 
is  covered  by  the  Lake  of  Plava.  Even  in  summer  patches  of  snow  may  be  seen 
on  some  of  the  mountains  which   surround  this  abyss.     But  Mount   Kom,   the 

•  Population  of  the  principal  cities  of  Albania  :— Prisrend,  3.5,000  ;  Soutari  (Shkodra),  3.i,000  ;  Yanina, 
25,000;  Jakovitza  (Yakova),  17,000;  Ipek  (Poch),  16,000;  Elbasan,  12,000;  Berat,  11,000;  Priiihtirm, 
11,000;  Tirana,  10,000;  Koritza,  10,000;  Argyrokastro,  8,000;  Prevesa,  7,000  Dulcigno,  7,000; 
Durazzo,  3,000. 


•«1 
3 

o 
o 


m 


id 


THE  ILLYRIAN  ALPS,  BOSNIA,  AND  HERZEGOVINA.  127 

highest  of  all,  never  retains  its  cap  of  snow  during  the  whole  of  the  year,  for  it 
melts  away  before  the  hot  African  winds  to  which  it  is  exposed.  Mount  Kom 
may  possibly  turn  out  to  be  the  culminating  point  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  It  is 
certainly  one  of  the  highest  summits,  and  its  double  peak,  rising  above  the  plateau 
of  Montenegro,  is  descried  from  afar  by  the  mariner  navigating  the  Adriatic.  It 
has  been  ascended  by  several  travellers,  for  its  slopes  are  gentle.* 

The  rivers  of  Bosnia,  like  those  of  the  Jura,  flow  between  parallel  mountain 
ranges  towards  the  north-east,  along  the  furrows  traced  out  for  them  by  nature. 
But  these  calcareous  mountain  ramparts  of  Bosnia,  like  those  of  the  Jura,  are 
broken  up  by  narrow  gorges,  or  ch(fies,  through  which  the  pent  up  waters  find 
a  way  from  furrow  to  furrow.  Instead  of  taking  a  serpentine  course,  as  do  most 
rivers  flowing  through  a  plain,  these  rivers  of  Bosnia  change  from  valley  to  valley 
by  abrupt  bends.  Gentle  and  furious  in  turns,  they  gradually  reach  the  lower 
regions,  and  are  finally  swallowed  up  by  the  Save.  Only  one  river,  the  Narenta, 
finds  its  way  into  the  Adriatic  ;  all  others,  in  accordance  with  the  general  slope  of 
the  country,  flow  in  the  direction  of  the  Danube.  These  river  valleys,  with  their 
sudden  turnings,  would  be  available  as  natural  roads  for  reaching  the  plateau,  if 
most  of  the  gorges  were  not  exceedingly  difficult  of  access  ;  and  until  regular  roads 
have  been  constructed,  as  in  the  cluses  of  the  Jura,  travellers  are  obliged  to  scale 
steep  heights  in  order  to  pass  from  vaUey  to  valley.  It  is  this  want  of  practicable 
roads  which  renders  military  operations  in  Bosnia  so  difficult  and  perilous. 

Great  armies  have  at  all  times  remained  to  the  east  of  the  mountain  masses 
referred  to,  passing  from  the  valley  of  the  Vardar  into  that  of  the  Morava,  whose 
springs  almost  intermingle  their  waters.  In  that  locality  we  meet  with  the 
bed  of  an  ancient  lake,  through  which  flows  the  Sitnitza,  one  of  the  upper 
tributaries  of  the  Servian  Morava :  this  is  the  plain  of  Kosovo,  the  "  field  of  black 
birds,"  which  reminds  all  southern  SlaTs  of  painful  events.  It  was  there  the 
power  of  the  Servians  succumbed  in  1389,  and,  if  we  may  credit  ancient  heroic 
songs,  more  than  100,000  men  perished  in  a  single  day.  Five  hundred  years  have 
passed  away  since  this  great  disaster,  but  the  Slavs  have  never  ceased  to  hope  for 
a  day  of  vengeance,  and  they  look  forward  to  the  time  when  on  this  very  field 
they  may  reconquer  the  independence  they  have  lost. 

The  similarity  between  the  mountains  of  Bosnia  and  of  the  Jura  is  rendered 
complete  by  the  existence  of  grottoes,  sink-holes,  and  subterranean  rivers.  Sink- 
holes from  60  to  100  feet  in  diameter,  and  shaped  like  funnels,  are  met  with 
in  many  localities.  Several  rivers  appear  suddenlj'  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  and, 
after  flowing  on  for  a  few  miles,  disappear  again  beneath  some  portal  in  the  rocks. 
The  table-land  of  the  Herzegovina  especially  abounds  in  phenomena  of  this  kind. 
The  ground  there  is  pierced  by  "sinks,"  or  jmiwi-s,  which  swallow  up  the  water 
derived  from  precipitation.  "  Blind  valleys  "  and  "  troughs  "  present  everywhere 
the  traces  of  currents  of  water  and  of  temporary  lakes,  and  after  heavy  rains  the 
subterranean  basins  sometimes  rise  to  the  surface,  and  a  river  then  flows  for 
a  time  along  the  vallej-.     As  a  rule,  however,  the  inhabitants  are  compelled  to 

•  Altitudes  :— Mount  Kom,  9,3.30  feet ;  Mount  Durmitor,  8,860  feet ;  Glieb,  5,775  feet. 


128 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


collect  the  water  they  require  in  cisteras,  or  to  fetch  it  from  long  distances. 
Elsewhere  the  hydrography  of  the  country  is  subject  to  annual  changes.  Lakes 
which  still  iigiire  upon  our  maps  are  drained  through  subterranean  passages  only 
recently  opened  ;  other  lakes  are  formed  in  consequence  of  some  passage,  which 
formerly  carried  off  the  surface  water,  having  become  choked  with  alluvium. 
Xo  more  curious  river  probably  exists  in  the  world  than  the  Trebinishtit/a,  in  the 
Western  Herzegovina.  It  appears  and  disappears  many  times.  One  of  its  branches, 
flowing  at  one  time  on  the  surface,  at  others  underground,  crosses  the  plains  of 
Kotesi,  in  turns  a  parched  champaign  country  or  a  lake  abounding  in  fish,  and 


Fiff.  37.— SnBTEURAXKAx  Beds  of  the  Affluents  of  the  Nauf.nta. 
Scale  1 : 1,925,000. 


Subterranean  Beds. 
20  Miles. 


enters  the  Narenta.  Other  branches  pass  beneath  the  mountains,  and  gush  out 
near  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  springs  is  that 
of  Ombra,  which  pours  its  waters  into  the  Bay  of  Gravosa,  to  the  north  of 
Ragusa. 

"Where  the  rocks  finish  and  the  trees  appear,  there  begins  Bosnia."  So  .said 
the  Dalmatians  formerl}'.  But  many  parts  of  Bosnia  have  now  lost  their  clothing 
of  verdure.  The  table-lands  of  the  Herzegovina  and  ^lontenegro,  no  less  than 
Dalmatia,  have  been  de^oiled  of  their  forests,  but  Bosnia  proper  still  remains  a 
country  of  woods.  Xearly  one-half  its  area  is  covered  with  forests.  In  the 
valleys  trees  have  almost  disappeared,  for  the  peasant  is  allowed  to  wield  his  axe 


THE  ILLYEIAN  ALPS,  BOSNIA,  AND  HERZEGOVINA.  129 

without  hindrance,  but  in  the  virgin  forests  of  the  mountains  trees  still  abound. 
The  principal  trees  of  Europe  are  met  with  in  these  magnificent  woods  :  walnut- 
trees,  chestnut-trees,  limes,  maples,  oaks,  beeches,  ash-trees,  birches,  pines,  firs, 
and  larches.  Austrian  speculators,  unfortunately,  avail  themselves  of  the  roads 
which  begin  to  open  up  the  interior  of  the  country  to  devastate  these  forests, 
which  ought  to  be  preserved  with  the  greatest  care.  The  song  of  birds  is  but 
rarely  heard  in  these  sombre  woods,  but  wild  animals  abound  in  them.  They 
shelter  bears,  wild  boars,  and  deer,  and  the  number  of  wolves  is  so  large  that  their 
skins  form  one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  Bosnian  commerce.  Taken  as  a 
whole,  Bosnia  ranks  among  the  most  fertile  countries  of  Europe,  and  few  regions 
surpass  it  in  the  beauty  of  its  rural  scenery.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  and 
particularly  near  the  Save,  large  herds  of  hogs,  almost  wild,  roam  through  the 
oak  forests.  Hence  the  epithet  of  "  country  of  hogs "  which  the  Turks  have 
derisively  given  to  Bosnia. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Jews,  the  gipsies,  and  the  few  Osmanli  ofiicials, 
soldiers,  and  merchants  in  the  principal  towns,  the  entire  population  of  the  country 
is  of  Slav  race.  The  inhabitants  of  Kraina,  near  the  Austrian  frontier,  call 
themselves  Croats,  but  they  scarcely  differ  from  the  Bosnian  Servians  and 
Raitzes  of  ancient  Rascia,  now  known  as  the  sandjak  of  Novibazar.  On  the 
classical  soil  of  Ilascia  originated  most  of  those  cherished  jnesmas,  or  popular 
songs,  in  which  the  Southern  Slavs  have  deposited  their  national  traditions.  The 
Herzegovinians,  in  some  respects,  differ  from  their  Bosnian  kinsmen.  They  are 
the  descendants  of  immigrants  who  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Vistula  in  the 
seventh  century.  Like  their  neighbours  the  Montenegrins,  they  are  more  voluble 
in  their  speech  than  the  Servians  proper,  and  make  use  of  numerous  peculiar 
turns  of  expression  and  a  few  words  of  Italian  which  have  glided  into  their 
language. 

Although  most  of  the  Bosnians  are  of  the  same  race,  they  are  divided  by 
religious  animosities,  and  these  account  for  their  state  of  political  servitude.  At 
the  first  glance  it  may  cause  surprise  that  the  Slavs  of  Bosnia  should  not  have 
.succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  like  their  kinsmen  of  Servia.  Their 
country  is  more  remote  from  the  capital,  and  far  less  accessible  than  Servia.  A 
conquering  army  coming  from  the  south  has  not  only  to  force  numerous  defiles, 
but  has  to  contend,  too,  with  the  climate,  which  is  far  more  severe  than  that  of 
the  remainder  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  But,  in  spite  of  these  great  natural 
advantages  from  a  defensive  point  of  view,  every  revolt  has  hitherto  failed 
lamentably.  We  need  not  seek  far  for  the  cause  of  this  :  Christian  and  Moham- 
medan Bosnians  are  at  enmity,  and  the  Christians  themselves  are  split  up  into 
Greeks,  who  are  led  by  their  popes,  and  Romans,  who  follow  blindly  their 
Franciscan  priests.  In  their  divided  state  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to  their 
oppressors,  and  serritude  has  degraded  their  character. 

The  Mussulmans  of  Bosnia  call  themselves  Turks,  but  they  are  Slavs  never- 
theless, like  their  Christian  compatriots,  and,  like  them,  speak  Servian  with  a  large 
admixture  of  Turkish   words.     They  are  the  descendants  of  the  nobles   who,  in 


180  TURKEY  IN  EUROrE. 

the  fiftecntli  and  sixteenth  centuries,  embraced  Islaniisni  in  order  to  save  their 
feudal  privileg'cs.  Thej'  also  number  umonfjst  their  ranks  the  descendants  of 
brigands,  who  changed  their  religion  in  order  to  be  able  to  continue  their  trade 
without  fear  of  punishment.  This  apostacy  gave  to  the  lords  even  greater  power 
over  their  wretched  dependants  than  tliey  liad  formerly  possessed.  The  hatred  of 
caste  was  augmented  by  religious  animosity,  and  they  soon  surpassed  in  fanaticism 
the  Mohammedan  Turks,  and  reduced  the  Christian  peasantry  to  a  condition  of 
veritable  slavery.  A  wild  pear-tree  is  still  pointed  out  near  one  of  the  gates  of 
Sarayevo,  upon  which  the  notables  occasionally  suspended  some  unfortunate  raya 
for  their  amusement.  Whether  bevs  or  spahis,  these  Mohammedan  Bosnians  are 
the  most  retrograde  element  of  old  Turkey,  and  on  several  occasions,  as  in  I80I, 
they  even  rose  up  in  rebellion  in  order  to  maintain  intact  their  ancient  feudal 
privileges.  Sarayevo,  as  a  Mussulman  city,  stood  under  the  special  protection  of 
the  Sultan's  mother,  and  possessed  most  extravagant  privileges,  which  converted 
it  into  a  state  in  the  state  more  hostile  to  Christianity  than  the  Sublime  Porte 
itself. 

Even  in  our  own  days  the  Bosnian  Mussulmans  possess  far  more  than  their 
proper  share  of  the  land.  The  country  is  divided  into  xpahiUk.s,  or  Mussulman  fiefs, 
which  are  transmitted,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  Slavs,  indivisibly  to 
all  the  members  of  the  family.  The  latter  choose  the  most  aged  or  most 
valorous  of  their  members  as  their  bead.  The  Christian  peasants  are  compelled  to 
work  for  these  Mussulman  communities  ;  and,  although  no  longer  serfs,  they  are 
called  upon  to  bear  the  chief  burden  of  taxation  and  of  other  expenses.  It  is 
natural,  under  these  circumstances,  that  the  Christians  of  Bosnia  should  shun 
agriculture  in  order  to  devote  themselves  to  trade,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians  of  the  Herzegovina  and  of  their 
co-religionists  from  Slavonian  Austria.  The  Spanish  Jews  form  communities  in 
the  principal  towns,  where  they  carry  on  their  usual  commercial  pursuits  and 
money-lending  on  tangible  securities.  They  still  talk  Spanish  amongst  themselves, 
and  never  mention  without  emotion  the  name  of  the  country  which  sent  them  into 
exile. 

The  number  of  Mussulmans  hardly  exceeds  one-third  of  the  total  population  of 
Bosnia,  and  they  are  said  to  remain  stationary,  or  even  to  diminish,  whilst  the 
more  fecund  Christians  increase  in  numbers.* 

For  the  rest,  the  Bosnians,  in  spite  of  the  difierences  in  their  religious  belief, 
possess  the  same  natural  gifts  as  their  Servian  kinsmen,  and,  whatever  destinies 
may  be  in  store  for  them,  they  will  in  the  end  rise  to  the  same  level  of  intelli- 
gence. They  are  frank  and  hospitable,  brave  in  battle,  industrious,  thrifty,  of  a 
poetical  turn,  fast  as  friends,  and  true  as  lovers.     The  marital  ties  are  respected, 

•  According  to  Blau  (1872),  Bosnia,  including  the  Herzegovina  and  Rascia,  has  1,150,000  inhabitants, 
comprising  590,000  Grcik  Catholics,  164,000  Homan  Catholics,  378,000  Mussulmans,  12,300  gipsies,  and 
5,700  Jews.  The  same  author  states  the  population  for  1855  to  have  amounted  to  893,384  souls,  including 
286,000  Mussulmans,  .\ccording  to  an  English  Consular  Report  (1873),  the  population  is  1,084,162, 
including  461,048  Mussulmans;  and  according  to  Professor  Yakshity,  1,357,984  souls,  including  474,000 
Mussulmans. 


BULGARIA.  131 

and  even  tte  Mussulmans  reject  the  polygamy  permitted  by  the  Koran.  In  the 
Herzegovina  the  women  enjoy  much  liberty,  and  in  many  villages  there  are  even 
back  doors  to  the  houses,  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  gossip  with  their  neigh- 
bours without  going  into  the  street.  In  Northern  Bosnia,  however,  the  Mussulman 
women  are  wrapped  up  closely  in  white  linen  sheets,  and  are  hardly  able  to  see 
a  few  steps  before  them.  But,  in  spite  of  these  good  qualities,  there  exists  an 
amount  of  barbarity,  ignorance,  superstition,  and  fanaticism,  amongst  Christians 
and  Mohammedans  alike,  which  is  truly  astounding.  Incessant  wars,  tyranny  on 
the  one  side,  and  servitude  on  the  other,  have  brutaHsed  their  manners.  The  want 
of  roads,  the  extensive  forests,  and  the  precipitous  mountains  have  placed  them 
beyond  the  reach  of  civilising  influences.  There  are  hardly  any  schools,  and  the  few 
monasteries  which  supply  their  places  are  of  little  use,  for  the  monks  themselves 
are  steeped  in  ignorance,  and  their  pupils  at  most  learn  to  chant  a  few  hymns. 
Besides  this,  the  immense  consumption  of  slibovifza  undermines  the  health  of 
the  people  and  demoralises  them,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  every  Bosnian — 
man,  woman,  or  child — drinks  annually  no  less  than  thirty-four  pints  of  this 
detestable  plum-brandy. 

It  may  be  matter  for  surprise  that  bustling  towns  should  exist  in  so  rude  a 
country,  but  the  natural  resources  of  Bosnia  are  so  great  that  a  certain  amount  of 
local  trade  was  sure  to  spring  up.  Isolated  as  they  are,  the  Bosnians  are  thrown 
upon  their  own  resources.  They  grind  their  own  flour,  manufacture  their  arms, 
stuffs,  and  iron  implements,  and  the  exchange  of  these  commodities  has  given 
rise  to  commerce  in  the  cities  most  favourably  situated  as  entrepots,  the 
principal  amongst  which  are  Sarayevo,  or  Bosna  Serai,  and  Travnik,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  country,  picturesquely  situated  at  the  foot  of  an  ancient  castle. 
Banyaluka,  which  is  connected  with  Austria  by  a  railway,  has  some  trade  with 
Croatia;  Tuzla  extracts  salt  from  its  abundant  brine  springs;  Zvornik,  which 
guards  the  frontier  of  Servia,  also  carries  on  some  trade  with  that  country  ;  Novi- 
bazar  has  commercial  relations  with  Albania ;  Mostar  and  Trebinye  import  a  few 
articles  from  Dalmatia.  The  populations  of  these  towns  have  not,  however,  been 
solely  attracted  by  trade  and  industry,  for  the  insecurity  of  the  country  has  also 
contributed  to  that  result.  There  is  no  part  of  Europe,  the  neighbouring  Albania 
and  the  polar  regions  of  Scandinax-ia  and  Russia  excepted,  which  is  so  rarely 
visited  by  strangers,  and  this  isolation  will  only  cease  when  the  proposed  inter- 
national railway  shall  have  joined  it  to  Saloniki  and  Constantinople.* 


YI. — Bulgaria. 

The  centre  plateau  of  Turke}'  is  still  amongst  the  least-known  countries  of 
the  Balkan  peninsula,  although  it  is  intersected  by  the  great  highways  whidi 
connect  Thracia  with  Bosnia,  and  Macedonia  with  the  Danube.      This  plateau, 

•  Principal  towns  of  Bosnia  : — Sarayevo,  50,000  inhabitants  ;  Banyaluka,  18,000  inhabitants- 
Zvornik,  14,000  inhabitants;  Travnik,  12,000  inhabitants;  Novibazar,  9,000  inhabitants;  Trebinye. 
9,000  inhabitants;  Mostar,  9,000  inhabitants;  Tuzla,  7,000  inhabitanta. 


132 


TURKEY  IX  EUROPE. 


known  to  the  ancients  as  Upper  Mcesia,  consists  of  a  vast  granitic  table-land,  risings 
to  an  average  height  of  2,000  feet.  Its  surface  is  diversified  by  several  plauinas, 
or  mountain  chains,  of  small  relative  height,  and  by  domes  of  trachyte,  the 
remains  of  ancient  volcanoes.  Its  numerous  depressions  were  formerly  filled  with 
water,  and  the  contours  of  the  ancient  lakes  can  still  be  traced.  They  have 
been  gradually  filled  up  by  alluvium,  or  drained  by  rivers.  The  most  remarkable 
amongst  these  ancient  lacustrine  basins  are  now  represented  by  the  fertile  plains 
of  Nish,  Sofia,  and  Ikhtiman. 

The  superb   syenitic  and    porphyritic   mountain   group  of  Vitosh   forms  the 

Fig.  38. — Mount  Vitosh  and  its  Environs. 

.VcrovJinp  to  F.  Tim  Hochstttter.     Scale  1  :  l.nss.OOO. 


20  Miles. 


eastern  bastion  of  the  Mccsian  plateau.  Immediately  to  the  cast  of  it  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Isker  pierces  the  whole  of  the  Balkan  Mountains,  and,  crossing  the 
plain  of  Sofia,  takes  its  course  in  the  direction  of  the  Danube.  The  upper  valley 
of  this  river  and  the  plain  mentioned  form  the  true  geographical  centre  of 
European  Turkey.  From  Sofia  diverge  some  of  the  most  important  roads  of  the 
peninsula,  one  leading  through  the  valley  of  the  Isker  to  the  Lower  Danube,  another 
along  the  Morava  valley  into  Servia,  a  third  by  way  of  the  Maritza  into  Thracia, 
and  a  fourth  down  the  Struma  into  Macedonia.  It  is  said  that  Constantino  the 
Great,  struck  by  these  important  natural  advantages  of  Sofia,  then  called  Sardica, 
thought  of  making  it  the  capital    of  his  empire. 


I.,l,l|ll|i|!lfi|; 


O 

2; 


BULGARIA.  133 

The  Turks  appl}'  the  name  of  Balkans  to  all  the  mountain  ranges  of  the 
peninsula,  but  geographers  restrict  that  term  to  the  Haemus  of  the  ancients.  This 
mountain  rampart  begins  to  the  east  of  the  basin  of  Sofia.  It  does  not  form  a 
regular  chain,  but  rather  an  elevated  terrace  sloping  down  gently  in  the  direction 
of  the  Danube,  whilst  towards  the  south  it  presents  an  abrupt  slope,  it  appearing 
almost  as  if  the  plateau  on  that  side  had  suddenly  sunk  to  a  lower  level.  The 
Balkan  consequently  presents  the  appearance  of  a  chain  only  when  looked  at 
from  the  south.  But  its  contours  even  there  are  only  slightly  undulating  ;  there 
are  neither  abrupt  projections  nor  rocky  pyramids,  and  the  prevailing  character  is 
that  of  long-stretched  mountain  ridges.  The  porphyritic  mountain  group  of 
Chatal,  which  rises  to  the  south  of  the  principal  chain,  constitutes  the  only 
exception  to  this  gentleness  of  contour.  Though  inferior  in  height  to  the  summits 
of  the  Balkan,  its  steep  precipices,  slashed  crests,  and  chaotic  rock  masses  strike 
the  beholder,  and  the  contrast  between  this  mass  of  erupted  rock  and  the  gentle 
slopes  of  the  calcareous  hills  which  surround  it  is  very  great. 

The  uniformity  of  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Balkan  is  such  that,  in  many 
places,  a  traveller  is  able  to  reach  the  crest  without  having  come  in  sight  of 
mountains.  When  the  woods  have  disappeared  from  the  Balkan,  these  undulating 
slopes  will  be  deprived  of  their  greatest  charm  ;  but,  as  long  as  the  forests  ornament 
them  as  now,  the  country  will  remain  one  of  the  most  delightful  in  Turkey.  Run- 
ning streams  flow  through  each  valley,  bordered  by  pastures  as  brilliantly  green 
as  are  those  of  the  Alps  ;  the  villages  are  built  in  the  shade  of  beech-trees  and 
oaks ;  and  nature  everywhere  wears  a  smiling  aspect.  But  the  plains  which  extend 
to  the  Danube  are  barren,  and  sometimes  not  a  single  tree  is  visible.  The 
inhabitants,  deprived  of  wood,  are  dependent  upon  cow-dung  dried  in  the  sun 
for  their  fuel,  and  they  dig  for  themselves  holes  in  the  ground,  where  they  seek 
protection  from  the  cold  of  winter. 

The  core  of  the  Balkan,  between  the  basin  of  Sofia  and  that  of  SHvno,  consists  of 
granite,  but  the  terraces  which  descend  towards  the  Danube  present  every  geological 
formation,  from  the  metamorphic  to  the  most  recent  rocks.  The  cretaceous  formation 
occupies  the  largest  area  in  Bulgaria,  and  the  rivers  rising  in  the  moimtains,  in 
traversing  it,  form  picturesque  valleys  and  defiles.  Ancient  fortresses  defend  each 
of  these  valleys,  and  the  towns  have  been  built  where  they  debouch  upon  the 
plain.  Tirnova,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  tsars  of  Bulgaria,  is  the  most  remark- 
able of  these  old  bulwarks  of  defence.  The  Yantra,  on  debouching  there  from  the 
mountains,  winds  about  curiously  ;  steep  cliS's  form  an  amphitheatre,  in  the  centre 
of  which  rise  two  precipitous  isolated  rocks,  crowned  formerly  by  walls  and  towers. 
The  houses  of  the  town  are  built  on  the  slopes,  and  its  suburbs  extend  along  the 
foot  of  the  cliffs. 

A  singular  parallelism  has  been  noticed  on  the  northern  slopes  of  Balkan.  The 
elevated  mountain  saddles,  crests  of  secondary  chains,  geological  formations,  the 
faults  which  give  rise  to  the  meandering  of  the  rivers,  and  even  the  Danube  itself, 
all  follow  the  same  direction,  from  west  to  east.  As  a  consequence,  each  of  the 
parallel  valleys  descending  from  the  Balkans  offers  similar  features ;  the  popula- 
10 


184  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

tion  is  distributed  in  the  same  manner  ;  and  the  towns  occupy  analogous  positions. 
The  valley  of  the  Lorn  offers  the  only  exception  to  the  rule,  for  its  direction  is 
towards  the  north-west.  It  debouches  upon  the  Danube  at  liustchuk,  and  its 
green  orchards  and  gardens  are  hemmed  in  by  dazzling  white  cliffs  of  chulk  rising 
to  a  height  of  about  100  feet. 

The  symmetry  would  be  almost  complete  in  Northern  Turkey  if  it  were  not 
for  the  detached  arid  hills  of  the  Dobruja,  which  force  the  Danube  to  make  a  wide 
detour  to  the  north.  Rising  in  the  low  and  swampy  delta  of  the  Danube,  these  hills 
appear  to  be  much  higher  than  they  are.  In  reality  they  do  not  exceed  1,(550  feet 
in  height.  It  is  possible  that  during  some  very  remote  geological  epoch  the 
Danube  took  its  course  to  the  south  of  these  hills,  through  the  depression  which 
has  been  utilised  for  the  construction  of  the  first  Turkish  railway.  Trajan,  who 
feared  that  the  Goths  might  obtain  a  footing  in  this  remote  corner  of  the  Roman 
empire,  constructed  one  of  those  lines  of  fortifications  here  which  are  known 
throughout  the  countries  of  the  Lower  Danube  as  Trajan's  Walls.  Remains  of 
walls,  ditches,  and  forts  may  still  be  traced  along  the  banks  of  the  marshes,  and  on 
the  heights  commanding  them.  This  country  of  the  Dobruja  is  the  "  savage 
hyperborean  region  "  where  Ovid,  exiled  from  Rome,  wept  for  the  splendours 
of  the  capital.  The  port  of  Tomi,  the  place  of  his  banishment,  is  the  modern 
Kustenje. 

To  the  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Burgas,  which  is  the  westernmost  extremity  of  the 
Black  Sea,  rise  the  fine  porphyry  mountains  which  terminate  in  the  superb  Cape  of 
Emineh.  They  are  sometimes  described  as  an  eastern  prolongation  of  the  Balkan, 
but  erroneously,  for  the  ancient  lacustrine  basin  of  Karnabat,  now  traversed  by  a 
railway,  separates  them  from  the  system  of  the  Hicmus.  Tbe  granitic  plateaux  and 
mountains  of  Tunja  and  Stranja,  which  command  the  wide  plain  of  Thracia  on  the 
north,  are  likewise  separate  mountain  ranges. /The  Southern  Balkan  is,  in  reality, 
without  ramifications  or  spurs,  except  in  the  west,  where  the  mountains  of 
Ikhtiraan  and  of  Samakov,  so  rich  in  iron  ore  and  thermal  springs,  and  other 
transverse  chains,  connect  it  with  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Rhodope.  The  upper 
basin  of  the  Maritza  River,  enclosed  between  the  Balkan  and  the  Rhodope,  has  the 
shape  of  an  elongated  triangle,  whose  apex,  directed  towards  the  plain  of  Sofia, 
indicates  the  point  of  junction  between  the  two  systems.  The  whole  of  this 
triangular  depression,  with  its  lateral  ramifications,  was  formerly  occupied  by 
lakes,  now  converted  into  bottom-lands  of  marvellous  fertility.  The  passes  near 
the  apex  of  this  triangle  are  naturally  points  of  the  highest  strategical  and  com- 
mercial importance.  Through  one  of  them,  still  marked  by  ancient  fortifications, 
and  known  as  Trajan's  Gate,  passed  the  old  Roman  highwaj',  and  there,  too,  the 
railway  now  in  course  of  construction  will  cross  the  summit  between  the  two  slopes 
of  the  peninsula.  This  is  the  true  "  gateway  of  Constantinople,"  and  from 
the  most  remote  times  nations  have  fought  for  its  possession.  The  numerous 
tumuli  scattered  over  the  neighbouring  plains  bear  witness  to  many  a  bloody 
struggle. 

The  spurs  of  the  Rhodope  intermingle  with  those  of  the  Balkan,  and  the  lowest 


BULGAEIA.  135 

pass  which  separates  the  two  still  exceeds  3,000  feet  in  elevation.  The  Rilo  Dagh, 
the  most  elevated  mountain  mass  of  the  Rhodope,  boldly  rises  at  its  northern 
extremity,  and,  to  use  the  expression  of  Earth,  forms  the  shoulder-blade  of  junc- 
tion. Its  heio-ht  is  9,580  feet.  It  rises  far  beyond  the  region  of  forests,  and  its 
jao-ged  summits,  pyramids,  and  platforms  contrast  strikingly  with  the  rounded 
outlines  of  the  Balkan.  But  the  lower  heights,  surrounded  by  this  imposing 
amphitheatre  of  grand  summits,  are  covered  with  vegetation.  Forests  of  pines, 
larches,  and  beech-trees,  the  haunts  of  bears  and  chamois,  alternate  with  clumps  of 
trees  and  cultivated  fields,  and  the  villages  in  the  valleys  are  surrounded  by 
meadows,  vineyards,  and  oaks.  Picturesque  cupolas  of  numerous  monasteries 
peep  out  amongst  the  verdure :  to  their  existence  the  mountain  owes  its  Turkish 
name  of  Despoto  Dagh,  i.e.  "mountain  of  the  parsons."  The  Rilo  Dagh,  likewise 
famous  on  account  of  its  monasteries,  has  altogether  the  aspect  of  the  Swiss  Alps. 
The  moist  winds  of  the  Mediterranean  convey  to  it  much  snow  in  winter  and 
spring,  but  in  summer  the  clouds  discharge  only  torrents  of  rain,  and  the  snow 
rapidly  disappears  from  the  flanks  of  the  mountains.  These  sudden  rain-storms 
are  amongst  the  most  remarkable  spectacles  to  be  witnessed.  In  the  forenoon  the 
mist  which  hides  the  tops  of  the  mountains  grows  dense  by  degrees,  and  heavy 
copper-coloured  clouds  collect  on  the  slopes.  About  three  in  the  afternoon  the 
rain  begins  to  pour  down,  the  clouds  grow  visibly  smaller,  first  one,  then  another 
summit  is  seen  through  a  rent  in  the  watery  vapours,  until  at  last  the  air  has 
become  purified,  and  the  mountains  are  lit  up  in  the  sunset. 

To  the  south  of  the  Rilo  Dagh  rises  the  mountain  mass  of  Perim,  hardly 
inferior  to  it  in  height.  This  is  the  Orbelos  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  the  rings 
to  which  Noah  made  fast  his  ark  when  the  waters  subsided  after  the  deluge  are 
still  shown  there,  and  even  Mussulman  pilgrims  pay  their  devotions  at  this 
venerated  spot.  It  is  the  last  high  summit  of  the  Rhodope.  The  mountains  to 
the  south  rapidly  decrease  in  elevation,  though  the  granitic  formation  to  which 
they  belong  is  spread  over  a  vast  extent  of  country  from  the  plains  of  Thracia  to 
Albania.  The  extent  of  the  hilly  region  connected  with  the  Rhodope  is  still 
further  increased  by  numerous  groups  of  extinct  volcanoes,  which  have  poured 
forth  vast  sheets  of  traehytic  lava.  The  rivers  which  flow  from  the  central  plateau 
of  Turkey  into  the  ^gean  Sea  have  cut  for  themselves  deep  passages  through  these 
granites  and  lavas,  the  most  famous  amongst  which  is  the  "Iron  Gate"  of  the 
Vardar,  or  Demir  Kapu,  which  formerly  figured  on  our  maps  of  Turkey  as  a  large 
town. 

The  aspect  of  the  crystalline  mountain  masses  to  the  west  of  the  Vardar  is 
altogether  of  an  Alpine  character,  for  the  peaks  not  only  attain  a  high  elevation, 
but  snow  remains  upon  them  during  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  The 
Gornichova,  or  Nije,  to  the  north  of  Thessaly,  rises  to  a  height  of  6,560  feet ;  and 
the  Peristeri,  whose  triple  summit  and  snow-clad  shoulders  have  been  likened  to 
the  spread-out  wings  of  a  bird,  and  which  rises  close  to  the  city  of  Bitolia,  or 
Monastir,  is  more  elevated  still.  The  mountains  of  ancient  Dardania  enclose 
extensive  circular  or  elliptical  plains,  and  the  most  remarkable  amongst  these, 


136  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

namely,  that  of  Monastir,  has  been  compared  by  Grisebach,  the  geologist,  to  one  of 
those  huge  crater  lakes  which  the  telescope  has  revealed  to  us  on  tlic  surface 
of  the  moon.  In  most  of  these  plains  we  meet  with  swamps  or  small  lakes, 
the  only  remains  of  the  sheets  of  water  which  at  one  time  covered  them. 
The  most  extensive  of  these  lakes  is  that  of  Ostrovo.  The  Lake  of  Kastoria 
resembles  the  filled-up  crater  of  a  volcano.  In  its  centre  rises  a  limestone 
hill  joined  to  the  shore  by  an  isthmus,  upon  which  is  built  a  picturesque  Greek 
town. 

According  to  Viquesnel  and  Hochstetter,  traces  of  glaciers  do  not  exist  in 
any  of  these  ancient  lacustrine  basins,  or  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountains.  It  is 
certainly  remarkable  that  whilst  other  European  mountains — as,  for  instance,  the 
Vosges  and  the  mountains  of  Auvergne — have  passed  through  a  glacial  epoch,  the 
far  more  elevated  Peristeri,  Rilo  Dagh,  and  Balkan,  under  about  the  same  latitude 
as  the  Pyrenees,  should  never  have  had  their  valleys  filled  by  moving  rivers 
of  ice.* 

All  the  large  rivers  of  European  Turkey  belong  to  the  Bulgarian  regions  of 
the  Balkan  or  Hwmus.  In  Bosnia  there  are  merely  small  parallel  rivers  flowing  to 
the  Save ;  Albania  has  only  turbulent  torrents  forcing  their  way  through  wild 
gorges,  like  the  Drin  ;  but  the  Maritza,  the  Strymon  or  Karasu,  the  Vardar,  and 
the  Inje  Karasu,  which  descend  from  the  southern  flanks  of  the  Balkans,  or 
originate  in  the  crystalline  mountain  masses  of  the  Rhodope,  are  large  rivers, 
which  bear  comparison  with  the  tranquil  streams  of  Western  Europe.  As  yet  we 
know  but  little  about  their  mode  of  action.  The  volume  of  water  discharged  by 
them  has  never  been  measured,  and  they  are  hardly  made  use  of  for  purposes  of 
navigation  or  irrigation.  They  all  traverse  ancient  lake  basins,  which  they  have 
filled  up  gradually  with  alluvium,  and  converted  into  fertile  plains.  This  work  of 
filling  up  still  goes  on  in  the  lower  portions  of  these  fluvial  valleys,  whei-e 
extensive  marshes,  and  even  gradually  shrinking  lakes,  abound.  One  of  these 
lakes,  the  Takhino,  through  which  the  Strymon  flows  before  it  enters  the  -ZEgean 
Sea,  is  said  to  be  the  Prasias  of  Herodotus,  and  its  aquatic  villages  were  no  doubt 
similar  to  the  pile  dwellings  discovered  in  nearl}'  all  the  lakes  of  Central 
Europe. 

The  Danube,  to  the  north  of  the  Dobruja,  performs  an  amount  of  geological 
work,  in  comparison  with  which  that  of  the  Maritza,  the  Strymon,  and  Vardar 
sinks  into  insignificance.  That  mighty  river  annually  conveys  to  the  Black  Sea 
a  volume  of  water  far  in  excess  of  that  which  is  carried  down  the  rivers  of  all 
France,  and  the  solids  which  it  holds  in  suspension  are  sufficient  to  cover  an  area 
of  ten  square  miles  to  a  depth  of  nine  feet.  This  enormous  mass  of  sand  and  clay 
is  annually  deposited  in  the  swamps  and  on  the  banks  of  the  delta,  and  the  slow 
but  steady  growth  of  the  latter  is  thus  sufficiently  explained.     Even  the  ancients 

•  Altitudes  in  Bulgaria,  according  to  Hochstetter,  Viquesnel,  Boue,  Barth,  and  others : — Vitosh, 
8,080  feet ;  Balkan,  mean  height,  5,600  feet ;  Chatal,  3,600  feet ;  hills  of  the  Dobruja,  1,650  feet ; 
Trajan's  Gale,  2,625  feet;  Pass  of  Dubnitza,  3,560  feet ;  Rilo  Dagh,  9,500  feet ;  Perim  Dagh,  7,875  feet; 
Gomichova,  or  Nije,  6,5G0  feet ;  Peristeri,  7,700  feet ;  basin  of  Sofia,  1,710  feet ;  basin  of  Monastir,  1,820 
feet;  Lake  of  Ostrovo,  1,680  feet ;  Lake  of  Kastoria,  2,050  feet. 


BULGAEIA. 


137 


anticipated  a  time  when  the  Black  Sea  would  be  converted  into  a  shallow  pond 
abounding  in  sand-banks,  and  it  must,  therefore,  afford  some  consolation  to  our 
mariners  to  be  told  that  six  million  years  must  pass  before  the  alluvium  carried 
down  the  river  will  fill  the  whole  of  the  Black  Sea. 

The  large  triangular  plain  which  the  Danube  has  conquered  from  the  sea  has 
not  yet  fully  emerged  from  the  waters.  Lakes,  and  the  remains  of  ancient  bays, 
half-obliterated  branches  of  the  Danube,  and  the  ever-changing  beds  of  rivulets, 
have  converted  this  delta  into  a  domain,  half  land,  half  sea.  More  elevated  tracts, 
consolidated  by  the  attack  of  the  waves,  rise  here  and  there  above  the  melancholy 
mire  and  reeds,  and  bear  a  dense  vegetation  of  oaks,  olives,  and  beeches.     "Willows 


Fig.  39. — The  Delta  of  the  Danube. 
Scale  1 : 1,500,000. 


So-  28' 


1„-  So' 


.  20  Miles. 


fringe  most  of  the  branches  of  the  river  which  take  their  winding  course  through 
the  delta.  Twenty  years  ago  the  Danube  had  six  mouths ;  it  has  now  only 
three. 

After  the  Crimean  war  the  "Western  powers  determined  that  the  Kilia  branch, 
which  conveys  to  the  Black  Sea  more  than  half  the  volume  of  the  Danube,  should 
thenceforth  form  the  boundary  between  Rumania  and  Turkey.  The  Sultan  thus 
possesses  not  only  the  whole  of  the  delta,  which  has  an  area  of  about  4,000  square 
miles,  but  also  the  only  mouth  of  the  river  which  makes  the  possession  of  that 
territory  of  any  value  to  him.  The  mouth  of  the  Kilia  is  closed  by  a  bar  of  sand, 
■which  does  not  even  permit  small  vessels  to  enter  it. 


138  TURKKT  IN  EUROPE. 

The  southern  mouth,  that  of  KhidriUis,  or  St.  George,  is  likewise  inaccessible. 
The  centre  branch,  that  of  the  Siilina,  which  has  served  the  purposes  of  commerce 
from  time  immemorial,  can  alone  be  entered  by  vessels.  lUit  even  this  channel 
would  not  be  practicable,  in  the  case  of  large  vessels,  if  our  engineers  had 
not  improved  its  facilities  of  access.  Formerly  the  depth  of  water  on  the  bar 
hardly  exceeded  a  fathom  during  April,  June,  and  July ;  and  even  at  times  of 
flood  was  at  most  two  or  three  fathoms.  But  by  building  convergent  jetties, 
which  guide  the  waters  of  the  river  into  the  deep  sea,  the  depth  of  water  has 
been  increased  to  the  extent  of  ten  feet,  and  vessels  drawing  twenty  feet  can 
enter.  Sulina  is  now  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  ports  of  Europe,  and 
a  highly  jirized  harbour  of  refuge  on  the  lUack  Sea,  which  is  so  much  dreaded  by 
mariners  on  account  of  its  squalls.  We  are  indebted  for  this  great  public  work 
to  an  international  commission,  which  enjoys  almost  sovereign  rights  over  the 
Danube  as  high  up  as  Is;ikcha.* 

The  Bulgarians  inliabit  the  country  to  the  .south  of  the  Danube  as  fur  as  the 
slopes  of  Mount  Pindus,  excepting  only  certain  detached  territories  in  the  occu- 
pation of  Turks,  Wallachians,  Zinzares,  or  Greeks.     In  the  Middle  Ages  their 

Fig.  40. — Comparative  Dischakoe  of  the  Mouths  of  the  Danvhe. 


Kiliii  Mouth.  Sulina  Mouth.  St.  George'a  Mouth. 

kingdom  was  even  more  extensive,  for  it  included  the  whole  of  Albania,  and  had 
Okhrida  for  its  capital. 

The  origin  of  the  Bulgarians  has  been  a  theme  of  frequent  discussion.  The 
Bulgarians  of  the  Bj'zantinos,  who  laid  waste  the  plains  of  Thracia  about  the 
close  of  the  fifth  century,  and  whose  name  became  a  term  of  opprobrium,  probably 
were  a  Ugrian  race,  like  the  Huns,  and  spoke  a  language  akin  to  that  of  the 
Samoyeds.  The  name  of  these  savage  conquerors  is  sometimes  derived  from  the 
Volga,  on  the  banks  of  which  they  formerly  dwelt ;  but  their  manners  and 
appearance  have  undergone  a  singular  change,  and  nothing  now  indicates  their 
origin.  Originally  Turanians,  they  have  been  converted  into  Slavs,  like  their 
neighbours  the  Servians  and  Russians. 

This  rapid  conversion  of  the  Bulgarians  into  Slavs  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able ethnological  phenomena  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Even  in  the  ninth  century  the 
Bulgarians  had  adopted  the  Servian  language,  and  soon  afterwards  they  ceased 
to  speak  their  own.  Their  idiom  is  less  polished  than  that  of  the  Servians,  and, 
possessing  no  literature,  has  not  become  fixed.  The  purest  Bulgarian,  it  is  said, 
may  be  heard  iu  the  district  of  Kalofer,  to  the  south  of  the  Balkan.  The  gradual 
transformation  of  the  Bulgarians  into  Slavs  is  ascribed  by  some  authors  to  the 
•  Cleared  from  Sulina  (1873),  1,870  vessels  of  632,000  tone.     Value  of  cereala  exported,  £6,000,000. 


BULGAEIANS. 
Christian  from  Vlddin.        Christian  Ladles  from  Skodra.         Mohammedans  from  Tlddln.         A  native  of  Koyutepe. 


BULGARIA.  139 

prodigious  facility  for  imitation  possessed  by  that  people  ;  but  it  is  simpler  to 
assume  that,  in  course  of  time,  the  conquering  Bulgarians  and  the  conquered 
Ser^'ians  became  amalgamated,  and  that,  whilst  the  former  gave  a  name  to  the 
new  nation,  the  latter  contributed  their  language,  their  manners,  and  physical 
features.  Thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Bulgaria  must  now  be 
looked  upon  as  members  of  the  Slavonian  family  of  nations.  Together  with  the 
Servians,  Croats,  and  Herzegovinians,  they  are  the  most  numerous  people  of 
European  Turkey ;  and,  if  the  succession  to  the  dominion  of  the  Turks  is  to  be 
decided  by  numbers  alone,  it  belongs  to  the  Servo-Bulgarians,  and  not  to  the 
Greeks. 

The  Bulgarians,  as  a  rule,  are  not  so  tall  as  their  neighbours  the  Servians ; 
they  are  squat,  strongly  built,  with  a  large  head  on  broad  shoulders.  Lejean, 
himself  a  Breton,  and  others,  consider  that  they  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to 
the  peasants  of  Brittany.  In  several  districts,  and  notably  in  the  environs  of 
Philippopoli,  they  shave  the  head,  a  tuft  of  hair  alone  excepted,  which  they 
cultivate  and  dress  into  a  tail  as  carefully  as  the  Chinese.  Greeks  and  Wallachians 
ridicule  them,  and  many  proverbial  expressions  refer  to  their  want  of  intelligence 
and  polish.  This  ridicule,  however,  they  hardly  deserve.  Less  vivacious  than 
the  Wallachian,  or  less  supple  than  the  Greek,  the  Bulgarian  is  certainly  not 
deficient  in  intelligence.  But  bondage  has  borne  heavily  upon  him ;  and  in  the 
south,  where  he  is  oppressed  by  the  Turk  and  fleeced  by  the  Greek,  he  looks 
unhappy  and  sad  ;  but  in  the  plains  of  the  north  and  the  secluded  mountain 
villages,  where  he  has  been  exposed  to  less  suffering,  he  is  jovial,  fond  of 
pleasure,  fluent  of  speech,  and  quick  at  repartee.  The  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Balkan,  perhaps  owing  to  a  greater  infusion  of  Servian  blood,  are 
better-looking,  too,  than  other  Bulgarians,  and  dress  in  better  taste.  A  still 
finer  race  of  men  are  the  Pomakis,  in  the  high  valleys  of  the  Rhodope,  to  the 
south  of  Philippopoli.  Their  speech  is  Bulgarian,  but  in  no  other  respect  do 
they  resemble  their  compatriots.  They  are  a  fine  race  of  men,  with  auburn 
hair,  full  of  energy,  and  of  a  poetical  temperament.  We  almost  feel  tempted 
to  look  upon  them  as  the  lineal  descendants  of  the  ancient  Thracians,  especially 
if  it  should  turn  out  to  be  true  that  in  their  songs  thev  celebrate  Orpheus,  the 
divine  musician. 

The  Bulgarians,  and  especially  those  of  the  plains,  are  a  peaceable  people, 
recalling  in  no  respect  the  fierce  hordes  who  devastated  the  Byzantine  empire. 
They  are  not  warlike,  like  their  neighbours  the  Servians,  and  do  not  keep  alive 
in  their  national  poetry  the  memory  of  former  struggles.  Their  songs  relate  to 
the  events  of  every-day  life,  or  to  the  sufferings  of  the  oppressed  ;  and  the  "  gentle 
zaptie/i,"  as  the  representative  of  authority,  is  one  of  the  characters  most 
frequently  represented  in  them.  The  average  Bulgarian  is  a  quiet,  hard-working 
peasant,  a  good  husband  and  father ;  he  is  fond  of  home  comforts,  and  practises 
every  domestic  virtue.  Nearly  all  the  agricultural  produce  exported  from  Turkey 
results  from  the  labour  of  Bulgarian  husbandmen.  It  is  they  who  have  converted 
certain  portions  of  the  plain   to  the  south  of   the    Danube   into  huge  fields  of 


140  TUEKEY  IN  ElfROPE. 

maize  and  corn,  rivalling  those  of  Rumania.  It  is  they,  likewise,  who,  at 
Eski-Za'ar;i,  at  the  south  of  the  Balkan,  produce  the  best  silk  and  the  best 
wheat  in  all  Turkey,  from  which  latter  alone  the  bread  and  cakes  placed  upon  the 
Sultan's  table  are  prepared.  Other  Bulgarians  have  converted  the  noble  plain 
of  Kezanlik,  at  the  foot  of  the  Balkan,  into  the  finest  agricultural  district  of 
Turkey,  the  town  itself  being  surrounded  by  magnificent  wulnut-trees  and  by 
rosaries,  which  furnish  the  famous  attar  of  roses,  constituting  so  important  an 
article  of  commerce  throughout  the  East.  Amongst  the  Bulgarians  between 
Pirot  and  Turnov  (Tirnova),  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Balkan,  there  exist 
flourishing  manufactures.  Each  village  there  is  noted  for  a  particular  branch  of 
industrj\  Knives  are  made  at  one,  metal  ornaments  at  another,  earthenware  at 
a  third,  stuffs  or  carpets  elsewhere ;  and  even  common  workmen  exhibit  much 
manual  dexterity  and  purity  of  taste.  An  equally  remarkable  spirit  of  enterprise 
is  manifested  amongst  the  Bulgarians  and  Zinzares  of  the  district  of  Bitolia,  or 
Monastir.  The  town  itself,  as  well  as  Kurshova,  Fiorina,  and  others  in  its 
vicinity,  are  manufacturing  centres. 

The  Bulgarians,  peaceable,  patient,  and  industrious  as  they  are,  are  beginning 
to  grow  tired  of  the  subjection  in  which  they  are  held.  They  certainly  do  not  as 
vet  dream  of  a  national  rising,  for  the  isolated  revolts  which  have  taken  place 
amongst  them  were  confined  to  a  few  mountaineers,  or  brought  about  by  young 
men  whom  a  residence  in  Servia  or  Rumania  had  imbued  with  an  enthusiasm 
for  liberty.  But  though  docile  subjects  still,  the  Bulgarians  begin  to  raise 
their  heads.  They  have  learnt  to  look  u_pon  each  other  as  members  of  the  same 
nation,  and  are  organizing  themselves  for  the  defence  of  their  nationality.  The 
first  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  on  a  question  of  religion.  When  the  Turks 
conquered  the  country  a  certain  number  amongst  them  turned  Mohammedan  to 
escape  oppression  ;  but  though  they  visit  the  mosques,  they  nevertheless  still 
cling  to  the  faith  of  their  forefathers,  venerate  the  same  springs,  and  put  their 
trust  in  the  same  talismans.  A  few  joined  the  Roman  Church,  but  a  great 
majority  remained  Greek  Catholics.  Greek  monks  and  priests,  not  long  .since, 
enjoyed  the  greatest  influence,  for  during  centuries  of  oppression  they  had 
upheld  the  ancient  faith.  Their  presence  vaguely  recalled  the  times  of  inde- 
pendence, and  their  churches  were  the  only  sanctuaries  open  to  the  persecuted 
peasant.  But  the  Bulgarians,  in  the  end,  grew  discontented  with  a  priesthood 
who  did  not  even  take  the  trouble  to  acquire  the  language  of  its  congregations,  and 
openly  sought  to  subject  them  to  an  alien  nation  like  the  Greeks.  Nothing 
was  further  from  their  thoughts  than  a  religious  schism.  They  merely  desired 
to  withdraw  from  the  authority  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  to  found 
a  National  Church  of  their  own,  as  had  been  done  by  the  Servians,  and  even  by 
the  Greeks  of  the  new  Hellenic  kingdom.  The  Vatican  of  Constantinople 
protested,  the  Turkish  Government  proved  anything  but  favourable  to  this 
movement  of  emancipation,  but  in  the  end  the  Greek  priests  were  forced  to 
retire — precipitately  in  some  instances — and  the  new  National  Church  was 
established. 


BULGAETA.  141 

This  pacific  revolution,  though  directed  against  the  Greeks,  cannot  fail  to 
influence  the  relations  between  Bulgarians  and  Turks.  The  former  have 
combined,  for  the  first  time  since  many  centuries,  for  the  accomplishment  of  a 
common  national  object,  and  this  reawakening  of  a  feeling  of  nationality  cannot 
but  prove  detrimental  to  the  rule  of  the  Osmanli.  The  latter  are  not  very 
numerous  in  the  country  districts  of  Western  Bulgaria,  where  they  are  met 
with  chiefly  in  the  towns,  and  particularly  in  those  which  are  of  strategical 
importance.  Eastern  Bulgaria,  however,  is  for  the  most  part  peopled  by  Turks, 
or  at  all  events  by  Bulgarians  who  have  adopted  the  language,  dress,  manners, 
and  modes  of  thought  of  their  conquerors.  No  Christian  monastery  exists  in  this 
stronghold  of  Turkish  power,  though  there  are  several  Mohammedan  places  of 
pilgrimage  held  in  high  repute  for  their  sanctity. 

The  Greeks,  next  to  the  Turks,  are  the  most  important  element  of  the 
population  of  Bulgaria.  They  are  not  very  numerous  to  the  north  of  the  Balkan, 
where  their  influence  hardly  exceeds  that  of  the  Germans  and  Armenians  esta- 
blished in  the  towns.  To  the  south  of  the  Balkan,  though  not  numerous  relatively, 
they  are  much  more  widely  distributed.  One  or  two  Greeks  are  met  with  in 
every  \allage,  carrying  on  trade  or  exercising  some  handicraft.  They  make 
themselves  indispensable  to  the  locality,  their  advice  is  sought  for  by  all,  and  they 
impart  their  own  spirit  to  the  whole  of  the  population.  Where  two  or  three  of 
these  Greeks  meet  they  at  once  constitute  themselves  into  a  sort  of  community, 
and  throughout  the  country  they  form  a  kind  of  masonic  brotherhood.  Their 
influence  is  thus  far  greater  than  could  be  expected  from  their  numbers.  There 
are  a  few  important  Greek  colonies  amongst  the  Bulgarians,  as  at  Philippopoli  and 
Bazarjik,  and  in  a  valley  of  the  Rhodope  they  occupy  the  populous  town  of 
Stanimako,  to  the  exclusion  of  Turks  and  Bulgarians.  The  ruins  of  ancient 
buildings,  as  well  as  the  dialect  of  the  inhabitants,  which  contains  over  two 
hundred  Greek  words  not  known  to  modern  Greek,  prove  that  Stanimako  has 
existed  as  a  Greek  town  for  upwards  of  twenty  centuries,  and  M.  Dumont  thinks 
that  it  is  one  of  the  old  colonies  of  Euboea. 

The  initiatory  part  played  by  the  Greeks  in  Southern  Bulgaria  is  played 
in  the  north  by  the  Eumanians.  The  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  from  Cher- 
navoda  to  the  Black  Sea,  is  for  the  most  part  inhabited  by  Wallachians,  who 
are  gradually  gaining  upon  the  Turks.  Other  colonists  are  attracted  by 
the  fertility  of  the  plains  at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Balkan.  The  Bulgarians 
are  careful  cultivators  of  the  soil  themselves,  but  the  Eumanians  never- 
theless gain  a  footing  amongst  them,  as  they  do  with  the  Servians,  the 
Magyars,  and  the  Germans.  They  are  more  active  and  intelligent  than  the 
Bulgarians,  their  families  are  more  numerous,  and  in  the  course  of  a  genera- 
tion they  generally  succeed  in  "  Rumanising "  a  village  in  which  they  have 
settled. 

Bulgarians  and  Turks,  Greeks  and  AVallachians,  isolated  colonies  of  Servians 
and  Albanians,  communities  of  Armenians  and  of  Spanish  Jews,  colonies  of 
Zinzares   and    wandering   tribes    of  Mohammedan    Tsigani,   have   converted  the 


142  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

countries  of  the  Balkan  into  a  veritable  ethnological  chaos  ;  but  the  confusion  is 
greater  still  in  the  small  district  of  Dobruja,  between  the  Ijower  Danube  and  the 
Black  iSea.  In  addition  to  the  races  enumerated,  we  there  meet  with  Kogai 
Tartars,  who  are  of  purer  blood  than  their  kinsmen  the  Osmanli,  and  exhibit  the 
Asiatic  tj'pe  in  greater  purity.  Although  they  cultivate  the  soil,  they  have  not 
altogether  abandoned  their  nomad  habits,  for  they  wander  with  their  herds  over 
hill  and  dale.  They  are  governed  by  an  hereditary  khan,  as  at  the  time  when  they 
dwelt  in  tents. 

After  the  Crimean  war  several  thousand  Nogai  Tartars,  compromised  by  the 
aid  which  they  had  rendered  the  Allies,  joined  their  compatriots  in  the  Dobriija. 
On  the  other  hand,  about  10,000  Bulgarians,  terrified  at  the  approach  of 
these  much-maligned  immigrants,  fled  the  Dobruja,  and  sought  an  asylum  in 
Eussia,  where  they  were  assigned  the  lands  abandoned  by  the  Crimean  Tartars. 
This  exchange  proved  disastrous  to  both  nations,  for  sickness  iind  grief  carried  oflP 
many  victims.  More  deplorable  still  was  the  lot  of  the  Circassians  and  other 
Caucasian  ti'ibes,  who,  to  the  number  of  400,000,  sought  a  refuge  in  Turkey  in 
18G4.  It  was  by  no  means  easy  to  provide  accommodation  for  so  largo  a  host. 
The  pasha  intrusted  with  the  installation  of  these  immigrants  sent  many  of  them 
to  "Western  Bulgaria,  in  the  vain  hope  that  they  would  cut  off  all  contact 
between  Servians  and  Bulgarians.  The  rayas  were  compelled  to  surrender  to 
them  their  best  lands,  to  build  houses  for  them,  and  to  supply  them  with  cattle 
and  seed-corn.  This  ho.spitable  reception,  compulsory  though  it  was,  would  have 
enabled  these  immigrants  to  start  in  their  adopted  country  with  a  fair  chance  of 
success,  had  they  but  deigned  to  work.  This,  however,  they  declined.  Hunger, 
sickness,  and  a  climate  very  different  from  that  of  their  mountains,  caused  them 
to  perish  in  thousands,  and  in  less  than  a  year  about  one-third  of  these  refugees 
had  perished.  Young  girls  and  children  were  sold  to  procure  bread,  and  this 
infamous  traffic  became  a  source  of  wealth  to  certain  pashas.  The  harems 
became  filled  with  young  Circassians,  who  were  a  drug  in  the  market  at  that 
time,  and  the  human  merchandise  not  saleable  at  Constantinople  was  exported 
to  Syria  and  Egypt.  These  Circassians,  after  thus  sufiering  from  .sickness  and 
their  own  improvident  laziness,  have  now  accommodated  themselves  to  the 
conditions  of  their  new  homos.  Though  of  the  same  religion  as  the  Osmanli,  they 
readily  assimilate  with  the  Bulgarians  amongst  wliom  they  dwell,  and  adopt  their 
language. 

Other  refugees,  more  kindly  treated  by  fate,  have  found  an  asylum  in  the 
Dobruja.  They  are  Russian  Cossacks,  Ruthenians,  and  Muscovites  of  the  "  Old 
Faith,"  who  left  their  steppes  towards  the  close  of  last  century  in  order  to  escape 
persecution.  The  Padisha,  more  tolerant  than  the  Christian  Empress  of  Russia, 
generouslj'  received  them,  and  granted  them  land  in  various  parts  of  his 
dominions.  Tlie  Russian  colonies  in  the  Dobruja  and  in  the  delta  of  the  Danube 
have  prospered,  and  one  of  their  settlements  on  the  8t.  George's  branch  of  the 
river  is  known  as  the  "  Cossack.s'  Paradise."  Most  of  these  Russians  are 
engaged  in    the   sturgeon    fishery  and    tlie  preparation   of  caviare.     They  have 


BULGARIA.  143 

proved  grateful  for  the  liospitality  extended  to  them,  and  have  always  fought 
valiantly  in  defence  of  their  adopted  country.  They  retain  their  national 
dress,  their  language,  and  their  religion,  and  do  not  mix  with  the  surrounding 
populations. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  we  meet  in  the  Dobruja  with  colonies  of  Germans, 
Arabs,  and  Poles,  and,  in  the  new  port  of  the  Sulina,  with  representatives  of 
many  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

There  are  few  countries  where  the  great  international  high-roads  are  as  plainly 
traced  by  nature  as  in  Bulgaria.  The  first  of  these  roads  is  formed  by  the 
Danube.  The  Turkish  towns  along  its  banks — Viddin,  Shishtova,  Rustchuk,  and 
Silistria — are  taking  an  increasing  share  in  European  commerce.  This  highway 
is  continued  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  where  there  are  several  commercial 
harbours,  the  most  important  being  Burgas,  a  great  grain  port.  This  natural 
highwaj',  however,  has  become  too  circuitous  for  purposes  of  commerce.  A  railway 
has  therefore  been  built  across  the  isthmus  of  the  Dobruja,  from  Chernavoda  to 
Kustenje,  and  a  second  line  connects  Rustchuk,  on  the  Danube,  with  Varna,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  the  latter  line  crossing  the  whole  of  Eastern  Bulgaria,  and  touching 
the  towns  of  Razgrad  and  Shumna.  A  thii'd  line,  now  in  course  of  construction, 
■wiU  cross  the  Balkans  by  a  depression  to  the  south  of  Shumna,  and  traversing  the 
plain  in  which  the  towns  of  Yamboly  and  Adrianople  are  built,  will  connect  the 
Lower  Danube  with  the  ^gean  Sea.  A  third  route,  still  farther  to  the  west, 
passes  Turnov,  or  Tirnova — the  ancient  capital  of  the  tsars  of  Bulgaria — Kezanlik, 
and  Eski-Za'ara. 

These  railways,  already  opened  for  traffic  or  approaching  completion,  certainly 
shorten  the  journey  between  Western  Europe  and  Constantinople ;  but  it  is 
proposed  now  to  avoid  the  circuitous  navigation  of  the  Lower  Danube  altogether, 
by  joining  the  railway  system  of  Europe  to  that  of  Turkey.  One  of  these  pro- 
posed railways  will  pass  through  Bosnia,  and  down  the  valley  of  the  Vardar  to 
Saloniki ;  another  will  follow  the  ancient  Roman  road,  which  connected  Pannonia 
with  Byzantium,  and  which  was  paved  in  the  sixteenth  century  as  far  as  Belgrad. 
The  principal  cities  along  this  great  highway  are  Nish,  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Morava,  close  to  the  frontier  of  Servia ;  Sofia,  the  ancient  Sardica,  on  the  Isker, 
a  tributary  of  the  Danube;  Bazarjik,  or  "the  market;"  and  the  fine  town  of 
Philippopoli,  with  its  triple  mountain  commanding  the  passage  of  the  Maritza. 
These  towns,  on  the  completion  of  the  railway,  cannot  fail  to  become  of  great  com- 
mercial importance.  A  hideous  monument  near  Nish  will,  perhaps,  be  pointed  out 
to  tourists  attracted  thither  on  the  opening  of  the  railway.  It  was  erected  to  remind 
future  generations  of  a  deed  of  "  glory."  This  trophy  of  Kele-kalesi  consists  of  a 
tower  built  of  the  skulls  of  Servians,  who,  rather  than  fall  alive  into  the  hands  of 
their  enemies,  blew  themselves  up  together  with  the  redoubt  which  they  defended. 
A  governor  of  Nish,  more  humane  than  his  predecessors,  desired  to  remove  this 
abominable  piece  of  masonry,  which  no  raya  passes  without  a  shudder,  but 
Mussulman  fanaticism  forbade  it. 


144 


TLT?KEY  IN  EUROPE. 


The  influence  of  commerce  cannot  fail  to  modify  largely  the  manners  and 
customs  of  a  nation  as  supple  and  pliable  as  are  the  Bulgarians.  AVar  has 
brutalised  the  Albanians,  and  slavery  degraded  the  Bulgarians.  In  the  towns, 
more  particularly,  they  have  sunk  very  low.  The  insults  heaped  upon  them  by 
Mussulmans,  and  the  contemptuous  manner  in  which  they  were  treated,  rendered 
them  abject  and  despicable  in  their  own  eyes.  Demoralised  by  servitude  and 
misery,  given  up  to  the  mercy  of  their  rich  compatriots,  the  chorhajix,  or  "  givers 
of  soup,"  they  became  shameless  and  low-minded  helots.  The  Bulgarian  women, 
in  the  towns  more  particularlj',  presented  a  spectacle  of  the  most  shameful 
corruption,  and  their  want  of  modesty,  their  coarseness,  and  ignorance  fully 
justified  the  contempt  in  which  they  were  held  by  their  Mohammedan  sisters. 
Even  as  regards  education  the  Turks  were  in  advance  of  them  :  not  long  ago  their 
schools  relatively  were  more  numerous,  and  the  instruction  given  in  them  was  of  a 
superior  order.  Christian  villages,  moreover,  were  never  so  clean  or  pleasant  as 
those  of  the  Turks. 

But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  case  in  the  past,  things  have  already  begun 
to  mend.  The  Turks,  as  a  body,  may  still  be  the  superiors  of  the  Bulgarians,  as 
regards  probity  and  a  respect  for  truth,  but  they  work  less,  and  become 
impoverished  by  degrees.  In  the  country  the  land  gradually  passes  into  the 
hands  of  the  rayas,  in  the  towns  the  latter  monopolize  nearly  all  the  trade.  The 
Bulgarians,  moreover,  have  learnt  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  education  ; 
they  have  founded  schools  and  colleges,  have  set  up  printing  presses,  and  send 
their  young  men  to  be  educated  at  the  universities  of  Europe.  The  young 
Bulgarians  in  the  mixed  colleges  of  Constantinople  invariably  make  the  most 
satisfactory  progress  in  their  studies.  This  revival  of  learning  is  a  most  hopeful 
sign  of  vitality.  If  persevered  in,  the  Bulgarian  race,  which  has  been  dead,  as  it 
were,  for  so  many  centuries,  may  again  play  its  part  in  the  world's  history.  The 
atrocities  of  which  Bulgaria  has  recently  been  the  scene  may  retard  this  regene- 
ration, but  they  certainly  cannot  stop  it.* 


The  foUowiog  are  the  principal  towns  of  Bulgaria,  with  the  numbe: 


Shumna  (Shumla) 

50,000 

Razarjik 

Rustchuk      .... 

50,000 

Nish 

Philippopoli  (Felibe)     . 

40,000 

Veleze  (Koprili) 

Bitolia  (Monastir) 

40,000 

Kazgrad 

Skoplie  (Uskub)  . 

28,000 

Turnov  (Tirnova) 

Kalkandelen 

22,000 

Sliven  (Slivno) 

Sofia 

20,000 

Prilip    . 

Vidin 

20,000 

Kezanlik 

Silistria         .... 

20.000 

Staniinako    . 

Shishtova      .... 

20,000 

Fiorina 

Varna            .... 

20,000 

Kurshova 

Eski-Za'ara 

18,000 

Sulina 

of  their  iohabi 


tants : 


18,000 
16,000 
15,000 
15,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
10,000 
10,000 
10,000 
9,000 
5,000 


PKESENT  POSITION  AND   PROSPECTS  OF  TURKEY.  145 

VII. — Present   Posniox    and    Prospects   of    Turkey. 

The  prophecies  respecting  the  "  sick  man  "  have  not  yet  been  fulfilled,  and  his 
heritage  divided  amongst  the  surrounding  powers.  To  a  great  extent  he  is 
indebted  for  this  continued  existence  to  the  jealousies  of  the  European  powers,  and 
to  the  fact  of  Russia  having  her  hands  full  in  Central  Asia.  Still,  Turkey  has 
recently  exhibited  a  wonderful  amount  of  vitality.  Fresh  provinces  have  been 
incorporated  with  the  empire  in  Arabia,  at  a  distance  of  1,800  miles  from  the 
capital ;  and  a  rebellion  in  the  north-western  portion  of  European  Turkey,  originat- 
ing in  the  misgovernment  of  the  country,  but  aided  and  abetted  by  Russia,  has 
been  suppressed  with  a  strong  hand.  The  Turkish  empire  remains  not  only 
intact,  but  will  actually  be  found  to  have  considerably  increased  in  extent,  if  we 
include  within  it  the  territories  of  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  whose  arms  have  been 
carried  to  the  Upper  Nile  and  into  Dar  Fur. 

We  must  guard  ourselves,  at  the  same  time,  against  the  assumption  that 
Turkey  has  entered  upon  a  path  of  normal  progress.  On  the  contrary,  Turkey  is 
a  mediaeval  country  still,  and  will  have  to  pass  through  many  intestine  revolutions 
before  it  can  rank  with  the  civilised  states  of  Europe  or  America.  The  country  is 
in  the  occupation  of  hostile  races,  who  would  fall  upon  each  other  were  they  not 
restrained  h\  force.  The  Servian  would  take  up  arms  against  the  Albanian,  the 
Bulgarian  against  the  Greek,  and  all  the  subject  races  would  combine  against  the 
Turk.  National  jealousies  are  augmented  by  religious  animosities.  The  Catholic 
Bosnians  hate  other  Slavs,  and  the  Tosks  detest  the  Gheges,  although  they  speak 
the  same  language.  The  Osmanli  oppress  these  various  populations  without  com- 
punction, their  art  of  government  consisting  in  playing  them  off  against  each 
other. 

Nor  can  better  things  be  expected  in  an  empire  in  which  caprice  reigns 
supreme.  The  Padishah  is  lord  of  the  souls  and  bodies  of  his  subjects ;  he  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  supreme  judge,  and  sovereign  pontiff.  In  former 
times  his  power  was  practicall}'  limited  by  semi-independent  feudatories,  but  since 
the  fall  of  Ali  Pasha  and  the  massacre  of  the  janissaries  he  is  restrained  only  by 
customs,  traditions,  and  the  demands  of  the  Governments  of  Europe.  He  is  the 
most  despotic  sovereign  of  Europe,  and  his  civil  list  the  heaviest  in  proportion  to 
the  revenues  of  the  country.  The  household  of  the  late  Sultan  and  of  the 
members  of  his  family  was  exceedingly  numerous.  There  lived  in  the  Seraglio 
an  army  of  6,000  servants  and  slaves  of  both  sexes,  of  whom  600  were  cooks. 
These  servants,  in  turn,  were  surrounded  by  an  army  of  hangers-on,  who  were  fed 
from  the  imperial  kitchens,  to  wliich  no  less  than  1,200  sheep  were  supplied  daily 
b}-  the  contractors. 

Current  expenses  were  sufficiently  heavy,  but  more  considerable  still  was  the 
extraordinary  expenditure  incurred  in  the  construction  of  palaces  and  kiosks,  the 
purchase  of  articles  de  luxe  and  of  curiosities,  and  for  all  kinds  of  prodigalities. 
The  present  Sultan,  driven  thereto  by  the  precarious  position  of  his  empire,  has 
limited  his  expenditure.     But  will  this  last ':' 


ItO  TURKEY  IN   EUROPE. 

Ministers,  valis,  and  other  high  officials  of  the  empire  faithfully  follow  in  the 
footsteps  of  their  sovereign,  and  their  expenditure  always  exceeds  their  salary, 
thouo-h  the  latter  is  fixed  on  a  most  liberal  scale.  As  to  the  lower  officials,  their 
salaries  are  small  and  irregularly  paid  ;  but  it  is  understood  that  they  may  recoup 
themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  ratepayers.  Everything  can  be  purchased  in 
Turkey,  and,  above  all,  justice.  The  state  of  the  finances  is  most  lamentable ; 
loans  are  raised  at  usurious  interest ;  and  so  badly  is  the  country  governed  that  it 
has  been  seriously  proposed  to  intrust  the  management  of  its  finances  to  a  syndicate 
of  the  European  powers  !  * 

Agriculture  and  industry  progress  but  slowly  under  such  misgovernment. 
Vast  tracts  of  the  most  fertile  land  are  allowed  to  lie  fallow  ;  they  appear  to  be 
no  one's  property,  and  any  one  may  settle  upon  and  cultivate  them.  But  woe  to 
him  if  he  conducts  his  operations  with  profit  to  himself;  for  no  sooner  is  he 
observed  to  become  wealthy  than  his  land  is  laid  claim  to  on  behalf  of  the  clergy 
or  of  some  pasha,  and  he  may  consider  himself  lucky  if  he  escapes  a  bastinado. 
The  peasants,  in  many  districts,  are  careful  not  to  produce  more  than  they  abso- 
lutely require  to  live  upon,  for  an  abundant  harvest  would  impoverish  them — would 
merely  lead  to  a  permanent  increase  of  taxation.  The  tradesmen  in  the  smaller 
towns  are  equally  careful  to  conceal  their  wealth,  if  they  possess  any. 

Many  Mussulman  families  have  ceded  to  the  mosques  their  proprietary  rights. 
They  thus  enjoy  merely  the  usufruct  of  their  lands,  but  are  freed,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  the  land  remains  in  the  possession  of  their 
families  until  they  become  extinct.  These  lands  are  known  as  vakiifs,  and  they 
form  about  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  whole  empire.  They  contribute  actually 
nothing  towards  the  revenues  of  the  State.  In  the  end  they  aggrandise  the  vast 
estates  of  the  Mohammedan  clergy.  Taxation  weighs  almost  exclusively  upon  the 
lands  cultivated  by  the  unfortunate  Christians  ;  and  in  proportion  as  the  vakufs 
increase,  so  does  the  produce  of  taxation  diminish.  This  must  in  the  end  neces- 
sarily lead  to  a  secularisation  of  the  estates  of  the  clergy  ;  and  even  now,  to  the 
great  horror  of  the  old  Turks,  the  Ottoman  Government  is  timidly  extending  its 
hands  towards  the  estates  belonging  to  the  mosques  of  Constantinople. 

The  Servian,  Albanian,  and  Bulgarian  peasants  actually  cultivate  their  land 
in  spite  of  their  masters.  A  single  fact  will  show  this.  Certain  collectors  of 
tithes,  in  order  to  prevent  fraud,  insist  upon  the  peasants  leaving  the  whole  of  the 
harvest  upon  the  fields  until  they  have  withdrawn  their  tenth  part.  Maize,  rice, 
and  corn  are  exposed  there  to  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather  and  other  destruc- 
tive agencies  ;  and  it  frequently  happens  that  the  harvest  has  deteriorated  to  the 
extent  of  one-half  in  value  before  the  Government  impost  is  levied.  Sometimes 
the  peasants  allow  their  grapes  or  fruit  to  rot  rather  than  pay  the  tithes.  But  it 
is  not  the  tax-gatherer  alone  of  whose  conduct  the  peasant  may  complain  ;  for  he 
is  exposed  likewise  to  exactions  by  the  middlemen  with  whom  he  comes  into 
contact  when  selling  his  produce.  "  The  Bulgarian  works,  but  the  Greek  holds 
the  plough."  So  says  an  ancient  proverb  ;  and  this  is  still  true  at  least  of  the 
•  Rcceipto  for  1874,  £20,400,000  ;  debts  m  1875,  £220,000,000. 


'Btk  fi-S  isAif  r  ,1'y.;-'^ 


MUSSULMAN  OF  ADEIANOPLE,  AND  MUSSULMAN  LADY  OF  PEI3EEND. 


PEESENT   POSITION  AND  PROSPECTS  OF  TUEKEY.  147 

countries  to  the  south  of  the  Balkan,  where  the  Bulgarian  peasant  is  not  alwaj-s 
the  proprietor  of  the  land  he  tills.  But  where  he  does  not  directly  work  for  a 
Greek  or  Mussulman  proprietor,  his  harvest,  even  before  it  is  cut,  is  frequently 
the  property  of  a  usurer  ;  but  he  works  on  from  day  to  day,  a  wretched  slave,  in 
the  vain  hope  of  becoming  one  day  a  free  man. 

The  fertilit}^  of  the  soil  on  both  slopes  of  the  Balkans,  in  Macedonia,  and  in 
Thessaly  is,  however,  such  that  in  spite  of  mosques  and  tax-collectors,  in  spite  of 
usurers  and  thieves,  agriculture  supplies  commerce  with  a  large  quantity  of 
produce.  Maize,  or  "  Turkish  corn,"  and  all  cereals  are  grown  in  abundance. 
The  valleys  of  the  Karasu  and  Vardar  produce  cotton,  tobacco,  and  dye  stuffs  ; 
the  coast  districts  and  islands  yield  wine  and  oil,  whose  quality  would  leave  nought 
to  be  desired,  were  a  little  more  care  bestowed  upon  their  cultivation  ;  and  forests 
of  mulberry-trees  are  met  with  in  certain  parts  of  Thracia  and  Rumelia,  and  the 
export  of  cocoons  to  Italy  and  France  is  increasing  from  year  to  3'ear.  Turkey, 
with  its  fertile  soil,  is  sure  to  take  a  prominent  part  amongst  the  European  states 
for  the  variety  and  superiority  of  its  products.  As  to  its  manufactures,  they  will 
no  doubt  be  gradually  displaced  on  the  opening  of  new  roads  of  commerce.  The 
manufacturers  of  arms,  stuffs,  carpets,  and  jewellery  in  the  cities  of  the  interior 
will  suffer  considerably  from  foreign  competition,  and  many  amongst  them  will 
succumb  to  it,  unless  they  pass  into  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  great  fairs, 
too,  which  are  now  held  annually  at  Slivno  and  other  places,  and  at  which 
merchants  from  the  whole  of  the  empire  meet  to  transact  business — as  many  as  a 
hundred  thousand  strangers  being  attracted  occasionally  to  a  single  spot — will 
gradually  give  place  to  a  regular  commercial  intercourse. 

It  is  certain  that  the  commerce  of  Turkey  has  increased  of  late  years,  thanks 
to  the  efforts  of  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Franks  of  all  nations.  The  annual 
value  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  whole  of  the  Ottoman  empire  in  Europe 
and  Asia  is  estimated  at  £40,000,000 — a  very  small  sum,  if  we  bear  in  mind  the 
resources  of  these  countries,  their  many  excellent  harbours,  and  their  favourable 
geographical  position. 

The  Turks  themselves  perform  but  a  very  small  share  of  the  work  that  is  done 
in  their  empire.  Various  causes  combine  to  render  them  less  active  than  the  other 
races.  They  are  the  governing  class,  and  their  ambition  naturally  aspires  to  the 
honours  and  the  luxury  of  kief;  that  is  to  say,  of  sweet  idleness.  Despising  every- 
thing not  Mohammedan,  and  being,  besides,  heedless  and  of  a  sluggish  mind,  they 
but  rarely  learn  foreign  languages,  and  are  thus  in  a  certain  measure  at  the  mercy 
of  the  other  races,  most  of  whom  speak  two  or  more  idioms.  Moreover,  the 
fatalism  taught  in  the  Koran  has  deprived  the  Turk  of  all  enterprise,  and  once 
thrown  out  of  his  ordinary  routine,  he  is  helpless.  Polygamy  and  slaverj-  are 
likewise  two  causes  of  demoralisation.  It  is  true  that  the  rich  alone  can  permit 
themselves  the  luxury  of  a  harem,  but  the  poor  learn  from  their  superiors  to 
despise  women,  they  become  debased,  and  take  a  share  in  that  traffic  in  human 
flesh  which  is  a  necessary  sequence  of  polygamy.  Yet,  in  spite  of  the  innumerable 
slaves  imported  in  the  course  of  four  centuries  from  all  the  regions  bordering  upon 


148  TURKEY   IX   EUROPE. 

the  Turkish  empire;  in  spite  of  the  millions  of  Circassian,  Greek,  and  other  girls 
transplanted  into  the  haroms,  the  Osmanli  are  numerically  inferior  to  the  other  races 
of  the  peninsula.  This  dominant  race — if  the  term  race  be  upplicuhle  to  the  product 
of  so  many  crossings — hardly  numbers  ten  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  European 
Turkey.  And  this  numerical  inferiority  is  on  the  increase,  for,  owing  to  polygamy, 
the  number  of  children  surviving  in  Mohammedan  families  is  less  than  in  Christian 
families.  We  are  not  in  possession  of  precise  figures,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  Turks  are  on  the  decrease.  The  conscription,  to  which  they  alone  are  subject, 
has  contributed  towards  this  result,  and  becomes  more  difficult  from  year  to  year. 

It  has  often  been  repeated  since  Chateaubriand  that  the  Turks  have  but  camped 
in  Europe,  and  expect  to  return  to  the  steppes  whence  they  came.  It  would  thus 
be  a  feeling  of  presentiment  which  induces  the  Turks  of  Stambul  to  seek  burial  in 
the  cemeterj^  of  Scutari,  hoping  thus  to  save  their  bones  from  the  profanation  of 
the  Giaour's  tread  on  his  rettirn,  as  master,  to  Constantinople.  In  many  places  the 
living  follow  the  examples  of  the  dead,  and  a  feeble  current  (>f  emigration  sets  from 
the  Archipelago  and  the  coast  districts  of  Thracia  in  the  direction  of  Asia,  carry- 
ing along  many  an  old  Turk  discontented  with  the  stir  of  European  life.  This 
migration,  liowever,  is  but  of  very  small  importance,  and  does  not  affect  the 
Osmanli  of  the  interior.  Nothing  is  further  from  the  minds  of  the  Turks  of 
Bulgaria,  the  Yuruks  of  Macedonia,  or  the  Koniarides,  who  have  inhabited  the  moun- 
tains of  Rumelia  since  the  eleventh  century,  than  to  quit  the  land  which  has  become 
their  second  home.  The  Turkish  element  in  tlie  Balkan  peninsula  can  be  got  rid  of 
only  by  exterminating  it ;  that  is,  bj'  treating  the  Turks  more  ferociously  than  they 
treated  the  native  populations  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.  We  ought  not  to  for- 
get, at  the  same  time,  that  the  Turks,  though  far  inferior  in  numbers  to  the  other 
races,  arc  nevertheless  able  to  reckon  upon  the  support  of  millions  of  Mohammedan 
Albanians,  Bosnians,  Bulgarians,  Circassians,  and  Nogai  Tartars.  The  Mussulmans 
constitute  more  than  a  third  of  the  population  of  European  Turkey,  and,  in  spite 
of  differences  of  race,  they  hold  firmly  together.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that 
they  are  backed  up  by  a  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  co-religionists  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.* 

•  Kaces  and  religions  of  'I'lirkiy  in  Europe  (Servia,  Montenegro,  and  Rumania  excluded) :  — 


Total. 

MuHSulmaiu. 

Greek  Cathobcs. 

Roman  Catholics. 

Other  Christians. 

t  Servians    . 
•  Bulgarians 

1,114.000 

442,000 

492,000 

180,000 



Slavs    .     .     . 

2,861,000 

790,000 

2,051,000 

20,000 

— 

(  Russians,  &c 

.       10,000 

— 

— 

2.000 

8,000 

(  Greeks 

1,176,000 

38,000 

1,138,000 

— 



Greco-Latins 

1  Rumanians 

.50,000 

— 

50,000 

— 



(  Zinzares. 

150,000 

— 

150,000 

— 

— 

Albanians 

(  Ghpii;es  ) 
i  Tosks      ji" 

l,0:i  1,000 

773,000 

178,000 

80,000 

— 

Turks  .     .     . 

(  <  tsmanli 

1,3.52,000 

1,3.52,000 

— 





(  Tartars 

40,000 

40,000 

— 





Semitefi 

(  Arabs 

3,000 

3,000 

— 

— 

— 

■^vUAAvwD             ■              « 

1  Jews 

72,000 

— 

— 

— 



Armenians    . 

100,000 

— 

— 

10,000 



Circassians    . 

144,000 

144,000 

— 

_ 



Tsigancs  (Gipsi 

OS)             .'            '. 

104,000 

52,000 

52,000 

- 



Franks. 

Total   . 

00,000 

— 

— 

50,000 

10,000 

8,267,000 

3,584,000 

4,111,000 

342,000 

108,000 

c 


h 


1      s      IS..™.. 

r    B    iik.u.ri.„. 

1        R        .  It«..i.... 

OHECO-LATIN 

l^^^l  O^ri-k. 

KiK.   .,r™.„„..,. 

L-:  i      z„„„,,.. 

rsk^-sk.p,,.,. 

»£W  >0««.  ""^lETON  tc„ 


c 


PEESENT  POSITION   AND   PROSPECrS  OP  TURKEY.  149 

Let  us  hope  that  the  future  may  not  give  birth  to  a  struggle  of  extermination 
between  the  races  of  the  peninsula,  but  rather  to  institutions  enabling  these  diverse 
and  partially  hostile  elements  to  develop  themselves  in  peace  and  liberty.  The 
Turks  themselves  begin  to  see  the  necessity  of  such  institutions,  and,  in  theory  at 
least,  have  abandoned  their  policy  of  violence  and  oppression.  All  the  nation- 
alities of  the  empire,  without  reference  to  race  or  religion,  are  supposed  to  be 
equal  before  the  law,  and  Christians  are  admitted  to  Government  offices  on  the  same 
terms  as  Mussulmans.  No  doubt  these  fine  laws  have  for  the  most  part  hitherto 
remained  a  dead  letter,  but  it  would  nevertheless  be  unjust  if  we  denied  that  much 
progress  towards  an  equalisation  of  the  various  races  has  been  made. 

Fortunately  the  despotism  of  the  Turks  is  not  the  despotism  of  learning,  based 
upon  a  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  directed  to  its  debasement.  The  Osmanli 
ignore  the  art  of  "oppressing  wisely,"  which  the  Dutch  governors  of  the  Sunda 
Islands  were  required  to  practise  in  former  times,  and  which  is  not  quite  unknown 
in  other  countries.  The  pashas  allow  things  to  take  their  course  as  long  as  they 
are  able  to  enrich  themselves  and  their  favourites,  to  sell  justice  and  their  favours 
at  a  fair  price,  and  to  bastinado  now  and  then  some  unlucky  wight.  They  do  not 
inquire  into  the  private  concerns  of  their  subjects,  and  do  not  call  for  confidential 
reports  on  families  and  individuals.  Their  Government,  no  doubt,  is  frequently 
violent  and  ojDpressive ;  but  all  this  only  touches  externals.  Such  a  government 
may  not  be  favourable  to  the  development  of  public  spirit,  but  it  does  not  interfere 
with  individuals,  and  powerful  national  institutions,  such  as  the  Greek  commune, 
the  Mirdit  tribe,  and  the  Slav  community,  have  been  able  to  survive  under  it.  Self- 
government  is,  in  fact,  more  widely  practised  in  Turkey  than  in  the  most  advanced 
countries  of  Western  Europe.  It  would  have  been  difficult  to  force  these  various 
national  elements  under  a  uniform  discipline,  and  the  lazy  Turkish  functionaries 
generally  leave  things  alone.  The  Frankish  officials  in  the  pay  of  the  Turkish 
Government,  in  fact,  more  frequently  interfere  with  the  prejudices  and  privileges 
of  the  governed  than  do  the  Mussulman  pashas  of  the  old  school. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  for  a  moment  that,  in  a  time  not  very  far  distant,  the 
non-Mohammedan  races  of  Turkey  will  take  the  lead  in  politics,  as  they  do  already  in 
commerce,  industry,  and  education.  The  Osmanli  of  the  olden  school,  who  still 
wear  the  green  turban  of  their  ancestors,  look  forward  towards  this  inevitable 
result  with  despair.  They  struggle  against  every  measure  calculated  to  accelerate 
the  emancipation  of  the  despised  raya,  and  European  inventions,  in  their  eyes,  ai'e 
working  a  great  social  transformation  to  their  injury;  and,  indeed,  it  is  the  raya 
who  profits  most  from  roads,  railwa3's,  harbours,  agricultural  and  other  machines. 
Bosnians,  Bulgarians,  and  Servians  have  learnt  to  look  upon  each  other  as 
brothers ;  Albanians  and  Rumanians  are  drawn  towards  the  Greeks  ;  all  alike 
feel  themselves  as  Europeans ;  and  thus  the  way  is  being  paved  for  the  Danubian 
Confederation  of  the  future. 

The  approaching  completion  of  the   railway  from  Vienna  to  Constantinople 
cannot   fail  to  work  a  commercial  revolution  as  far  as  the  trade  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  Eastern  Europe  is  concerned.     It  will  form  a  link  in  the  dii-ect  lino 
11 


150 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


between  England  and  India,  and  to  travellers  and  merchandise  will  afford  the 
shortest  route  from  the  centre  of  Europe  to  the  Bosporus.  On  its  opening,  Con- 
stantinople will  be  enabled  to  avail  itself  to  the  fullest  extent  of  the  highways  of 
commerce  which  converge  upon  it.  Still  greater  must  be  the  political  conse- 
quences of  opening  this  line,  for  it  will  bring  the  populations  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula into  more  direct  and  active  contact  with  those  of  Austro-Hungary  and  the 
rest  of  Europe. 


Fig.  41.— COMMBBCIAL   HlOHWAVS    CONVEKOIXO    UPON    CONKTANTINOPLF. 

Scale  1  :  17.100,000. 


t^ 


•  250  Miles. 


VIII. — Government  and  Administration. 

The  Turkish  empire  occupies  a  vast  area,  the  greater  portion  of  which  is  governed 
by  vassals,  almost  independent  of  the  Sultan  at  Stambul.  The  vast  territories  of 
Egypt  and  Tunis  are  in  that  position.  The  interior  of  Arabia  is  in  possession  of 
the  Wahabites  ;  the  coast  of  Iladramaut  is  inhabited  partly  by  tribes  acknowledg- 
ing the  suzerainty  of  England  ;  and  even  between  Syria  and  the  Euphrates  there 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 


151 


are  numerous  districts  only  nominally  under  the  government  of  Turkish  pashas, 
but  in  reality  in  the  possession  of  predatory  Bedwins.  The  Ottoman  empire, 
properly  so  called,  includes  the  European  provinces,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine, 
the  basins  of  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  Hejaz  and  Yemen  in  Arabia,  and  Tripoli,  with 
Fezzan,  in  Africa.  These  territories,  vrith  their  dependent  islands,  cover  an  area, 
of  no  less  than  210,156  square  miles  ;  but  their  population,  being  far  less  dense 
than  that  of  Western  Europe,  hardly  numbers  -17,000,000  souls. 

Fig.  42. — The  Turkish  Empire. 
Scale  1 :  55,000,000. 


—  1000  Miles. 


The  area  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  exclusive  of  Rumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro, 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  British  Islands.  Constantinople,  with  the  surround- 
ing country,  forms  a  di.strict  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  Ministry  of 
Police.  The  remainder  of  the  country  is  divided  into  eight  rilai/cfs,  or  provinces  ; 
the  vilayets  are  subdivided  into  mutesarifliks,  or  sanjaks ;  these  latter  into  kazas,  or 
cantons  ;  and  the  kazas  into  rabies,  or  parishes.  Lemnos,  Imbros,  Samothrace,  and 
Astypalaea,   with  Rhodes  and  the  islands  along  the  coast   of  Anatolia,   form  a 


152 


TURKEY   IN  EUROPE. 


separate  vilayet.  These  political  divisions,  however,  are  subject  to  frequent 
changes.* 

The  Sultan,  or  Padishah,  concentrates  all  powers  within  bis  person.  He  is  Emir 
rl  miimeiiiii,  or  head  of  the  faithful,  and  his  conduct  is  guided  solely  by  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  Koran  and  the  traditions  of  his  ancestors.  The  two  most  influen- 
tial persons  in  the  empire,  next  to  him,  are  the  Sheik-el- Islam,  or  Great  Mufti,  who 
superintends  public  worship  and  the  administration  of  justice,  and  the  Sadrazam, 
or  Grand  Vizier,  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  general  administration,  and  is  assisted 
by  a  council  of  ten  ministers,  or  mmhirs.  The  Kislar  Agasi,  or  chief  of  the  black 
eunuchs,  to  whom  is  confided  the  management  of  the  imperial  harem,  is  likewise 
one  of  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  empire,  and  frequently  enjoys  the  very  highest 
influence.  The  legal  advisers  of  the  various  ministries  are  known  as  mufii. 
Efendi,  bey,  and  aga  are  honorary  titles  bestowed  upon  certain  Government 
officials  and  persons  of  consideration.  The  title  of  pasha,  which  signifies  "grand 
chief,"  is  given  to  certain  high  civil  or  military  functionaries.  This  title  is 
symbolized  by  one,  two,  or  three  horse-tails  attached  to  the  top  of  a  lance,  a 
usage  recalling  the  time  when  the  nomad  Turks  roamed  over  the  steppes  of 
Central  Asia. 

The  work  of  the  various  ministries  is  done  by  councils,  and  there  thus  exist 
a  council  of  state,  or  shurai  declct,  councils  of  accounts,  of  war,  of  the  navy,  of 
public  education,  of  police,  &c.  These  various  councils,  in  their  totality,  con- 
stitute the  dirau,  or  government  chancery.  There  is  also  a  supreme  court  of 
justice,  with  sections  for  civil  and  criminal  cases.  The  members  of  these  various 
official  bodies  are  appointed  by  Government.  Each  of  the  subject  "  nations " 
is  represented  on  the  Council  of  State  bj'  two  members,  carefully  selected  by  the 
Sadrazam. 

The  vilayet  is  governed  by  a  vali,  the  sanjak  by  a  miitesarif,  the  kaza  by  a 

*  Area  and  population  of  the  Turkish  Empire : 

Constantinople  (including  Army,  &c.) 
Vilayets  : — 

Edimeh,  or  Adrianople  (Thracia) . 

Tvina  (Danube),  or  Bulgaria 

Saloniki  (Macedonia)     . 

Prisrend  (Upper  llacedonia) 

Shkodra,  or  Scutari  (Upper  Albania) 

Bosna  Serai,  or  Serayevo  (Bosnia) 

Herzegovina 

Yanina  (Kpirua  and  Thessaly) 

Crete,  or  Candia    . 
European  Islands     . 


Turkey  in  Enropn 
Turkey  in  Asia 
Tripoli,  &c. 


Total  Ottoman  Empire 


{Rumania 
Servia 
Egypt 
Tunis 


Area, 

Population. 

Mohammedanji 

Square  Miles. 

per  cent. 

1,040 

531,000 

55 

26,160 

1,307,000 

39 

34,120 

2,303,000 

40 

12,9.50 

499,000 

50 

18,320 

1,392,000 

57 

5,310 

171,000 

48 

17,900 

940,000 

42 

5,720 

144,000 

41 

18,320      . 

711,000 

35 

3,326 

210,000 

18 

400 

60,000 

7 

1 43,-566 

8,267.000 

44 

745,000 

13,176,000 

86 

344,000 

1,1-50,000 

99 

1,231,.566 

22,593,000 

71 

46,710 

5,180,000 



16,820 

1,377,000 

— 

869,360 

17,000,000 

70 

45,700 

2,000,000 

99 

Total  Turkish  Empire 


2.210,156 


48,150,000 


63 


GO^^:RNMENT   AND   ADMIXISTRATION.  153 

kaimakan,  tlie  parish  by  a  mudir.  Each  of  these  is  supposed  to  act  by  advice  of 
a  council  composed  of  the  leading  religious  and  civilian  functionaries,  Mohamme- 
dan and  non-Mohamniedan.  In  reality,  however,  the  vali  appoints  all  these 
councils,  and  they  are  popularly  known  as  the  "  Councils  of  the  Ayes." 

The  rules  laid  down  by  the  supreme  Government  for  its  own  guidance  are 
embodied  in  the  hatti-sJierif  of  Gulhane,  promulgated  in  1839,  and  in  the  hatti- 
humayuin  of  1856.  These  hatts  promise  equal  rights  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
empire,  but  have  been  carried  out  hitherto  only  very  partially.  A  "  constitution  " 
was  promulgated  in  December,  1876,  on  the  assembhng  of  the  European  Con- 
ference at  Constantinople.  It  provides  representative  institutions,  local  self-gov' 
emment,  and  various  improvements,  but  is  likely  to  remain  a  dead  letter. 

The  religious  and  judicial  organization  of  the  country  is  jealously  watched 
over  by  the  Sheik-el-Islam  and  the  priests,  and  cannot  possibly  be  changed.  The 
imans  are  specially  charged  with  the  conduct  of  public  worship.  They  include 
sheiks,  or  preachers ;  khatibs,  who  recite  the  official  prayers ;  and  the  imans  prop- 
erly so  called,  who  celebrate  marriages  and  conduct  interments.  Judges  and  imans 
form  a  body  known  as  uhmas,  at  whose  head  is  placed  a  kazi-asker,  or  chief  judge, 
and  who  are  divided  hierarchically  into  moUahs,  kazis  (kadis),  and  naihs. 

The  Greek  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  as  head  of  the  Church  in  Turkey  and 
civil  director  of  the  Greek  communities,  wields  a  considerable  influence.  He  is 
elected  by  a  s^Tiod  of  eighteen  members,  which  administers  the  religious  budget, 
and  whose  decisions  m  matters  of  faith  are  final.  The  heads  of  the  Latin  rite 
are  a  patriarch  at  Constantinople  and  the  two  Archbishops  of  Antivari  and 
Durazzo.     The  two  Armenian  Churches  have  each  a  patriarch  at  Constantinople. 


TEEA'nEs  OF  San  Stefano  and  Berlin. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  preceding  description  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  the 
succeeding  accounts  of  Rumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro,  present  the  conditions 
existing  immediately  prior  to  the  late  war  with  Russia,  in  which  the  Turks  were 
completely  ovei-powered  in  a  few  months.  The  Congress  of  European  powers 
sitting  at  Berlin  in  the  summer  of  1878,  to  consider  the  preliminary  treaty  of  San 
Stefano  (ilarch  2)  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  materially  modified  its  provisions 
in  tlie  joint  treaty  signed  July  13,  disposing  of  European  Turkey  in  the  following 
manner:  1.  The  tributarj-  principality  of  Bulgaria  is  created  (with  less  than  half 
the  dimensions  assigned  to  it  by  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano),  to  be  governed  by  a 
prince  (who  shall  not  be  a  member  of  any  niling  d}-nasty)  chosen  by  the  people 
within  nine  months,  and  confirmed  by  the  Porte  and  the  other  powers,  and  in  the 
mean  time  by  Russian  commissioners  assisted  by  delegated  European  consuls.  2. 
South  of  the  Balkans  is  fonned  the  autonomous  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia, 
under  a  Christian  governor-general,  appointed  for  five  years  by  the  Porte  with  the 
assent  of  the  powers,  which  are  to  determine  within  three  months  the  administra- 
tive requirements  of  the  province.    3.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  to  be  occupied  and 


151 


TURKEY   ly  EUROPE. 


administered  by  Austria-IIungaiy,  excepting  Novi-Iiazar  and  a  small  surronnding 
district.  This  provision,  unlimited  as  to  time,  practically  annexes  those  ]>roviiices 
to  the  Austro-llungai-ian  limpire,  and  has  already  (October,  187!^)  been  executed, 
after  serious  armed  resistance  by  their  Moslem  inhabitants.  4.  Rumania,  Servia, 
and  Montenegro  are  made  independent,  with  the  enlarged  boundaries  shown  by 
the  annexed  map.  Rumania  receives  the  Dobru  ja  from  Russia,  to  which  it  was 
ceded  by  the  treaty  of  iSan  Stefano,  with  the  understanding  that  it  was  to  be  ex- 
changed for  the  strip  of  Bessarabia  transferred  from  liussia  to  Rumania  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris  of  18.56,  which  has  accordingly  been  restored.  The  additions  to 
Montenegro  include  the  port  of  Antivari,  which  is  closed  to  war-ships  of  all 
nations;  and  Montenegro  is  to  have  no  national  flag  nor  si  dps  of  war,  its  merchant 
Hag  to  be  protected  by  Austrian  consuls.  5.  Austrian  Dalmatia  receives  from 
Albania  the  small  port  of  Spitza.  6.  The  services  of  the  powere"^re  offered 
for  the  rectification  of  the  northern  frontier  of  Greece.  7.  Entire  religious  liberty 
and  political  equality  are  [jrovidcd  for  in  all  tlie  territories  aiTeeted  by  tlie  treaty. 

Map  snowixo  Changes  in  European  Tcrkev  and  .Vrmexia,  as  PROPosEn  iiv  the  Treaty  ok  San 
Stkfaxo,  and  as  determined  uv  the  Treaty  of  Berlin. 


NOTE     T\t  Ttrrttvry  taken  frwn  Turkey  by  tk4  Trtaly  i^  San  att/ano  and  rutvrtd  to  ker  tiy  lk<  Om^tM  o/  lierlin  M  linUd  tkw.  J'f^^ 


RUMANIA.* 


HE  Kumanians  are  certainly  one  of  the  most  curious  amongst 
European  nations  The  descendants  of  the  conquerors  of  the 
ancient  world,  they  live  detached  from,  and  far  to  the  north- 
east of,  the  other  nations  of  the  Greco-Latin  family,  and  not 
many  years  ago  they  were  hardly  known  hy  name.  The  grave 
events  of  which  the  Lower  Danube  has  been  the  scene  since  the  middle  of  this 
century  have  brought  these  Rumanians  prominently  to  the  fore,  and  we  know 
now  that  they  differ  essentially  from  their  neighbours,  be  they  Slav,  Turk,  or 
Magyar.  They  constitute,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most  important  elements  amongst 
the  populations  of  Eastern  Europe,  and  numerically  they  are  the  strongest  nation 
on  the  Lower  Danube,  the  Bulgarians  alone  excepted. 

The  ethnological  boundaries  of  Rumania  are  far  wider  than  are  the  political 
ones,  for  they  embrace  not  only  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  beyond  the  Carpathians, 
but  also  Russian  Bessarabia,  a  portion  of  the  Bukovina,  the  greater  portion  of 
Transylvania,  as  well  as  extensive  tracts  in  the  Banat  and  Eastern  Hungary. 
The  Rumanians  have  likewise  crossed  the  Danube,  and  established  themselves  in 
portions  of  Servia  and  Bulgaria;  and  the  settlements  of  their  kinsmen,  the  Zinzares, 
sporadically  extend  far  south  to  the  hills  of  Thessaly  and  Greece.  Rumania 
proper  has  an  area  of  only  46,709  square  miles,  but  the  countries  of  the  Rumanians 
occupy  at  least  twice  that  extent,  and  their  numbers  exceed  8,000,000,  most 
of  whom  dwell  in  a  compact  mass  on  the  Lower  Danube  and  the  adjoining 
portions  of  Hungary  and  Russia. t 

The  Roman  territories  on  the  Lower  Danube  almost  encircle  the  mountain 

•  OfiScially  called  Romania,  and  frequently  spelt  Roumania :  in  French  it  is  Roumanie. 


t  Wallachia  and  Moldavia 

Austro-Hungary  .... 
Bessarabia  and  other  parts  o(  Russia 
Servia  .... 

Turkey 

Greece 


Total 


4,460,000 

2,896,000 

600,000 

155,000 

200,000 

4,000 


8,315,000 


15G 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


masses  of  the  Eastern  Carpathians,  as  will  he  seen  by  a  glance  at  our  map,  but 
only  about  one-half  of  this  territory  has  been  formed  into  an  autonomous  state,  the 
remainder  belonging  to  Hungary  and  Russia.  If  the  national  ambition  of  the 
Rumanians  were  to  be  realised,  the  natural  centre  of  their  country  would  not  lie 
within  the  actual  limits  of  the  territory,  but  at  Hermannstadt  (called  Sibiu  by  the 
"Wallachians),  or  elsewhere  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Carpathians.  Thrust 
beyond  the  Carpathians,  and  extending  from  the  Iron  Gate  to  tlie  upper  atBuents 
of  the  Pruth,  the  independent  Rumanians  occupy  a  country  of  most  irregular 
shape,  and  separated  into  two  distinct  portions  by  the  river  Sereth  and  one  of  its 
tributaries,  whicli  join  the  most  advanced  spur  of  the  Eastern  Carpathians  to  the 
great  bend  of  the  Lower  Danube.  To  the  north  of  this  boundaiy  lies  Moldavia, 
thus  named  after  a  tributary  of  the  Sereth  ;  to  the  south-west  and  west  is  Wallachia, 
or  the  "  Plain  of  the  Welsh,"  i.e.  of  the  Latins.    This  plain,  the  Iznra  Rumaneaaca, 


Fig.  43. — The  Rumanians. 


10.  21*        22*        23"  Ik-         li-         tt>-  rr  IB*        ?»•  30"  3r         if  33' 

A-  -:;  Sir    -  &  .,■ 

...      ,         -U,^v« 


1?  I,  A  r  K     S  E  A 


2»*  29*  30*  31*  32°         33- 


or  Roman-land  proper,  is  intersected  by  numerous  parallel  water-courses,  forming 
as  many  secondary  boundaries,  and  the  river  Olto  separates  it  into  Great 
Wallachia  to  the  east,  and  Little  Wallachia  to  the  west.  The  Danube  forms  the 
political  boundary  down  to  its  mouth.  It  i.s  a  wide  and  sinuous  river ;  below  the 
Iron  Gate,  lakes,  forests,  and  swamps  render  access  to  its  banks  almost  impossible 
in  many  places ;  and  migratory  nations  and  conquerors,  instead  of  crossing  it,  as 
they  could  easily  have  done  in  Austria  and  Bavaria,  rather  sought  to  avoid  it  by 
seeking  for  a  passage  through  the  mountains  to  the  north.  The  abrupt  bend  of  the 
Lower  Danube  and  its  extensive  swampy  delta  still  further  shielded  the  plains  of 
Wallachia,  and  invaders  not  provided  with  vessels  were  thus  turned  to  the  north, 
in  the  direction  of  the  Carpathians.  The  lowlands  of  Moldavia  were  protected, 
though  in  a  less  degree,  by  the  rivers  Dnieper,  Bug,  Dniester,  and  Pruth  running 
parallel  with  each  other. 


RUMANIA.  157 

But,  in  spite  of  these  natural  bulwarks,  it  remains  matter  for  surprise,  and 
proves  the  singular  tenacity  of  the  Eumanians,  that  they  preserved  their  tradi- 
tions, their  language,  and  nationality,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  onslaughts  from 
invaders  of  every  race  to  which  they  were  exposed.  Ever  since  the  retreat  of 
the  Roman  legions,  the  peaceable  cultivators  of  these  plains  were  preyed  upon  so 
frequently  by  Goths,  Huns,  and  Pecheneges,  by  Slavs,  Bulgars,  and  Turks,  that 
their  extinction  as  a  race  appeared  to  be  inevitable.  But  they  have  emerged 
from  every  deluge  which  threatened  to  destroy  them,  thanks,  no  doubt,  to  the 
superior  culture  for  which  they  were  indebted  to  their  ancestors,  and  again  claim 
a  place  amongst  independent  nations.  They  have  fully  justified  their  old  proverb, 
which  saj's,  Romun  no  pere  .' — "  the  Roman  perishes  not." 

The  Transylvanian  Alps  lie  within  the  territory  of  the  Rumanians,  who 
occupy  both  slopes.  Their  upper  valleys,  however,  are  but  thinly  inhabited,  and 
we  may  travel  for  days  without  meeting  with  any  habitations  excepting  the  rude 
huts  of  shepherds.  The  political  boundary  traced  along  the  crest  of  the  moun- 
tains is  merely  an  imaginary  line,  passing  through  the  forest  solitudes  of  vast 
extent.  Excepting  near  the  only  high-road,  and  the  paths  which  join  Transyl- 
vania to  the  plains  of  Wallachia,  these  mountains  remain  in  a  state  of  nature. 
The  chamois  is  still  hunted  there,  and  not  long  since  even  bisons  were  met  with. 
The  Tsigani  penetrates  these  mountains  in  search  of  the  brown  or  black  bears 
which  he  exhibits  in  the  villages.  He  places  a  jar  filled  with  brandy  and  honey 
near  the  beast's  haunt,  and,  as  soon  as  the  bear  and  his  famih'  have  become  help- 
lessly intoxicated,  they  are  seized  and  placed  in  chains. 

The  physical  configuration  of  Rumania  is  extremely  simple.  In  Moldavia  low 
ridges  running  parallel  with  the  high  mountain  chain  extend  from  the  north-west 
to  the  south-east,  being  separated  from  each  other  by  the  valleys  of  the  Bistritza, 
Moldava,  and  Sereth,  and  sinking  down  gradually  into  the  plains  of  the  Danube. 
In  Wallachia  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Transylvanian  Alps  ramify  with  remark- 
able regularity,  and  the  torrents  which  descend  from  them  all  run  in  the  same 
direction.  The  rivers,  whether  they  rise  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  or  traverse  the 
entire  width  of  the  mountains,  such  as  the  Sil,  Shil,  or  Jiul,  the  Olto  or  Aluta, 
and  the  Buseo,  turn  towards  the  east  before  their  waters  mingle  with  those  of  the 
Danube. 

The  slope  of  the  hills  is  pretty  uniform  from  the  crest  of  the  mountains  to  the 
plain  of  the  Danube,  and  the  zones  of  temperature  and  vegetation  succeed  each 
other  with  singular  regularity.  Summits  covered  with  forests  of  conifers  and 
birch,  and  clad  with  snow  during  winter,  rise  near  the  frontiers  of  Transylvania. 
These  are  succeeded  by  mountains  of  inferior  height,  where  beeches  and  chestnuts 
predominate,  and  all  the  picturesque  beauties  of  European  forest  scenery  are  met 
with.  Lower  still  we  come  upon  gentle  hills,  with  groves  of  oaks  and  maples, 
and  their  sunny  sides  covered  with  vines.  Finally,  we  enter  the  wide  plains  of  the 
Danube,  with  their  fruit  trees,  poplars,  and  willows.  The  zone  lying  between  the 
high  mountains  and  the  plain  abounds  in  localities  rendered  delightful  by  pic- 
turesque rocks,  luxuriant  and  varied  verdure,  and  limpid  streams.    In  this  "  happy 


168 


TURKEY   IN  EUROPE. 


Arcadia  "  we  meet  with  most  of  the  large  monasteries,  magnificent  castles  with 
domes  and  towers,  standing  in  the  midst  of  p:irks  and  gardens.  As  to  the  plains, 
they  are  no  doubt  barren  and  monotonous  in  many  places,  but  the  villagers, 
though  their  habitations  are  half  buried   in  the  ground,  enjoy  the   magnificent 


Fig.  44. — The  liivEitg  Shil  and  Oltii. 

Scale  1:1,400,000 


,  23  Miles. 


prospect  of  the  blue  mountains  which  bound  the  horizon.  The  most  characteristic 
objects  in  these  lowlands  are  the  huge  hay-ricks  already  figured  upon  Trajan's 
column  at  Rome. 


RUMANIA.  159 

The  Rumanian  campagna  is  a  second  Lombardy,  not  because  of  the  high  state 
of  its  agriculture,  but  because  of  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  the  beauty  of  the  sky,  and 
of  the  distant  views.  Unfortunately  there  are  no  mountain  barriers  to  protect  it 
against  the  cold  north-easterly  winds  which  predominate  throughout  the  year. 
Extremes  of  cold  and  heat  have  to  be  encountered.*  The  vines  have  to  be  covered 
with  earth  to  protect  them  against  the  colds  of  winter ;  and  in  South-eastern 
Wallachia,  which  is  most  exposed  to  the  violence  of  the  winds,  it  happens  some- 
times that  herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  flying  before  a  snow-storm,  precipitate 
themselves  into  the  floods  of  the  Danube.  Several  districts  sufier  from  want  of 
rain,  and  are  veritable  steppes.  Amongst  these  are  the  plains  of  the  Baragan, 
between  the  Danube  and  Yalomitza,  where  bustards  abound,  and  a  tree  is  not  met 
with  for  miles. 

Geologically  we  meet  with  a  regular  succession  of  formations,  from  the  granite 
on  the  mountain  summits  to  the  alluvial  deposits  along  the  banks  of  the  Danube. 
The  rocks  encountered  on  these  southern  slopes  of  the  Carpathians  are  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  found  in  Galicia  on  their  northern  slopes,  and  they  yield  the  same 
mineral  products,  such  as  rock-salt,  gj'psum,  lithographic  stones,  and  petroleum. 
Tertiary  strata  predominate  in  the  plains,  but  to  the  east  of  Ploiesti  and  Bucharest 
only  quaternary  deposits  of  clay  and  pebbles  are  met  with,  in  which  are  found 
the  bones  of  mammoths,  elephants,  and  mastodons.  The  muddy  rivers  which 
traverse  these  plains  have  excavated  themselves  sinuous  beds,  and  resemble  large 
ditches. 

The  plain  of  Rumania,  like  that  of  Lombardy,  is  an  ancient  gulf  of  the  sea 
filled  up  by  the  debris  washed  down  from  the  mountain  sides.  But  though  the  sea 
has  retired,  the  Danube  remains,  pouring  out  vast  volumes  of  water,  and  oSering 
great  advantages  to  navigation.  At  the  famous  defile  of  the  Iron  Gate,  where 
this  river  enters  the  plain,  its  bed  has  a  depth  of  155  feet,  its  surface  lies 
66  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  its  volume  exceeds  that  of  the  com- 
bined rivers  of  Western  Europe,  from  the  Rhone  to  the  Rhine.  The  Romans,  in 
spite  of  this,  had  thrown  a  bridge  across  the  river,  immediately  below  the  Iron 
Gate,  which  was  justly  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  This  work 
of  architecture,  which  Apollodorus  of  Damas  had  erected  in  honour  of  Trajan,  was 
pulled  down  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  who  was  anxious  to  save  the 
expenses  of  the  garrison  required  for  its  protection.  There  only  remain  now  the 
two  abutments,  and  when  the  waters  are  low  the  foundations  of  sixteen  out  of  the 
twenty  piers  which  supported  the  bridge  may  still  be  seen.  A  Roman  tower,  which 
has  given  name  to  the  little  town  of  Turnu  Severin,  marks  the  spot  where  the 
Romans  first  placed  their  foot  upon  the  soil  of  Dacia.  The  passage  from  Servia 
to  Rumania  is  as  important  as  it  was  of  yoi-e,  but  modern  industry  has  not  yet 
replaced  Trajan's  bridge. 

The  Danube,  like  most  rivers  of  our  northern  hemisphere,  presses  upon  its 
right  bank,  and  this  accounts  for  the  diSerence  between  its  Wallachian  and  Bul- 
garian banks.     The  latter,  gnawed  by  the  floods,  rises  steeply  into  little  hills  and 

♦  Mean  temperature  at  Bucharest,  46'  F.  ;  maximum,  113°  F. ;  minimum,  -  22^  F. ;  difference,  135"  F. 


160  TURKEY   IN  EUROPE. 

terraces,  whilst  the  former  rises  gently,  and  merges  almost  imperceptibly  in  the 
plains  of  "Wallachia.  Swamps,  lakes,  creeks,  and  the  remains  of  ancient  river  beds 
form  a  riverine  network,  enclosing  numerous  islands  and  sand -banks.  These 
channels  are  subject  to  continual  change,  and  to  the  south  of  the  Yalomitza 
may  still  be  seen  a  line  of  swamps  and  lagoons,  which  marks  the  course  of  an 
ancient  river  no  longer  existing.  The  lowlands  on  the  Wallachian  side  of  the 
Danube  are  constantly  increasing  in  extent,  whilst  Bulgaria  continuously  suffers 
losses  of  territory.  The  latter,  however,  is  amply  compensated  for  this  by  the 
salubrity  of  its  soil  and  the  fine  sites  for  commercial  emporiums  which  it  offers. 
It  is  said  that  the  beaver,  which  has  been  exterminated  almost  in  every 
other  part  of  Europe,  is  still  common  in  these  half-drowned  lands  of  Wallachia. 

At  a  distance  of  thirty-eight  miles  from  the  sea,  in  a  straight  line,  the  Danube 
strikes  against  the  granitic  heights  of  the  Dobruja,  and  abruptly  turns  to  the 
north,  subsequently  to  spread  out  into  a  delta.  In  the  course  of  this  detour  it 
receives  its  last  tributaries  of  importance,  viz.  the  Moldavian  Sereth  and  the 
Pruth.  Thirty  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  latter  the  Danube  bifurcates.  Its 
main  branch,  known  as  that  of  Kilia,  conveys  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
volume  of  its  waters  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  forms  the  frontier  between  Rumania 
and  Turkish  Bulgaria.  The  southern  branch,  or  that  of  Tulcha,  flows  entirely 
through  Turkish  territory  It  separates  into  two  branches,  of  which  that  of  Sulina 
is  the  main  artery  of  navigation. 

The  main  branch  of  the  river  is  of  the  utmost  importance  when  considering 
the  changes  wrought  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  through  aqueous  agencies. 
Below  Ismail  it  ramifies  into  a  multitude  of  channels,  which  change  continuously, 
new  channels  being  excavated,  whilst  others  become  choked  with  alluvial  deposits 
carried  down  by  the  floods.  Twice  the  waters  of  the  river  are  reunited  into  a 
single  channel  before  they  finally  spread  out  into  a  secondary  delta  jutting  into 
the  Black  Sea.  The  exterior  development  of  this  new  land  amounts  to  about 
twelve  miles,  and  supposing  the  sea  to  be  of  a  uniform  depth  of  thirty-three  feet,  it 
would  advance  annually  at  the  rate  of  660  feet.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  rapid  increase, 
the  coast,  at  the  Kilia  mouth,  juts  out  far  less  to  the  east  than  it  does  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  delta,  and  we  may  conclude  from  this  that  the  ancient 
gulf  of  the  sea,  now  filled  up  by  the  alluvial  deposits  brought  down  by  the  Eilia 
branch,  was  far  larger  and  deeper  than  those  to  the  south.*  On  examining  a  map 
of  the  Danubian  delta,  it  will  be  found  that,  by  prolonging  the  coast-line  of 
Bessarabia  towards  the  south,  it  crosses  the  delta.  This  is  the  ancient  coast.  It 
rises  above  the  half-drowned  plains  like  an  embankment,  through  which  the 
branches  of  the  river  forced  themselves  a  passage  to  the  sea.  The  alluvium 
brought  down  by  the  Sulina  and  St.  George's  mouths  has  been  spread  over  a  vast 
plain  lying  outside  this  embankment,  whilst  that  carried  down  through  what  is  at 
present  the  main  branch   forms  only  a   small  archipelago  of  ill-defined  islands 

•  Mean  volume  of  the  Danube  (according  to  C.  Hartley),  2,000,000  gallons  per  second ;  maximum 
volume,  0,160,000  gallons;  mean  volume  of  Kilia  mouth,  1,270,000  gallons,  mean  of  St.  George's  mouth, 
672,000  gallons;  mean  of  Sulina  mouth,  170,000  gallons  per  second.  Mean  alluvial  deposits  of  Danube, 
2,119  cubic  feet  per  annum. 


RUMANIA. 


161 


beyond  it.     "We  may  conclude  from  this  that  the  latter  is  of  more  recent  origin 
than  the  other  arms. 

In  the  course  of  its  gradual  encroachment  upon  the  sea,  the  river  has  cut  off  several 
lakes  of  considerable  extent.  On  the  coast  between  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester  and 
the  delta  of  the  Danube  there  are  several  lagoons,  or  linians,  of  inconsiderable 
depth,  the  water  of  which  evaporates  during  the  heat  of  summer,  depositing  a  thin 
crust  of  salt.  In  their  general  configuration,  the  nature  of  the  surrounding  land, 
and  parallelism  of  the  rivers  which  flow  into  them,  these  sheets  of  water  are  very 
much  like  the  lakes  met  with  more  to  the  west,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Pruth.     These  latter,  however,  are  filled  with  fresh  water,  and  the  sandy  barriers  at 

Fig.  45. — The  D.^xcbe  asd  Yalomitza. 
Scale  1  :  1,443,000. 


,  25  Miles. 


their  lower  ends  separate  them  not  from  the  Black  Sea,  but  from  the  Danube. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  lakes  were  anciently  gulfs  of  the  sea,  similar  in  aU 
respects  to  the  lagoons  still  existing  along  the  coast.  The  Danube,  by  converting 
its  ancient  gulf  into  a  delta,  separated  them  from  the  sea,  and  their  saline  water 
was  replaced  by  fresh  water  carried  down  bj'  the  rivers.  The  existing  saline 
lagoons  will  undergo  the  same  metamorphosis,  in  proportion  as  the  delta  of  the 
Danube  gains  upon  the  sea. 

The  plains  of  Wallachia  were  defended  formerly  by  an  ancient  line  of  fortifi- 
cations passing  to  the  north  of  these  Danubian  lakes  and  lagoons,  and  known  as 
"  Trajan's  "Wall,"  like  the  ditches,  walls,  and  entrenched  camps  in  the  Southern 
Dobruja.     The  inhabitants  ascribe  their  construction  to  Caesar,  although  they  are  of 


162  TURKEY  IN   EUROPE. 

much  later  date,  having  been  erected  by  Trajan  as  a  protection  against  the  Visigoths. 
This  ancient  barrier  of  defence  coincided  pretty  nearly  with  the  political  boundary 
between  Russian  and  Rumanian  Bessarabia,  and  extended  probably  to  the  west  of 
the  Pruth,  across  the  whole  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  Vestiges  of  it  still  met 
with  there  are  known  as  the  "  Road  of  the  Avares."  A  second  wall,  still  traceable 
between  Leova  and  Bender,  defended  the  approaches  to  the  vallej'  of  the  Danube. 

In  spite  of  the  diverse  races  which  have  overrun,  conquered,  or  devastated 
their  territory,  the  inhabitants  of  Rumania,  more  fortunate  than  their  neighbours, 
have  preserved  their  unity  of  race  and  language.  Wallachians  and  Moldavians 
form  one  people,  and  not  only  have  they  kept  intact  their  national  territory,  but 
they  have  actually  encroached  upon  the  territories  of  their  neighbours.  Through- 
out Rumania,  with  the  exception  of  that  portion  of  Bessarabia  ceded  by  the 
Western  powers  after  the  Crimean  war,  the  inhabitants  belonging  to  alien  races 
are  in  the  minority. 

The  origin  of  this  Latin-speaking  nation  is  still  shrouded  in  mystery.  Are 
they  the  descendants  of  Getse  and  Latinised  Dacians,  or  does  the  blood  of  Italian 
colonists  brought  thither  by  Trajan,  of  legionaries  and  Roman  soldiers,  predomi- 
nate amongst  them  "r*  To  what  extent  have  they  become  ara.ilgaraated  with  their 
neighbours,  the  Slavs  and  Illyrians  ?  What  share  had  the  Celts  in  the  formation 
of  their  nationality  ?  Are  the  "  Little  "  Wallachians,  the  "  men  with  the  eighty 
teeth," — so  called  on  account  of  their  bravery, — the  descendants  of  Celts  ?  We 
cannot  say  with  certainty,  for  men  of  learning  like  Shafarik  and  Miklosich  differ 
on  all  these  points.  The  vast  plains  at  present  inhabited  by  the  Rumanians 
became  a  wilderness  in  the  third  century,  when  the  Emperor  Aurelian  compelled 
their  inhabitants  to  migrate  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube.  If  it  is  true  that 
the  descendants  of  these  emigrants  ever  returned  to  the  seats  of  their  ancestors,  in 
the  meantime  occupied  by  Slavs,  Magyars,  and  Pecheneges,  when  did  they  do  so  ? 
Miklosich  presumes  that  they  did  so  towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century ; 
Roesler  thinks  in  the  fourteenth,  although  ancient  chroniclers  of  the  eleventh 
century  mention  Rumanians  as  dwelling  in  the  Carpathians.  Other  authorities 
deny  that  there  was  any  re-immigration  ;  they  maintain  that  the  residue  of 
the  Latinised  population  sufficed  for  reconstituting  the  nationality.  Thus  much 
is  certain,  that  this  small  people  has  increased  wonderfully,  and  has  become  now 
the  preponderating  race  on  the  Lower  Danube  and  in  Transylvania. 

Even  in  the  seventeenth  centurj'  the  language  spoken  by  the  Rumanians 
was  treated  as  a  rural  dialect,  and  Slavonian  was  used  in  churches  and  courts 
of  justice.  At  the  present  day,  on  the  contrary,  Rumanian  patriots  are  anxious 
to  purge  their  language  of  all  Servian  words,  and  of  Greek  and  Turkish 
expressions  introduced  during  the  dominion  of  the  Osmanli.  The  "Romans" 
of  the  Danube  are  endeavouring  to  polish  their  tongue,  so  that  it  may  rank 
with  Italian  and  French.  They  have  abandoned  the  Russian  characters, 
and  their  vocabulary  is  being  continually  enriched  by  new  words  derived 
from  the  Latin.     The  idiom  spoken  in  the  towns,  which  was  the  most  impure 


3= 


a: 


RUMANIA.  163 

formerly,  in  consequence  of  the  influx  of  strangers,  has  now  become  more  Latin 
than  that  spoken  in  the  country.  There  are,  however,  about  two  hundred 
words  not  traceable  to  any  known  tongue,  and  these  are  supposed  to  be  a  remnant 
of  the  ancient  Dacian  spoken  at  the  period  of  the  Roman  invasion.  The  Wal- 
lachian  differs,  moreover,  from  the  Latin  tongues  of  Western  Europe  by  always 
placing  the  article  and  the  demonstrative  pronoun  after  the  noun.  The  same  rule 
obtains  in  Albanian  and  Bulgarian,  and  Miklosich  is  probably  right  when  he 
looks  upon  this  as  a  feature  of  the  ancient  language  of  the  aborigines. 

These  niceties,  however,  are  altogether  unnoticed  by  the  mass  of  the  people. 
The  Rumanian  peasant  is  proud  of  the  ancient  conquerors  of  his  country,  and 
looks  upon  himself  as  the  descendant  of  the  patricians  of  Rome.  Several  of  his 
customs,  at  the  birth  of  children,  betrothals,  or  burials,  recall  those  observed  by 
the  Romans,  and  the  dance  of  the  Cahtshares,  it  is  said,  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  earliest  Italian  settlers.  The  Wallachian  is  fond  of  talking  about  Father 
Trajan,  to  whom  he  attributes  all  those  feats  which  in  other  countries  are 
associated  with  Hercules,  Fingal,  or  Ossian.  Many  a  mountain  valley  has  been 
rent  asunder  by  Trajan's  powerful  hand;  and  the  avalanches  descending  from  the 
hills  are  spoken  of  as  Trajan's  thunder.  The  Rumanian  completely  ignores 
Getffi,  Dacians,  or  Goths,  though  in  the  hills  we  still  meet  with  tall  men  having 
blue  eyes  and  long  flaxen  hair,  who  are  probably  descended  from  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  the  country. 

The  Rumanians  have  generally  fine  sunburnt  features,  fair  hair,  expressive 
eyes,  a  mouth  finely  shaped,  and  beautiful  teeth.  They  allow  their  hair  to  grow 
long,  and  sometimes  even  prefer  to  expatriate  themselves  to  sacrificing  it  to  the 
exigencies  of  military  service.  They  exhibit  grace  in  all  their  movements,  are 
indefatigable  on  the  march,  and  support  the  heaviest  labour  without  complaining. 
Even  the  Wallachian  herdsman,  with  his  sheepskin  cap,  or  cashula,  his  wide 
leather  belt  used  as  a  pocket,  a  sheepskin  thrown  over  his  shoulders,  and  drawers 
which  recall  those  of  the  Dacians  sculptured  on  Trajan's  Column,  is  noble  in  his 
bearing.  In  the  large  towns,  where  much  intermixture  has  taken  place  with 
Greeks,  Southern  Russians,  and  Magyars,  the  brown  complexion  predominates. 
The  Rumanian  women  are  grace  itself  They  always  charm  us  by  taste  and 
neatness,  whether  they  have  adopted  a  modern  dress  or  still  patronise  the 
national  costume,  consisting  of  an  embroidered  chemisette,  a  floating  vest,  a  party- 
coloured  apron,  a  golden  net,  and  golden  sequins  placed  in  the  hair.  These 
external  advantages  are  combined  in  the  Rumanian  with  quickness  of  appre- 
hension, a  gay  spirit,  and  the  gift  of  repartee,  which  entitle  them  to  be  called  the 
Parisians  of  the  Orient. 

In  the  midst  of  this  homogeneous  Rumanian  population  we  meet  with 
Bulgarian  colonists,  whose  number  has  increased  recently  in  consequence  of 
the  persecutions  of  Turks  and  Greeks.  The  character  of  the  Bulgarians  born  in 
the  country  has  undergone  considerable  modifications.  They  are  at  present  the 
most  industrious  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns  they  occupy 
themselves  principally  with  horticulture.      Manj'  of  these  Bulgarians  live  in  that 


164 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


portion  of  Bessarabia  which  was  ceded  bj'  Russia  in  1855.  They  settled  there  in 
18"2n,  more  particularly  iu  the  Jhidzuk,  or  southern  "  corner  "  of  Bessarabia,  and 
their  fields  are  better  tilled,  their  roads  in  better  condition,  than  those  of  their 
Moldavian  neighbours.  Their  villages  still  bear  Tartar  names,  from  the  time 
when  their  country  was  occupied  by  Nogai  Tartars,  and  they  contrast  favourably 
with  the  villages  of  the  surrounding  peoples.  Bolgrad,  the  capital  of  this  colony, 
is  a  small  bustling  town,  the  schools  of  which  enjoy  a  high  reputation.  These 
Bulgarians,  so  distinguished  for  industry,  sobriety,  and  thrift,  have  more  or  less 
amalgamated  with  Russians,  Greeks,  and  gipsies,  and  they  talk  almost  every 
language  of  the  East. 

The  Russians  of  Moldavian  Bessarabia  have  their  settlements  ou  the  banks  of 
the  Danube,  to  the  east  of  these  Bulgarian  colonies.  They,  too,  are  good 
agriculturists.     The    Russians  met  with  in  the  towns  are  generally  engaged    in 


Fig.  46. — Ethnolooical  Map  or  Moldavian  Bessakaiiia. 
Scale  1 :  1,600,000. 


Bulgarians  Russians  PvcumaDians  Albanians  rninhabited 

asm  ^^  rm^  ^^ 


commerce,  and  enjoy  a  high  reputation  for  honesty.  Most  of  them  belong  to  the 
old  sect  of  the  Lipovani,  and  fled  from  Russia  about  a  century  ago  to  escape  religious 
persecution.  They  nearly  all  speak  Rumanian.  Yilkof,  a  village  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube,  is  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  these  Lipovani,  who  are 
expert  fishermen,  and  share  the  produce  of  their  labour  in  common.  Others 
amongst  the  Russians  belong  to  the  sect  of  the  Skoptzi,  or  "  mutilated,"  which 
is  said  to  recruit  itself  by  stealing  children.  These  Skoptzi  are  recognised  by 
their  portliness  and  smooth  faces,  and  at  Bucharest  they  are  reputed  to  be  excel- 
lent coachmen. 

Magj-ar  Szeklers  from  Transylvania,  known  in  the  country  as  Changhei,  are 
the  only  other  foreign  element  of  the  population  occupying  distinct  settlements. 
These  Changhei,  who  first  came  into  the  country  when  the  Kings  of  Hungary 
were   masters  of  the  valley  of   the  Sereth,  are  gradually   becoming  Rumanians 


EUMANIA.  lo5 

in  dress  and  language,  and  would  have  become  so  long  ago  were  they  not  Roman 
Catholics,  whilst  the  people  among  whom  they  live  are  Greeks.  They  are  joined 
annually  by  a  few  compatriots  from  Transylvania,  attracted  by  the  mild  climate 
and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  spring  and  autumn  large  bands  of  Hungarian 
reapers  and  labourers  descend  into  the  plains  of  Moldavia. 

The  Hellenic  element  was  strongly  represented  last  century,  when  the 
government  of  the  country  was  farmed  out  by  the  Sultan  to  Greek  merchants 
of  Constantinople.  At  the  present  time  the  Greeks  are  not  numerous — not 
exceeding,  perhaps,  10,000  .souls,  even  if  we  include  amongst  them  Hellenized 
Zinzares — but  they  occupy  influential  positions  as  managers  of  estates  or 
merchants,  and  the  export  of  corn  is  almost  exclusively  in  their  hands.  Traces 
of  the  ancient  government  of  these  Phanariotes  still  exist  in  the  language  of 
the  country,  and  in  the  relationships  resulting  from  intermarriages  between 
seignorial  families.  Far  more  numerous  than  these  Greeks,  and  of  greater 
importance,  are  the  members  of  those  homeless  nations — the  Jews  and  Tsigani 
(or  gipsies).  A  few  Spanish  Jews  are  met  with  in  the  large  towns,  but  the 
majority  are  "  German  "  Jews,  who  have  come  hither  from  Poland,  Little  Russia, 
Galicia,  and  Hungary.  As  publicans  and  middlemen  they  come  into  close 
contact  with  the  poor  people,  and  they  are  universally  detested,  not  on  account 
of  their  religion,  but  because  of  the  wonderful  skill  with  which  they  manage  to 
secure  the  savings  of  the  people.  Imaginary  crimes  of  all  kinds  are  attributed 
to  them,  and  they  have  repeatedly  been  exposed  to  maltreatment  on  the 
frivolous  charge  of  having  eaten  little  children  at  their  Passover.  The  Ruma- 
nians, however,  can  hardly  manage  without  these  detested  Jews,  and  their  laws, 
by  preventing  the  Jews  from  acquiring  land,  fortify  their  commercial  monopoly. 
The  Jews,  if  certain  estimates  may  be  credited,  constitute  one-fifth  of  the  total 
population  of  Moldavia.  The  Armenians,  the  other  great  commercial  people  of 
the  Orient,  are  represented  by  a  few  flourishing  colonies,  more  especially  in 
Moldavia.  These  Haikanes  are  the  descendants  of  immigrants  who  settled  in  the 
country  at  various  epochs  between  the  eleventh  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The)* 
live  amongst  themselves,  and,  though  not  exactly  liked  by  the  people,  they  have 
known  how  to  avoid  becoming  objects  of  hatred.  A  few  Armenians  from  Con- 
stantinople, and  speaking  Turkish,  are  met  with  on  the  Lower  Danube. 

The  Tsigani,  or  gipsies,  so  despised  formerly,  become  merged  by  degrees  in 
the  rest  of  the  population.  Not  long  ago  they  were  slaves,  the  property  of  the 
State,  of  boyards,  or  monasteries.  They  led  a  wandering  life — working,  trafiicking, 
or  stealing  for  the  benefit  of  their  masters.  They  were  divided  into  castes,  the 
principal  of  which  were  the  lingurari,  or  spoon-makers  ;  itrsari,  or  bear-leaders  ; 
ferrari,  or  smiths ;  atirari,  or  collectors  of  gold  dust ;  and  lautari,  or  musicians. 
These  latter  were  the  most  polished  of  all,  and  were  employed  to  celebrate  the 
glory  and  the  virtues  of  the  boyards.  They  are  now  the  minstrels  of  the  countr}' 
and  the  musicians  of  the  town.  Very  few  in  number  are  the  Netotzi,  a  degraded 
caste  who  live  in  woods  or  tents,  subsist  upon  the  foulest  food,  and  do  not  bury 
their  dead.  The  Tsigani  were  assimilated  in  1837  with  the  peasantry,  and  since 
12 


166  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

their  emancipation  nearly  all  of  them  lead  a  settled  life,  cultivating  the  soil  with 
groat  care,  or  exercising  some  handicraft.  The  fusion  between  Tsigani  and 
Rumanians  is  making  rapid  progress,  for  both  races  have  the  same  religion  and 
speak  the  same  language.  Intermarriages  between  the  two  are  frequent,  and  in 
a  time  not  far  off  the  Tsigani  of  Rumania  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past.  They  are 
supposed  still  to  number  between  100,000  and  300,000  souls.* 

The  Rumanian  nation  is  still  in  a  state  of  transition  from  a  feudal  to  a 
modern  epoch.  The  revolution  of  1848  shook  the  ancient  sj'stem  to  its  founda- 
tion, but  did  not  destroy  it.  As  recently  as  1856  the  peasants  were  attached  to 
the  soil.  They  had  no  rights,  but  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  boyards  and  monas- 
teries whose  soil  they  were  doomed  to  till,  and  lived  in  miserable  hovels.  The 
whole  of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants  belonged  to  five  or  six  thousand  boyards, 
who  were  either  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  "braves,"  or  had  purchased  their 
patents  of  nobility.  Most  of  these  boyards  were  only  small  proprietors,  and  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  land  belonged  to  seventy  feudatories  in  Wallachia,  and  three 
hundred  in  Moldavia. 

This  state  of  affairs  led  to  the  most  frightful  demoralisation  amongst  masters 
and  serfs,  and  even  the  good  qualities  of  the  Rumanian — his  energy,  his  gene- 
rosity, and  friendliness — were  turned  into  evil.  The  nobles  lived  far  away  from 
their  estates,  spending  the  income  forwarded  by  their  Greek  bailiffs  in  debauchery 
and  gambling.  The  peasants  worked  but  little,  for  they  had  no  share  in  the 
produce  of  the  soil ;  they  were  mistrustful  and  full  of  deceit,  as  are  all  slaves  ; 
they  were  ignorant  and  superstitious,  for  they  depended  for  their  edaication  upon 
illiterate  and  fanatical  priests.  Their  popes  were  magicians,  and  cured  maladies 
by  incantations  and  holy  philtres.  As  to  the  monks,  some  of  them  were  rich 
proprietors,  as  rapacious  as  the  temporal  lords ;  others  lived  on  alms,  having 
exchanged  a  life  of  slaverj-  for  mendicitj". 

Not  long  ago  the  Rumanians,  deprived  of  all  education  except  that  sup- 
plied by  their  doinas,  or  ancient  songs,  were  lost  almost  in  media3val  darkness. 
Even  now  some  of  the  ancient  customs  of  their  ancestors  survive  in  the  rural 
districts.  Funerals  are  attended  by  hired  weeping  women,  whose  shrieks 
accompany  the  farewell  of  relatives.  Into  the  coffin  they  place  a  stick  upon 
which  to  rest  when  crossing  the  Jordan,  a  piece  of  cloth  to  serve  as  a  garment, 
and  a  coin  as  a  bribe  to  St.  Peter  for  opening  the  gate  of  heaven.  Nor  are  wine 
and  bread  forgotten  for  the  journej'.  Red-haired  people  are  suspected  of 
returning  to  earth  in  the  guise  of  a  dog,  a  frog,  or  a  flea,  and  to  penetrate  into 
houses  in  order  to  suck  the  blood  of  good-looking  young  girls.  In  their  case  it  is 
as  well  to  close  the  coffin-lid  tightly,  or,  still  better,  to  pierce  the  throat  of  the 
defunct  with  a  stick. 

The  peasantry  will  doubtless  no  longer  be  haunted  by  these  hallucinations,  for  the 

•  Approximate  population  of  Rumania  in  187-5,  .5,2.32,.500  souls,  of  whom  3,260,000  were  in  Wallachia, 
and  1,9"2,.300  in  Moldavia.  There  were  4.460,000  Rumanians,  90.000  Bulorarians,  40,000  Russians  and 
other  Slavs,  .50,00U  Magyars,  130,000  Tsigani,  400,000  Jews,  10,000  Armenians,  and  o2,500  foreigners 
30,000  Auatrians,  10,000  Greeks,  5,000  Germans,  1,.500  French). 


RUMANIA.  167 

moral  and  intellectual  progress  of  the  nation  has  kept  pace  with  its  material  pros- 
perity since  the  peasant  has  cultivated  his  own  land.  Officially  made  a  freeman 
in  1856,  but  held  for  several  years  afterwards  in  a  kind  of  limited  bondage,  the 
peasant  now  owns  at  least  a  portion  of  the  land.  By  a  law  passed  in  1862,  each 
head  of  a  family  is  entitled  to  a  plot  of  land  from  seven  to  sixty-seven  acres  in 
extent,  and  ever  since  that  time  the  peasants  have  gained  immensely  in  self- 
respect.  His  land,  though  still  cultivated  with  the  ancient  Roman  plough,  and 
deprived  of  manure,  produces  immense  quantities  of  cereals,  the  sale  of  which 
brings  wealth  into  the  country  and  encourages  progress.  Rumania  is  now  one 
of  the  great  corn-exporting  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  favourable  years,  when 
the  crops  are  neither  eaten  up  by  locusts  nor  destroyed  by  frosts,  its  exports  exceed 
those  of  Hungary.  In  less  than  ten  years  the  export  of  wheat,  maize,  barley,  and 
oats  has  doubled,  and  the  sum  annually  realised  varies  between  £4,000,000  and 
£8,000,000  sterling. 

Unfortunately  the  peasants  eat  but  little  of  the  corn  they  grow.  They  are 
content  with  the  maize,  from  which  they  prepare  their  mamaligo  and  the  detestable 
spirits  which  cheer  their  hearts  on  a  hundred  and  ninety-four  annual  fete  days.  The 
cultivation  of  the  vine,  which  was  altogether  neglected  formerly,  is  likewise  making 
progress,  and  the  produce  of  the  foot-hiUs  of  the  Carpathians  is  justly  esteemed. 
The  time  is  past  now  when  "Wallachian"  and  "herdsman"  were  synonvms 
throughout  the  East.  Still,  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  country  remains 
uncultivated,  and  the  soil  is  allowed  to  lie  fallow  every  third  year.  Moldavia  is 
better  cultivated,  upon  the  whole,  than  Wallachia,  and  this  is  principally  owing 
to  the  fact  of  the  Moldavian  boyards  residing  upon  their  estates,  and  taking  a  pride 
in  their  management.  Progress,  however,  is  apparent  throughout  the  country,  and 
there  is  hardly  a  large  estate  without  its  steam  threshing-machine.  Even  the 
small  proprietors  are  gradually  introducing  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  and 
in  many  villages  they  have  formed  co-operative  associations  for  the  cultivation  of 
extensive  tracts  of  country.* 

Rumania  is  essentially  an  agricultural  coxmtry.  The  ores  of  the  Carpathians 
are  not  utilised,  for  there  are  no  roads  which  give  access  to  them.  The  petroleum 
wells  only  supplied  3,810,000  gallons  in  1873.  Four  of  the  principal  salt-works 
are  carried  on  by  Government,  partly  with  the  aid  of  convict  labour,  and  j-ield 
annually  80,000  tons  of  salt.  The  fisheries  are  of  some  importance.  The  inha- 
bitants on  the  Lower  Danube  salt  the  fish  which  abound  in  the  river  and 
the  neighbouring  lakes,  and  prepare  caviare  from  sturgeons.  There  are  no 
manufactories  excepting  near  the  large  towns,  and  the  country  is  noted  only  for 
its  carpets,  embroidered  cloth  and  leather,  and  pottery.  The  housewives  are 
famed  for  their  confectionery. 

Commerce  is  annually  on  the  increase.f     Its  only  outlet  in  former  times  was 

•  Of  the  total  area  of  Rumania  6,000,000  acres  are  corn-lands,  600,000  acres  produce  wine,  tobacco, 
&c.,  5,000,000  consist  of  forests,  9,000,000  of  pastures  and  meadows,  and  8,000,0u0  are  uncultivated.  In 
1874  there  were  600,000  horses,  2,900,000  head  of  cattle,  100,000  buflfaloes,  5,000,000  sheep,  1,200,000 
pigs,  and  500,000  goats. 

t  Exports,  average  of  1865—75,  £6,700,000;  imports,  £4,300,000. 


168  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

the  Danube.  Nearly  the  whole  produce  of  the  country  was  carried  to  Galatz, 
at  the  bend  of  the  river,  upon  which  the  principal  routes  of  the  country  con- 
verge. For  many  years  to  come  the  Danube  will  remain  the  great  commercial 
highway  of  the  country  ;  the  Pruth,  too,  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  as  far  as 
Sculeni,  to  the  north  of  Yassy ;  whilst  the  numerous  rivers  descending  from  the 
Carpathians  will  always  prove  useful  for  the  conveyance  of  timber.  New  outlets 
have  been  created  by  the  construction  of  railways.  Rumania  is  now  joined  to 
the  railway  systems  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  and  the  proposed  bridge  across  the 
Danube  will  place  it  in  direct  communication  with  Varna,  on  the  Black  Sea. 
The  level  nature  of  the  country  facilitates  the  construction  of  railways,  but  its 
inhabitants  look  upon  their  extension  with  a  feeling  of  apprehension,  for  they 
fancy  that  a  commercial  invasion  may  bring  in  its  train  a  military  one.* 

The  Rumanians  complain  much  about  the  left  bank  of  the  Sulina  branch  of 
the  Danube  not  having  been  ceded  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Paris.  In  former 
times  the  whole  of  the  delta  of  the  Danube  belonged  to  Moldavia,  as  is  proved 
by  the  ruins  of  a  town  built  by  the  Rumanians  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
river,  opposite  to  Kilia.  Up  to  the  close  of  last  century  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Moldavian  governor  of  Ismail  extended  to  the  port  of  Sulina,  and  he  was 
charged  with  keeping  the  mouth  of  the  river  free  from  obstructions.  The 
Western  powers,  in  spite  of  this,  allowed  Turkey  to  occupy  the  whole  of  the 
delta,  whilst  they  confined  the  Rumanians  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Kilia  branch. 
The  country,  consequently,  has  no  direct  access  to  the  Black  Sea,  except  by  means 
of  small  vessels,  for  the  mouth  of  the  Kilia  branch  is  obstructed  by  a  bar. 
M.  Desjardins  and  other  engineers  who  have  devoted  some  attention  to  the 
subject  propose  to  construct  a  ship  canal,  about  eight  miles  in  length,  which  will 
connect  the  Danube  with  the  Bay  of  Sibriani.  In  the  meantime  Rumania  is  at 
liberty  to  make  use  of  the  Sulina  mouth,  which  is  kept  open  at  the  expense 
of  the  Western  powers,  and  a  canal,  therefore,  hardly  appears  to  be  called  for. 

Bucharest  (or  Bucuresci,  pron.  Bukureshti),  the  capital  of  Wallachia  and  of  the 
whole  of  Rumania,  already  numbers  amongst  the  great  cities  of  Europe.  Next  to 
Constantinople  and  Buda-Pest,  it  is  the  most  populous  town  of  South-ea.stern 
Europe,  and  its  inhabitants  fondly  speak  of  it  as  the  "  Paris  of  the  Orient." 
The  town  not  very  long  since  was  hardly  more  than  a  collection  of  villages, 
very  picturesque  from  a  distance  on  account  of  numerous  towers  and  glittering 
domes  rising  above  the  surrounding  verdure,  but  very  unpleasant  within.  But 
Bucharest  has  been  transformed  rapidly  with  the  increasing  wealth  of  its 
inhabitants.  It  may  boast  now  of  wide  and  clean  streets,  bounded  by  fine 
houses,  of  public  .squares  full  of  animation,  and  of  well-kept  parks,  and  fully 
deserves  now  its  sobriquet  of  the  "joyful  city." 

Yassy  (Jasi,  or  Yashi),  which  became  the  capital  of  Moldavia  when  Suchova 
was  annexed  by  Austria,  occupies  a  position  far  less  central  than  does  Bucharest, 
but   the  fertility  of    the  surrounding  country,  the    proximity  of    the  navigable 

*  Railroads,  1,800  miles  ;  high-roads,  2,6.50  miles  ;  telegraphs,  2,500  miles ;  steamers  on  the  Danuhe. 
29,  of  7,620  tons  burden. 


EUilANIA. 


169 


Pruth  and  of  Russia,  with  which  it  maintaius  a  brisk  commerce,  and  its  position 
on  the  high-road  joining  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea,  have  caused  it  to  increase 
rapidly  in  population.  It  is  a  flourishing  town  now,  though  no  longer  the  seat 
of  an  independent  government.  Built  upon  the  foot-hills  of  the  Carpathians, 
the  city  presents  itself  magnificently  from  afar,  and  its  exterior  is  not  belied  by 
its  finer  quarters.  Jews,  Armenians,  Russians,  Tsigani,  Tartars,  and  Magyars 
are  numerously  represented  amongst  its  population,  which  is  semi-Oriental  in 
type.     We  may  almost   fancy  ourselves   standing  upon   the   threshold  of    Asia. 


Fis 


-View  of  Bucharest. 


The  church  of  the  Three  Saints  is  distinguished  for  its  originality,  and  is  a  master- 
piece of  ornamentation  in  the  Moorish  style. 

All  the  other  towns  of  Rumania  are  indebted  for  their  importance  to  their 
position  on  commercial  high-roads.  Botosani,  in  Northern  Moldavia,  lies  on  the 
road  to  Galicia  and  Poland,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Falticeni,  whose  inter- 
national fairs  are  always  well  attended.  Commerce  causes  the  towns  on  the 
Danube  to  flourish.  Vilkof  is  a  great  mart  for  fish  and  caviare ;  Kilia,  the 
ancient  Achillea,  or  city  of  Achilles  ;  Ismail,  where  the  Russian  Lipovani  are 
numerous  ;  Reni ;  Galatz,  said  to  be  an  ancient  colony  of  the  Galatians,  now  the. 


170  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

most  important  commercial  emporium  on  the  Lower  Danube,  and  seat  of  tte 
European  commissioners  for  its  regulation  ;  Braila,  a  poor  village  as  long  as  the 
Turks  held  it,  but  now  important  on  account  of  its  grain  trade,  and  the  literary 
centre  of  the  Bulgarians.  All  these  towns,  though  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Danube,  may  be  looked  upon  almost  as  ports  of  the  Black  Sea,  through  which  the 
produce  of  the  country,  and  especially  its  grain,  finds  an  outlet  to  foreign 
markets.  Giurgiu  (Jurjevo)  is  the  port  of  Bucharest  on  the  Danube  ;  Turnu- 
Severinu  is  the  gateway  of  Wallachia,  below  the  great  narrows  of  the  river ; 
Craiova,  Pitesci,  Ploiesti,  Buzeu,  and  Focsani  form  the  terminal  points  of  the 
roads  descending  from  the  high  valleys  of  Transylvania.  Alecsandria,  a  town 
recently  built  in  the  centre  of  the  phiin  which  extends  from  Bucharest  to  the  Olto, 
has  become  a  depot  for  agricultural  produce. 

Formerly,  when  incessant  wars  rendered  a  strong  strategical  position  of 
greater  importance  than  commercial  advantages,  the  capital  of  the  country  was 
established  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Carpathians.  In  the  thirteenth  century  it 
was  at  Campu-Lungu,  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains,  and  subsequently  it  was 
transferred  to  Curtea  d'Argesia,  founded  by  Prince  Negoze  Bessaraba  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Of  this  ancient  capital  there  remain  now 
only  a  monastery  and  a  wonderfid  churcli  :  the  walls,  cornices,  and  towers  are 
covered  with  sculptures,  like  the  work  of  a  jeweller.  Targu-Vestea,  or  Tirgovist, 
on  the  Yalomitza,  was  the  third  capital,  but  of  the  fine  palace  built  there  by  the 
do»ini  there  remain  now  only  blackened  walls.* 

Rumania  includes  the  two  ancient  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia, 
and  forms  a  semi-independent  state  under  the  protection  of  the  great  powers, 
and  paying  an  annual  tribute  of  about  £40,000  to  the  Porte.  The  country 
has  placed  a  member  of  the  Ilohcnzollern  family  at  the  head  of  the  State.  The 
con!^titution  of  1866  confers  upon  this  prince  the  right  of  appointing  all  public 
functionaries  and  the  officers  of  the  army,  of  coining  money,  and  of  pardoning. 
All  laws  require  his  signature  before  they  can  be  enforced.  He  enjoys  a  civil  list 
of  £48,000. 

The  legislative  powers  are  vested  in  two  chambers,  the  members  of  which  are 
elected  by  a  process  designed  to  favour  the  interests  of  the  rich.  All  Rumanians 
above  twenty-one  years  of  age,  except  servants  in  receipt  of  wages,  are  inscribed  in 
the  electoral  lists.  They  are  divided  into  four  "  colleges,"  or  classes,  having  widely 
different  privileges.  The  first  college  includes  all  those  electors  of  a  district 
whose  income  from  landed  property  amounts  to  £132  a  year  ;  electors  having  an 
income   of    between   £44   and   £132   form  a    second    college;    merchants    and 

•  Number  of  inhabitants  of  the  principal  to\nis  of  Rumania  (official  spelling ;  vulgar  or  phonetic  spell- 
ing in  parenthesis)  : — 

Jf'allachia.—BucuTesci  (Bucharest),  221,800 ;  Ploiesti  (Ploeshti),  33,000 ;  Braila,  28,270 ;  Craiova, 
22,764  ;  Giurgiu  (Jurjevo,  or  Giurgevo),  20,860  ;  Buzeu  (Busau),  11,100  ;  Alecsandria,  U.OOU  ;  Canipiilung, 
9,900  ;  Pitesci  (Piteshti),  8,500  ;  Caracalu,  8,600. 

Moldavia.— 3 aai  (Yassy),  90,000;  Galati  (Galatz),  80,000;  Botosani,  39,900;  Barhidu  (Byrlat), 
26,600;  Smeilu  (Ismail),  Jl.OOO;  Focsani,  20,300;  Peatra,  20,000;  Husi,  18,.50i) ;  Koman,  10,900; 
Falticeni,  1.3,000 ;  Bacau,  13,000  ;  Dorohoi,  10,000  ;  Bolgradu,  9,600 ;  Chilie  (Kiiia),  8,900 ;  Heni, 
7,GU0. 


RUMAXL\.  171 

tradesmen  of  tie  towns  paying  a  tax  of  23.s.  annually,  GoTemraent  pensioners, 
half-pay  ofBcers,  professors  and  graduates  of  universities,  form  the  third  college ; 
and  the  remainder  of  the  electors  belong  to  the  fourth  college.  The  first  two 
colleges  elect  a  deputy  each  for  their  district ;  the  third  coUege  elects  from 
one  to  six  deputies  for  each  town,  according  to  its  size ;  the  fourth  coUege  elects 
delegates  by  whom  the  representatives  are  chosen. 

The  Senate  represents  more  especially  the  large  landed  proprietors.  Senators 
must  have  an  income  of  £352,  and  are  elected  by  the  landed  proprietors  whose 
income  amounts  to  at  least  £132  a  year.  The  universities  of  Bucharest  and 
Yassy  are  represented  by  a  senator  each,  elected  by  the  professors,  and  the  crown 
prince,  the  metropolitan,  and  the  diocesan  bishops  are  ex-officio  members  of  the 
Senate.     Senators  are  elected  for  eight,  and  deputies  for  four  j'ears. 

The  Rumanian  constitution  grants  all  those  rights  and  privileges  usually  set 
forth  in  documents  of  that  kind.  The  right  of  meeting  is  guaranteed ;  there  is 
liberty  of  the  press ;  the  muuicij)al  officers  and  mayors  are  elected,  but  the  Prince 
may  intervene  in  the  case  of  towns  inhabited  by  more  than  a  thousand  families  ; 
the  punishment  of  death  is  abolished,  except  in  time  of  war ;  and  education  is  free 
and  compulsory  "  wherever  there  are  schools."  There  is  liberty  of  religion, 
though  there  is  a  State  Church,  and  Christians  alone  can  be  naturalised.  Xo 
marriage  is  legal  unless  it  has  been  consecrated  by  a  priest.  The  Rumanian 
Church,  as  far  as  dogmas  are  concerned,  is  that  of  the  Greeks,  but  it  is  altogether 
independent  of  the  Greek  patriarch  residing  at  Constantinople,  and  is  governed 
by  its  own  Synod.     Most  of  the  monasteries  have  been  secularised. 

The  country  is  divided  into  four  judicial  districts,  each  having  a  court  of 
appeal,  whilst  a  supreme  court  sits  at  Bucharest.  The  French  codes,  slightly 
modified,  were  introduced  in  1865. 

The  army  is  partly  modelled  upon  that  of  Prussia.  All  citizens  are  called 
upon  to  serve  sixteen  years,  eight  of  which  are  passed  in  the  standing  army  or  its 
reserve,  and  eight  in  the  militia.  The  National  Guard  includes  all  men  up  to 
fifty  not  belonging  to  either  of  the  other  categories.  By  calling  out  all  its  men, 
Rumania  can  easily  send  an  army  of  100,000  men  into  the  field.  There  are  like- 
wise a  few  gunboats  on  the  Danube. 

The  finances  of  Rumania  are  in  a  more  satisfactory  condition  than  those  of 
most  other  states  of  Europe.  The  Government  has  certainly  been  living  upon 
loans,  for  which  eight  per  cent,  has  to  be  paid,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  annual 
income  is  spent  upon  the  payment  of  interest,  the  army,  and  the  revenue  services. 
The  credit  of  Rumania  is,  however,  good,  for  the  loans  are  secured  upon  vast 
domains,  the  property  of  the  secularised  monasteries,  several  thousand  acres  of 
which  are  sold  every  year.  The  sale  of  salt  and  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  are 
Government  monopolies.* 

Rumania  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  33  departments  and  164 
districts,  or  plasi.     There  are  62  towns  and  3,020  rural  communes. 

•  Average  annual  expenditure,  1871— 76,  £3,650,000  .  public  debt,  £19,-500,000,  including  £13,000,000 
expended  upon  railways  ;  estimated  value  of  the  domains,  £20,000,000. 


SEHVIA  AND  MONTENEGRO. 


Servia. 

ERVIA,  like  Rumania,  was  until  recently  a  seini-indcpendent  state, 
paying  a  tribute  of  £25,000  a  year  to  the  Porte,  and  submitting  to 
the  presence  of  a  Turkish  garrison  at  Mali-Zvomik,  on  the  Bosnian 
frontier.  But  even  these  vestiges  of  ancient  oppression  irritated 
the  national  pride  to  an  inconceivable  degree,  and  the  moment 
when  a  blow  might  be  struck  on  behalf  of  Servia  and  the  neighbouring  countries 
inhabited  by  Slavs  still  groaning  under  the  Tui-kish  yoke  was  looked  forward  to 
with  impatience.  The  blow  has  been  struck,  and  were  it  not  for  the  support 
extended  to  it  by  the  great  powers,  Servia  would  ere  this  have  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
semi-independent  state. 

Ser^-ia,  within  its  actual  limits,  includes  only  a  small  portion  of  the  northern 
slope  of  the  mountains  rising  in  the  centre  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  It  is 
separated  from  Austro-Hungary  by  the  Save  and  the  Danube,  but  no  natural 
boundary  divides  it  from  Turkey ;  and  the  valleys  of  the  Morava,  the  Drina,  and 
the  Timok,  the  former  in  the  centre,  the  others  on  the  eastern  and  western 
frontiers  of  the  country,  afford  easy  access  to  a  foreign  invader.  The  difficulties 
to  be  surmounted  bj'  the  latter  would  begin  only  after  he  had  entered  the  vast 
forests,  the  narrow  valleys,  and  unfathomable  kh'sio-a.^  amongst  the  mountains. 

The  only  plains  of  any  extent  are  on  the  banks  of  the  Save.  Everj'where  else 
the  country  is  hilly,  rocky,  or  mountainous.  The  most  prominent  moimtain 
range  is  that  which  extends  from  the  "  Iron  Gate"  and  the  defile  of  Kasan,  on 
the  Danube,  through  Eastern  Servia,  and  forms  a  marked  continuation  of  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Alps,  with  which  it  agrees  in  geological  structure.  In  the  northern 
portion  of  these  Servian  Carpathians,  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Danube  and  Morava,  where  masses  of  porphyry  have  burst  through  limestones 
and  schists,  we  find  ourselves  in  the  great  mineral  region  of  Servia.     Copper, 

*  Authorities  :—Kanitz,  "Serbien;"  Ubicini,  "  Les  Serbes  de  Turqnie;"  C>-prien  Robert,  "Lea 
Slaves  de  Turquie ;  "  Louis  Leger,  "  Le  Monde  Slave ; "  Lejean,  "  Visite  au  Montenegro." 


SEEVIA.  173 

iron,  and  lead  ores  are  being  worked  here,  especially  at  Maidanpek  and  Kuchaina, 
but  the  old  zinc  and  silver  mines  have  been  abandoned.  The  valley  of  the 
Timok,  in  the  southern  portion  of  this  mountain  range,  is  likewise  rich  in 
minerals,  and  ffold  dust  is  collected  from  the  sand  of  the  river.  There  are  few 
valleys  which  can  rival  that  of  the  Timok  in  beauty  and  fertility,  and  the  basin 
of  Knyashevatz,  where  the  head-streams  of  the  river  unite,  is  more  especially 
distinguished  by  its  rural  beauty,  sparkling  rivulets  flowing  through  the 
meadows,  vines  covering  the  hills,  and  forests  the  surrounding  mountains.  A 
narrow  defile  immediately  below  this  basin  leads  into  the  valley  of  Zaichar,  near 
which,  at  Gamzigrad,  there  still  exist  ruins  of  a  Roman  fortress,  its  walls  and 
towers  of  ijorphyry  in  a  capital  state  of  preservation.  Looking  northward  from 
this  position  we  perceive  the  Stol  (3,638  feet),  whilst  in  the  south-west  there  rises 
a  huge  pyramid  of  chalk,  which  might  almost  be  mistaken  for  the  work  of 
human  hands.  This  is  the  Rtan  (4,943  feet),  at  whose  foot  burst  forth  the  hot 
springs  of  Banya,  the  most  frequented  and  efiicacious  of  all  Servia. 

The  valleys  of  the  Morava  and  of  its  main  tributary,  the  Bulgarian  Morava, 
divide  Servia  into  two  parts  of  unequal  extent.  The  valley  of  the  Morava  forms 
a  natural  highway  between  the  Danube  and  the  interior  of  Turkey,  passing 
through  the  frontier  town  of  Alexinatz.  A  Roman  road  formerly  led  along  it. 
Krushevatz,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Servian  empire,  occupies  the  centre  of  a 
plain  in  the  valley  of  the  Servian  Morava,  not  far  above  the  defile  of  Stalaj, 
where  the  two  Moravas  unite  at  the  foot  of  a  promontory  crowned  with  ruins. 
The  remains  of  the  palace  of  the  Servian  tsar  are  still  shown  there,  and  it  is  stated 
that  Krushevatz,  at  the  height  of  Servian  power,  had  a  circumference  of  three 
leagues.     It  is  only  a  poor  village  now. 

The  wildest  mountain  masses  of  Servia  rise  between  the  two  Moravas,  their 
culminating  point  being  the  Kopaonik  (6,710  feet),  which  attains  a  greater  height 
than  any  other  summit  between  the  Save  and  the  Balkans.  A  wide  prospect 
of  incomparable  beauty  opens  from  its  base  and  rocky  summit,  extending  south- 
wards over  plains  and  mountains  to  the  pinnacles  of  the  Skhar  and  the  pyramidal 
Dormitor.  In  itself,  however,  the  Kopaonik  is  quite  devoid  of  beauty,  and  where 
its  slopes  have  been  deprived  of  the  forests  which  once  covered  them,  the  bare 
rocks  of  serpentine  present  a  picture  of  utter  desolation.  Its  valleys  are  far  from 
fertile,  their  inhabitants  are  sulky  and  poor,  and  many  amongst  them  suffer  from 
goitre. 

The  mountains  which  extend  to  the  north  of  the  Kopaonik,  along  both  banks 
of  the  Ibar,  are  for  the  most  part  still  clothed  with  oaks,  beeches,  and  conifers. 
The  broad  valley  of  the  Servian  Morava,  rivalling  in  fertility  the  plains  of 
Lombardy,  penetrates  into  these  moimtain  masses.  But  they  rise  again  to  the 
north  of  that  river,  attaining  a  height  of  3,622  feet  in  the  mountain  mass  of 
Rudnik.  Cretaceous  rocks  predominate,  frequently  surmounted  by  granitic 
peaks.  The  valleys  are  narrow  and  tortuous.  This  is  the  famous  Sumadia,  or 
"forest  region"  of  Servia,  which  during  the  rule  of  the  Turks  offered  a  safe 
asylum  to  the  persecuted  rayas,  and  in  the  war  of  independence  became  the 
13 


174 


TURKEY  IN   EUROPE. 


citadel  of  Servian  liberty.  The  little  town  of  Kraguyevatz,  in  one  of  its  narrow 
valleys,  was  chosen  to  be  the  seat  of  government,  and  it  still  retains  a  gun 
foundry,  supplied  with  coal  from  the  basin  of  Chupriya.  A  secluded  capital  like 
this  may  have  suited  a  people  constantly  engaged  in  war,  but  when  Servia  entered 
upon  a  career  of  progress  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Belgrad. 
This  citv — the  Beograd,  or  "  white  town,"  of  the  Servians,  the  Siiif/ii/iiniin)  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  Afba  Gneca  of  the  Middle  Ages — is  delightfully  situated  upon  a 
hill  near  the  confluence  of  the  Danube  and  Save,  and  overlooks  the  swampy  plains 
of  Syrmia.  Belgrad,  from  its  favourable  geographical  situation,  has  become  a 
place  of  much  trade,  and  is  likewise  an  important  strategical  position. 

To  the  west  of  Belgrad  we  merely  meet  with  hills,  and  with  the  fertile  plains 


Fig.  48. — CONFLVF.NCE    OF   THE    DaM'BE   AND    SaVE. 
Scale  I  :  1,420,000. 


>  Miles. 


watered  by  the  Kolubara.  It  is  only  towards  the  south-west,  on  nearing  the 
Drina,  that  we  again  find  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  calcareous  mountains,  attaining 
a  height  of  3,630  feet,  and  connected  with  spurs  of  the  Kopaonik  in  the  south. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  portions  of  the  country.  Ruins  of  houses 
and  fortresses  abound,  amongst  which  those  of  Ushitza  are  the  most  extensive. 
These  fortresses  have,  however,  failed  to  protect  the  country,  and  no  portion  of 
Servia  has  more  frequently  been  laid  waste  by  ruthless  invaders. 

In  former  times  Servia  could  boast  of  some  of  the  most  extensive  oak  forest 
in  Europe.  "  To  kill  a  tree  is  to  kill  a  Servian,"  says  an  ancient  proverb,  dating 
probably  from  the  time  when  the  forests  afforded  shelter  to  the  oppressed  rayas. 
This  proverb,  unfortunately,  is  no  longer  acted  upon.  In  many  parts  of  the 
country  the  forests  have   disappeared,  and  the  naked   rock  obtrudes  itself  as  in 


SEEVIA.  175 

Dalmatia  and  Carniola.  A  peasant  in  need  of  a  branch  cuts  down  an  entire  tree, 
and  the  herdsmen  are  not  content  to  feed  their  bivouac  fires  with  dry  sticks,  but 
must  needs  have  an  oak.  The  greatest  enemies  of  the  forests,  next  to  herdsmen, 
are  goats  and  hogs,  the  former  browsing  upon  small  trees  and  leaves,  the  latter 
laying  bare  the  roots.  An  old  tree,  thrown  down  by  a  tempest  or  sacrificed  to 
the  woodman's  axe,  is  not  replaced.  Laws  for  the  protection  of  the  forests  have 
certainly  been  passed,  but  they  are  not  enforced,  and  the  wood  required  for  fuel 
has  to  be  imported,  in  many  instances,  from  Bosnia.  The  destruction  of  the 
forests  has  naturally  been  attended  by  a  deterioration  of  the  climate.  Mr.  Edward 
Brown,  who  travelled  in  Servia  in  the  seventeenth  century,  tells  us  that  the 
Morava  was  then  navigable  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course ;  but  at  the 
present  time,  owing  to  its  irregularities,  it  is  no  longer  available  as  a  navigable 
channel. 

Servia,  by  despoiling  the  mountains  of  great  forests,  has  got  rid  of  the  wild 
animals  which  formerly  infested  them.  Wolves,  bears,  wild  boars,  previously  so 
numerous,  have  almost  disappeared,  and  those  still  met  with  occasionally  are 
supposed  to  come  from  the  forests  of  Syrmia,  crossing  the  frozen  Save  in  winter. 
The  fauna  and  flora  of  Servia  are  gradually  losing  their  original  features.  The 
introduction  of  the  domesticated  animals  and  cultivated  plants  from  Austria  has 
given  to  Servia  a  South  German  aspect.  Nor  does  the  climate  much  differ  from 
some  parts  of  Southern  Germany.  Servia,  though  under  the  same  latitude  as 
Tuscan}',  rejoices  by  no  means  in  an  Italian  climate.  The  Dalmatian  or  Bosnian 
mountain  ramparts  shut  out  the  vivifying  south-westerly  winds,  whilst  the  dry 
and  cold  winds  from  the  steppes  of  Russia  have  free  access  over  the  plains  of 
Wallachia.  Strangers  do  not  readily  acclimatise  themselves,  owing  to  abrupt 
changes  of  temperature.* 

Servia  includes  within  its  limits  but  a  small  proportion  of  all  the  Servians  of 
Eastern  Europe,  but  its  inhabitants  are  probably  not  far  wrong  when  they  look 
upon  themselves  as  the  purest  representatives  of  their  race.  They  are,  as  a  rule, 
tall,  vigorous,  with  broad  shoulders  and  an  erect  head.  Their  features  are 
marked,  the  nose  straight  and  often  aquiline,  and  the  cheek-bones  a  trifle 
prominent ;  the  hair  is  abundant  and  rarely  black,  the  eyes  are  piercing  and 
cold,  and  a  well- cultivated  moustache  imparts  a  military  air  to  the  men.  The 
women,  without  being  good-looking,  have  a  noble  presence,  and  their  semi- 
oriental  costume  is  distinguished  by  an  admirable  harmony  of  colours.  Even 
in  the  towns,  where  French  fashions  carry  the  day,  Servian  ladies  occasionally 
wear  the  national  dress,  consisting  of  a  red  vest,  a  belt  and  chemisette  embroi- 
dered with  pearls,  strings  of  sequins,  and  a  little  fez  stuck  jauntily  upon  the 
head. 

Unfortunately  the  custom  of  the  country  requires  that  a  Servian  woman 
should  have  an  abundance  of  black  hair  and  a  dazzling  white  complexion.  Paint, 
dj'es,  and  false  tresses  are  universal  in  town  and  couutr}*.  Even  in  the  most 
remote  villages   the  peasant  women  dye  their  hair  and  paint  their  cheeks,  lips, 

*  Slean  temperature  at  Belgrad,  48°  F.  ;  extremes,  106°  and  3°;  range,  103°  F. 


176  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

and  eyebrows,  frequently  making  use  of  poisonous  substances  injurious  to  health. 
Rich  country-people  are,  moreover,  in  the  habit  of  making  an  exhibition  of 
their  wealth  by  means  of  their  clothes,  which  they  overload  with  gold  and  silver 
ornaments  and  gewgaws  of  every  kind.  In  some  districts  brides  and  young 
women  wear  a  most  extraordinary  head-dress,  consisting  of  an  enormous  crescent 
of  cardboard,  to  which  are  attached  nosegays,  leaves,  peacock  feathers,  and 
artificial  roses  with  silver  petals.  This  heavy  head-dress  may  symbolize  the 
"  burdens  of  matrimony ;  "  it  certainly  exposes  the  wearer  to  great  incon- 
venience. 

The  Servians  are  honourably  distinguished  amongst  the  people  of  the  East 
by  the  nobility  of  their  character,  their  dignified  bearing,  and,  in  spite  of  recent 
events,  incontestable  bravery.  For  centuries  they  resisted  oppression,  and,  not- 
withstanding their  isolation  and  poverty,  they  conquered  their  independence  in  the 
beginning  of  this  century.  They  are  stiid  to  be  idle  and  suspicious — qualities 
which  their  former  servitude  accounts  for — but  at  the  same  time  honest  and 
truthful.  It  is  difficult  to  cheat  them,  but  they  themselves  never  cheat.  Equals 
when  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  they  are  equals  still.  "  There  are  no 
nobles  amongst  us,"  they  say,  "  for  we  are  all  nobles."  In  their  clear  and 
sonorous  language,  so  well  suited  to  oratorj',  they  fraternally  address  each  other 
in  the  second  person  singular.  Even  prisoners  are  looked  upon  as  brothers,  and 
it  is  customary  to  permit  a  condemned  criminal  to  visit  his  family  on  his  giving 
his  word  of  honour  to  return  to  prison. 

The  ties  of  family  and  friendship  are  a  great  power  in  Servia.  It  frequently 
happens  that  young  men  who  have  learnt  to  like  each  other  take  an  oath  of 
fraternal  friendship,  in  the  manner  of  the  brothers  in  arms  of  Scythia,  and  this 
fraternity  of  heart  is  more  sacred  to  them  than  that  of  blood.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  and  one  which  speaks  favourably  for  the  high  moral  tone  of  the  Servians, 
that  their  deep  family  affections  and  friendships  do  not  lead  to  incessant  acts 
of  retaliation  and  vengeance,  as  amongst  their  neighbours  the  Albanians.  The 
Servian  is  brave  ;  he  is  always  armed,  but  he  is  also  peaceable,  and  does  not 
demand  blood  for  blood.  Still,  like  other  men,  he  is  not  perfect.  As  an 
agriculturist  he  follows  the  more  obsolete  routine.  He  is  ignorant  and  super- 
stitious. The  peasants  firmlj'  believe  in  vampires,  sorcerers,  and  magicians,  and, 
in  order  to  guard  against  their  evil  influences,  they  rub  themselves  with  garlic  on 
Christmas-eve. 

Land  is  held  by  families  in  common,  as  amongst  the  other  Slavs  of  the  South. 
The  ancient  zadruga,  such  as  it  existed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  is  still  preserved, 
and  has  never  been  interfered  with  by  Roman  or  German  laws,  as  in  Dalmatia  or 
Slavonia.  On  the  contrary,  the  law  of  Servia  protects  this  ancient  form  of  tenure, 
and,  in  cases  of  a  disputed  will,  relatives  by  adoption  take  precedence  of  those  by 
blood.  Servian  patriots  are  desirous  to  see  these  ancient  customs  respected,  and 
the  members  of  the  Skupshtina,  or  parliament,  have  never  attacked  this  common 
proprietorship  in  the  soil,  for  they  look  upon  it  as  one  of  the  surest  safeguards 
against   pauperism.     Servia  offers  the  best  opportunity  for  studying  agricultural 


SERVIA.  177 

communities  of  this  kind.  Nowhere  else  are  the  features  of  family  life  equally 
delightful.  The  heavy  day's  work  is  followed  by  an  evening  devoted  to  pleasure. 
The  children  gather  round  their  parents  to  listen  to  the  warlike  legends  of  old, 
or  the  young  men  sing,  accompanying  themselves  upon  the  guzla.  All  those 
belonging  to  the  association  are  looked  upon  as  members  of  the  family.  The 
staryeshina,  or  head  of  the  community,  has  charge  of  the  education  of  the 
children,  whom  he  is  required  to  bring  up  as  "  good  and  honest  citizens,  iisefid 
to  their  fatherland."  Yet,  in  spite  of  all  these  advantages,  the  zadruijas  decrease 
from  year  to  year.  The  demands  of  commerce  and  industry  interfere  with  their 
accustomed  routine,  and  they  will  hardly  survive  much  longer  in  their  present 
form. 

A  great  portion  of  Eastern  Servia  has  been  occupied  by  Wallachians,  who 
were  invited  to  the  country  after  the  war  of  independence,  when  vast  districts 
had  been  depopulated.  These  new  settlers,  being  more  prolific  than  their 
neighbours,  gradually  gain  upon  the  Servians,  and  already  some  of  their  colonies 
are  met  with  on  the  western  bank  of  the  ^lorava.  Many  Servian  villages  have 
become  Wallachian  as  far  as  language  can  make  them  so.  It  is  a  strange  fact 
that  these  Rumanian  colonists  should  prosper  in  Servia,  whilst  Servian  colonists 
from  Hungary  and  Slavonia  do  not. 

Zinzares,  or  Southern  Wallachians,  are  met  with  in  most  towns,  where  they 
work  as  masons,  carpenters,  and  bricklayers. 

Bulgarians  have  settled  in  the  valleys  of  the  Timok  and  ilorava,  in  the  south- 
east. They  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  industry,  and  quickly  assimilate  with 
the  Servians.  Xear  Alexinatz  there  is  a  small  colony  of  Albanians,  whilst 
Tsigani,  or  gipsies,  are  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  They  profess  to 
be  Christians,  and  one  of  their  principal  occupations  is  the  manufacture  of  bricks. 
The  Spanish  Jews,  so  numerous  formerly  at  Belgrad,  have  most  of  them  retired  to 
Semlin,  their  places  being  filled  by  German  and  Hungarian  Jews.* 

Taken  as  a  whole,  Servia  was  a  prosperous  country  before  the  recent  war. 
The  population  has  increased  rapidly  since  the  declaration  of  independence,  but 
is  not  nearly  as  dense  yet  as  in  the  neighbouring  plains  of  Hungary  or  Wallachia. 
Scarcely  one-eighth  of  the  area  is  under  cultivation,  and  agricultural  operations 
are  for  the  most  part  carried  on  in  the  rudest  manner.  Excepting  in  the  most 
fertile  valleys,  such  as  that  of  the  Lower  Timok,  the  fields  are  allowed  to  lie 
fallow  everj'  second  year.  The  exports  of  Servia  clearly  exhibit  the  rudimentary 
condition  of  its  agriculture,  for  they  consist  principally  of  lean  pigs,  which  find 
their  way  in  thousands  to  the  markets  of  Germany,  and  of  cattle.  The  peasant 
of  Servia  derives  most  of  his  revenue  from  the  sale  of  these  animals.  Within  the 
last  few  years  he  has  also  exported  some  wheat  to  the  markets  of  Western  Europe.  If 
it  were  not  for  the  Bulgarian  labourers  who  annually  flock  to  the  country  in  search 
of  field-work,  Servia  would  not  produce  sufficient  corn  for  its  own  consumption. t 

*  The  population  of  Sersna  in  1875  was  1,377,068,  of  whom  about  1,110,000  were  Serrians,  160,000 
Wallachians,  20,000  Zinzares,  50,000  Bulgarians,  30,000  gipsies,  &c. 

t  The  exports  in  1874  were  valued  at  £1,400,000,  and  included  34,104  head  of  cattle,  271,219  pigs 
1,172,571  sheep  and  goat  skins,  wheat,  raki,  &c. 


178  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Industry  throughout  the  country  is  still  in  its  infancj'.  The  Servian  despises 
all  manual  labour  excepting  agriculture,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  he  looks  down 
upon  the  German  mechanics  in  the  towns.  Young  men  of  the  least  education 
aspire  to  government  employment,  and  the  bureaucratic  plague,  which  has 
wrought  such  injury  in  the  neighbouring  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  is  thus  being 
developed.  There  are,  however,  others  who  have  studied  at  foreign  universities, 
and  who  devote  their  energies  to  the  spread  of  education  at  home.  The  progress 
made  in  this  respect  within  the  last  few  years  has  been  enormous.  In  1839  the 
sovereign  of  the  country  could  neither  read  nor  write,  whilst,  at  the  present  time, 
Servia,  with  its  numerous  schools  and  colleges,  is  becoming  the  intellectual  centre 
of  the  Balkan  peninsula.* 

The  Servians  have  used  their  best  efforts  to  remove  from  their  country 
everything  reminding  them  of  the  ancient  dominion  of  the  Mussulman,  and  they 
have  nearly  accomplished  this.  The  Belgrad  of  the  Turks  has  been  converted 
by  them  into  a  Western  city,  like  Vienna  or  Buda-Pest ;  palaces  in  European 
stvle  have  arisen  in  the  place  of  mosques  and  minarets;  magnificent  boulevards 
intersect  the  old  quarters  of  the  town  ;  and  the  esplanade,  where  the  Turks 
exposed  the  heads  of  their  victims  stuck  on  poles,  has  been  converted  into  a 
park.  Shabatz,  on  the  Save,  has  become  a  "  little  Paris ; "  Semendria 
(Smederevo),  on  the  Danube,  which  gave  the  signal  of  rebellion  in  1806,  has 
arisen  like  a  phamix  from  its  ashes ;  whilst  Posharevatz,  known  as  Passarovitz 
in  the  history  of  treaties,  has  likewise  been  transformed.  Progress  is  slower  in 
the  interior,  but  good  roads  now  extend  to  the  most  remote  corners  of  the 
country. 

Servia  is  an  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  The  Prince,  or  Kniaz, 
governs  with  the  aid  of  respon.sible  ministers  and  of  a  senate ;  he  promulgates 
the  laws,  appoints  all  public  functionaries,  commands  the  army,  and  signs  the 
treaties.  He  rejoices  in  a  civil  list  of  £20,000.  His  successor,  in  the  case  of 
there  being  no  male  heir,  is  to  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  Skiipshtina, 
or  national  parliament,  traces  back  its  origin  to  the  earliest  times  of  a  Servian 
monarchy.  It  numbers  134  members,  of  whom  one-fourth  arc  nominated  by  the 
Prince,  and  the  remainder  elected  by  all  male  taxpayers.  This  parliament 
exercises  legislative  functions  conjointly  with  the  Prince.  In  addition  to  it  there 
exist  rural  parliaments  in  each  of  the  1,063  obshtinas,  or  parishes,  and  these  enjoy 
extended  rights  of  local  self-government.  The  constitution  provides  for  the 
election  of  a  Shujjshtina  of  536  members  by  universal  suffrage,  should  extra- 
ordinary events  make  such  a  meeting  desirable.  The  affairs  of  the  country  have 
hitherto  been  managed  satisfactorily.  A  revenue  of  £'o54,000  sufficed  for  the 
requirements  of  the  State,  and  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  there  existed  no 
public  debt. 

Religious  liberty  exists,  but  the  Greek  Church  is  declared  to  be  that  of  the 
State.     It  has  been  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  since  1376,  and 

•  There  are  a  university,  a  militarj'  academy,  a  seminary,  an  agricultural  school,  11  superior  schools, 
and  377  elementary  schools,  with  .567  leiichers,  and  about  20,000  pupils. 


MONTENEGEO.  179 

is  governed  by  a  synod  consisting  of  the  Archbishop  of  Belgrad  and  the  Bishops 
of  Ushitza,  Xegotin,  and  Shabatz.  The  former  is  appointed  by  the  Prince.  The 
high  dignitaries  of  the  Church  are  in  receipt  of  salaries,  but  ordinary  priests  are 
dependent  upon  fees  and  gifts.  The  monasteries  have  been  suppressed  by  a  recent 
decision  of  the  Skupshtina,  and  their  revenues  are  to  be  devoted  to  educational 
purposes. 

The  military  forces  of  the  country  consist  of  a  standing  army  of  about  4,000 
men,  and  of  a  militia  including  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  up  to  fifty  years 
of  age.  The  first  ban  of  this  militia  is  called  out  annually  for  training,  the  second 
ban  only  in  case  of  war.  Servia  is  thus  able  to  place  an  army  of  150,000  men  in 
the  field,  but  the  efiiciency  of  these  badly  trained  troops  leaves  much  to  be  desired, 
as  has  been  shown  by  recent  events. 

The  country  is  divided  into  seventeen  okrushias,  or  districts,  viz.  Alexinatz, 
Belgrad,  Chachak,  Cliupriya,  Knyashevatz,  Kraguyevatz,  Kraina  (capital,  Xegotin), 
Krushevatz,  Podrinj-e  (Loznitza),  Posharevatz,  Rudnik  (Milanovitz),  Shabatz, 
Smederevo,  Tserna-Reka  (Zaichar),  Ushitza.  Valyevo,  and  Yagodina.  The  only 
towns  of  importance  are  Belgrad  (27,000  inhabitants),  Posharevatz  (7,000  inha- 
bitants), Shabatz  (6,700  inhabitants),  and  Kraguyevatz  (6,000  inhabitants). 


Montenegro. 

The  name  Montenegro  is  a  translation  of  the  Servian  Tsrnagora,  or  "  black 
mountains."  It  is  a  curious  designation  for  a  country  of  white  or  greyish 
calcareous  mountains,  whose  colour  even  strikes  the  voyager  on  the  Adriatic. 
The  name,  according  to  some,  is  to  be  taken  figurativelj-,  and  is  to  be  understood 
as  designating  a  country  of  "  bad  "  or  "  black  "  men  ;  others  are  of  opinion  that 
it  refers  to  ancient  pine  forests  which  have  now  disappeared. 

The  Turks  have  never  succeeded  in  subjugating  the  Montenegrins,  who  found 
safety  in  their  mountain  fastnesses.  Occasionally  the  Montenegrins  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  a  foreign  power,  such  as  that  of  Venice,  but 
they  never  acknowledged  the  Sultan  as  their  sovereign.  The  mountains,  how- 
ever, to  which  they  owe  their  independence,  are  at  the  same  time  their  weakness, 
for  they  isolate  them  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  A  high  range  of  mountains, 
as  well  as  a  strip  of  Turkish  territory,  separates  them  from  their  Servian  kinsmen ; 
another  range,  held  by  the  Austrians,  cuts  them  o£E  from  the  Gulf  of  Cattaro  and 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  small  Lake  of  Scutari  (Skodra)  is  their  sea  ;  the  Zeta  and 
Moracha,  which  feed  it,  are  their  national  rivers.  If  the  Montenegrins  were 
permitted  to  descend  into  the  plains  without  sacrificing  their  independence,  the 
arid  plateaux  now  inhabited  by  them  would  soon  be  deserted  by  aU  but 
shepherds. 

The  eastern  portion  of  Montenegro,  which  is  known  as  the  Berda,  and  drained 
by  the  Moracha  and  its  tributaries,  is  comparatively  of  easy  access.  The  mighty 
dolomitic  pyramids  of  the   Dormitor    (8,550  feet)    command   its  valleys  in  the 


180 


TUEKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


north,  whilst  the  rounded  heights  of  Kom  (9,000  feet)  bound  it  on  the  east. 
The  Rerda  differs  in  no  respect  from  most  other  mountain  countries.  It  is  only 
in  the  western  portion  of  the  country,  in  Jlontenegro  proper,  that  we  meet  with 
features  altogether  distinct.  "We  there  find  ourselves  in  a  labyrinth  of  cavities, 
valleys,  and  depressions,  separated  by  craggy  calcareous  ridges,  abounding  in 
narrow  fissures,  the  hiding-places  of  adders.  Only  the  mountaineers  are  able  to 
find  their  way  in  this  inextricable  labyrinth.  "  When  God  created  the  world," 
they  tell  you  laughing,  "  he  held  in  his  hand  a  sack  full  of  mountains.     Right 


Fig.  49. — MoNTEXEORO  AND  THE  LaKK  OF  SkdDKA. 

Scale  1 : 1,680,000. 


■  25  Jliloa. 


above  Montenegro  the  sack  burst,  and  hence  the  fearful  chaos  of  rocks  which  you 
see  before  you." 

Seen  from  an  immense  height,  Montenegro  resembles  a  vast  honeycomb  with 
thousands  of  cells,  and  this  appearance  is  due  to  aqueous  agencies.  The  water  at 
one  spot  has  scooped  out  wide  valleys,  whilst  elsewhere  its  long-continued  action 
has  merely  succeeded  in  producing  narrow  riidinas,  or  sink-holes.  After  heavy  rains 
the  waters  accumulate  into  lakes,  covering  fields  and  pastures,  but  ordinarily  they 
run  off  rapidly  through  sink-holes  concealed  by  brambles,  only  to  reappear  again 
near  the  seashore  as  abundant  springs  of  bluish  water.  The  Zeta,  the  principal 
river  of  Montenegro,  is  fed  bv  rivulets  which  are  swallowed  up  in  the  valley  of 


MONTENEGRO.  181 

Niksich  to  the  north,  and  find  their  way  to  it  through  subterranean  channels. 
Similar  phenomena  have  already  been  noticed  in  connection  with  Bosnia  (p.  127). 
The.  capital  of  Montenegro,  Tsetinye  (Cetinje),  lies  in  the  very  midst  of  the 
mountains,  in  the  centre  of  an  ancient  lake  basin.  Formerly  it  was  accessible 
only  by  a  most  difficult  mountain  path,  for  the  Montenegrins  took  care  not  to 
construct  roads,  which  would  open  their  country  to  the  guns  of  their  enemies. 
The  requirements  of  commerce,  however,  have  recently  induced  them  to  connect 
it  with  Cattaro  by  means  of  a  carriage  road. 

The  Montenegrins  arc  the  kinsmen  of  the  Servians  of  the  Danube,  but  their 
life  of  almost  incessant  warfare,  the  elevation  and  sterility  of  their  country,  as 
well  as  the  vicinity  of  the  Albanians,  have  developed  special  features  amongst 
them.  The  quiet  life  of  the  plains  is  unknown  to  the  Montenegrin  ;  he  is  violent, 
and  ready  at  all  times  to  take  up  arms ;  in  his  belt  he  carries  a  whole  arsenal 
of  pistols  and  knives,  and  even  when  working  in  the  fields  he  has  a  carbine  by 
his  side.  Until  recently  the  price  of  blood  was  still  enacted,  and  a  scratch  even 
had  to  be  paid  for.  This  blood  vengeance  was  transmitted  from  generation  to 
generation,  until  the  number  of  victims  was  equal  on  both  sides,  or  a  monetary 
compensation,  usually  fixed  at  ten  sequins,  had  been  accepted.  Cases  of  hereditary 
vengeance  are  rare  now,  but  the  ancient  "  custom  "  could  be  suppressed  onlj^  by 
a  law  of  terrible  severity,  which  punishes  murderers,  traitors,  rebels,  thieves  twice 
convicted,  incendiaries,  and  scofiers  at  religion  alike  with  death.  Compared  with 
the  Servian  of  the  Danube,  the  Montenegrin  is  a  barbarian.  Nor  is  his  personal 
appearance  equally  prepossessing.  The  women,  however,  have  regular  features, 
and,  thouo-h  less  dignified  in  their  carriage  than  their  kinswomen  of  Servia,  they 
possess,  as  a  rule,  more  grace  and  elasticity  of  movement.  They  are  very 
prolific,  and  if  a  family  increases  too  rapidly  it  is  customary  for  a  friend  to 
adopt  one  or  more  of  the  children. 

Up  to  the  invasion  of  the  Osmanli  the  upper  valleys  of  Montenegro  were  the 
home  merely  of  herdsmen  and  brigands.  But  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  valleys 
were  forced  to  retire  to  these  austere  heights  in  order  to  escape  slavery.  They 
cultivated  the  soil,  bred  cattle  and  sheep,  and  sometimes  robbed  their  neighbours. 
But  the  sterile  soil  yielded  only  a  scanty  harvest,  and  famines  were  by  no  means 
unfrequent.  Bosnian  Uskoches,  who  fled  to  the  mountains  in  order  to  escape 
Mussulman  oppression,  only  added  to  the  misery  by  reducing  to  a  minimum  the 
share  of  cultivable  soil  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  each  family.  The  pastures  are 
still  held  in  common,  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  customs  of  the  Servians. 
According  to  a  recent  census,  Montenegro  is  said  to  have  a  population  of  nearly 
200,000  souls.  This  may  be  an  exaggeration,  but  the  country  is  not  even  able 
to  support  120,000  inhabitants  without  drawing  supplies  from  beyond,  and  the 
armed  incursions  into  neighbouring  districts  might  thus  be  excused  as  an  "  econo- 
mical necessity."  Death  from  hunger  or  on  the  field  of  battle  was  often  the  only 
alternative.  The  Montenegrin  always  prefers  the  latter,  for  he  does  not  fear 
death,  and  "  ilay  you  never  die  in  bed!  "  is  a  wish  universally  expressed  at  the 
cradle  of  a  new-born  infant.     If  a  man  is  unfortunate  enough  to  die  of  disease, 


182  TUEKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

or  from  old  age,  his  friends  excuse  him  euphemistically  by  charging  the  "  Old 
Murderer  "  with  his  death. 

The  warlike  incursions  of  former  days  have  ceased  now,  for  the  boundaries 
of  Montenegro  have  been  defined  by  an  international  commission,  and  the 
mountaineers  have  established  friendly  relations  with  their  neighbours,  from 
whom  they  are  able  now  to  purchase  what  they  require.  In  summer  they  permit 
the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  to  take  their  cattle  into  the  hills,  whilst  in  winter 
they  themselves  descend  to  the  seaboard,  where  they  are  sure  now  of  a  friendlj' 
reception. 

The  Montenegrins  have  always  been  anxious  to  possess  a  port  on  the  Adriatic, 
which  would  enable  them  to  import  freeh',  and  without  the  intervention  of  the 
merchants  of  Cattaro,  the  powder,  salt,  and  other  articles  they  require,  and  to 
export  their  own  produce.  Their  commerce,  even  now,  is  of  some  importance. 
They  export  craokcd  mutton,  sheep  and  goats,  skins,  tallow,  salt  fish,  cheese, 
honey,  sumach,  insect  powder,  &c.,  of  an  estimated  value  of  £40,000  annually. 

The  Montenegrins,  like  their  neighbours  the  Albanians,  frequently  leave  their 
country  for  a  time  in  order  to  seek  work  in  the  great  cities  of  the  East.  Thou- 
sands of  them  are  to  be  met  in  Constantinople,  where  they  manage  to  live 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  Turks,  their  "  hereditary  enemies."  They  are  even  to 
be  found  in  Egypt. 

The  Tsigani  are  the  only  strangers  met  with  in  the  country.  They  resemble 
the  Servians  in  language,  dress,  religion,  and  customs,  and  only  differ  from  them 
by  working  at  a  useful  trade,  that  of  smiths.  Their  industry,  however,  causes 
them  to  be  objects  of  disdain,  and  they  are  not  permitted  to  intermarry  with 
Servians. 

The  government  of  Montenegro  is  a  curious  mixture  of  democratic,  feudal,  and 
despotic  institutions.  The  citizens  fancy  that  they  are  equals,  but  thej'  are  not, 
for  certain  families  exercise  a  powerful  influence.  The  sovereign,  who  appro- 
priates about  half  the  revenue  of  the  country,  and  receives  8,000  ducats  annually 
from  Kussia  in  addition,  appoints  the  members  of  the  Senate,  or  Sori/et.  The 
S/aips/itiiia  includes  the  glavrim,  or  chiefs,  of  the  thirty-nine  tribes  {plcmena),  but 
has  hitherto  limited  itself  to  applauding  the  "  speech  from  the  throne."  There 
is  a  body- guard  of  a  hundred  men,  and  the  whole  of  the  male  population  is 
bound  to  take  the  field  under  the  leadership  of  Serdars.  The  country  is  divided 
into  eight  nahies,  or  districts,  of  which  four  (Bielopavlichka,  Uskochka,  Morachka, 
and  Vasoyevichka,  with  the  country  of  the  Kuchi),  constitute  the  Berda,  and 
four  (Katunska,  Liesanska,  Riechka,  and  Tsermnichka)  belong  to  ilontenegro 
proper.  Each  of  these  districts  is  placed  under  a  kuiaz.  The  families  and 
associations  of  families  (f/rasfros)  are  governed  by  liospodars  and  starshinas, 
dependent  upon  the  tribal  chiefs,  or  glavars. 


r^ 


r 


ITALY.* 


I. — General  Aspects. 


HE  limits  of  the  Italian  peninsula  have  been  most  distinctly  traced 
by  nature.  The  Alps,  which  bound  it  in  the  north,  from  the 
promontories  of  Liguria  to  the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Istria, 
present  themselves  like  a  huge  waU,  the  only  breaches  in  which 
are  formed  by  passes  situated  high  up  in  the  zones  of  pines, 
pastures,  or  eternal  snows.  Italy,"  like  its  two  sister  peninsulas  of  Southern 
Europe,  thus  constitutes  a  world  of  its  own,  destined  by  nature  to  become  the 
theatre  of  a  special  evolution  of  humanity.  Its  delightful  climate,  beauteous 
skies,  and  fertile  fields  distinguish  it  in  a  marked  manner  from  the  countries 
lying  beyond  the  Alps ;  and  an  inhabitant  of  the  latter  who  descends  the  sunny 
southern  slope  of  this  dividing  range  cannot  fail  to  perceive  that  everything 
around  him  has  changed,  and  that  he  has  entered  a  "  new  world." 

The  protecting  barrier  of  the  Alps  and  the  sea  which  bounds  it  have 
imparted  to  Italy  a  distinct  individuality.  All  its  countries,  from  the  plains  of 
Lombardy  to  the  shores  of  Sicily,  resemble  each  other  in  certain  respects.  There 
is  a  sort  of  family  likeness  about  them  ;  but  still  what  delightful  contrasts,  what 


•  Authorities : — Zuccagni  Orlandini,  "  Corografia  fisica,  etorica  e  statistica  dell'  Italia  e  delle  Bue 
Isole;"  ilarmocchi,  "  Descrizione  d'ltalia ; "  Amato  Araati,  "L'ltaliasotto  I'aspetto  fisico,  storico,  artistico 
e  statistico ; "  Taine,  "  Voyage  en  Italie ; "  Gregorovius,  "  Wanderjahre  in  Italien,"  "  Geschichte  der  Stadt 
Eom  ;  "  Ann.  di  Saluzzo,  "Le  Alpi  che  cingonol'ltalia ;  "  Cattaneo  e  Lombardini,  "Kotizie  naturali  e 
civili  sula  Lombardia  ;  "  Lombardini, "  Pianura  subapennina,"  "Condizione  idraulica  del  Po  ;  "  Maitins, 
Gaalaldi,  "Terrains  superficiels  de  la  vallee  du  P6  ;  "  De  Jlortillet,  "  Anciens  glaciers  du  versant  meri- 
dional des  Alpes,"  "Memoires  divers;"  Bertolotti,  "  Liguria  maritima;"  Targioni  Tozzetti, '"  Voyage 
en  Toscane ;  "  Salvagnoli  Marchetti,  "  JIaremme  Toscane ;  "  Noel  des  Vergers,  "  L'Etrurie  et  les 
Etrusques  ;  "  Beule,  "  Fouilles  et  decouvertes  ;  "  Giordano,  "  Roma  e  suo  territorio  ;  "  Ponzi,  "  Histoire 
naturelle  du  Latium  ;  "  De  Prony,  "  Marais  Ponlins ;  "  "Works  of  D'Ampere  and  Stendhal,  &c. ;  Davies, 
"Pilgrimage  of  the  Tiber;"  Francis  Wey,  "Rome;"  Spallanzani,  '•  Voyage  dans  les  Deux-Sieiles ;  " 
Smyth,  "  Sicily  and  its  Islands  ;  "  Dolomieu,  "  Voyage  au.x  lies  de  Lipari  ;  "  De  Quatrefages,  "  Souve- 
nirs d'un  naturaliste;"  La  Marmora,  ."Voyage  en  Sardaigne,  Description  statistique,  physique  et 
politique  de  I'ile;"  JIantegazza,  "Profili  e  paesaggi  della  Sardegna ;  "  Yon  JIaltzan,  "  Reise  auf  der 
Inael  Sardinien  ;  "  Spano,  •'  Itinerario  della  Sardegna  ;  "  Correnti  e  Maestri,  "  Statistica  dell'  Italia." 


184  ITALY. 

picturesque  variety,  do  we  not  meet  with  !  Most  of  these  contrasts  are  due  to 
the  Apennines,  which  branch  ofl"  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  French  Alps. 
At  first  they  run  close  to  the  seashore,  like  a  huge  wall  supported  at  intervals 
by  powerful  buttresses ;  subsequently  they  traverse  the  whole  of  the  peninsula. 
At  times  they  are  reduced  to  a  narrow  ridge,  at  others  they  spread  out  into  vast 
masses,  rising  in  plateaux  or  ramifying  into  chains  and  promontories.  liiver 
valleys  and  plains  intersect  them  in  all  directions  ;  lakes  and  fiUed-up  lake  basins 
are  spread  out  at  the  foot  of  their  cliffs ;  and  numerous  volcanoes,  rising  above  the 
general  level,  contrast,  by  their  regular  form,  with  the  rugged  declivities  of 
the  Apennines.  The  sea,  following  these  sinuosities  in  the  relief  of  the  ground, 
forms  a  series  of  bays,  arranged  with  a  certain  degree  of  symmetry.  In  the 
north  these  b;iys  do  not  much  encroach  upon  the  land,  but  in  the  south  they 
penetrate  deeply,  and  almost  form  veritable  gulfs.  There  once  existed  an  Italy 
of  granitic  rocks,  but  it  exists  no  longer,  for  the  rocks  of  the  Apennines  and  of 
the  plains  teach  us  that  the  Italy  of  the  present  is  of  recent  origin,  and  that  the 
many  islands  of  which  it  consisted  formerly  were  united  into  a  single  peninsula 
as  recently  as  the  Eocene  epoch. 

Italy,  compared  with  Greece,  exhibits  much  sobriety  in  its  configuration. 
Its  mountains  are  arranged  in  more  regular  ridges,  its  coasts  are  less  indented,  its 
small  archipelagos  bear  no  comparison  with  the  Cyclades,  and  its  three  great 
dependent  islands,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  are  regular  in  their  contours. 
Indeed,  its  contours  mark  its  intermediate  position  between  joyous  Greece  and 
severe  Iberia.  Thus  there  exists  a  correspondence  between  geographical  position 
and  contours. 

Italy,  as  a  whole,  contrasts  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. The  former  faces  the  ^-Egean,  and  looks  towards  the  east,  whilst  in  the 
truly  peninsular  portion  of  Italy,  to  the  south  of  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  the 
westerly  slopes  offer  most  life.  Secure  harbours  are  most  numerous  on  the  shores 
of  the  Tyrrhenian,  and  the  largest  and  most  fertile  plains  slope  down  towards 
that  sea.  It  results  from  this  that  the  western  slopes  of  the  Apennines  have 
given  birth  to  the  most  enterprising  and  intelligent  populations,  who  have  taken 
the  lead  in  the  political  history  of  their  country.  The  west  represents  the  light, 
whilst  the  east,  bounded  as  it  is  by  the  Adriatic,  an  inland  sea  almost,  a  simple 
gulf,  represents  the  night.  True,  the  plains  of  Apulia,  though  on  the  east,  are 
wealthier  and  more  populous  than  the  mountain  regions  of  Calabria,  but  the 
vicinity  of  Sicily,  nevertheless,  even  there  insures  the  preponderance  of  the 
western  littoral.  Whilst  Greece  was  in  the  height  of  her  glory,  whilst  every 
initiative  went  forth  from  Athens,  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  islands  of  the 
iEgean,  those  republics  which  looked  towards  the  east,  such  as  Tarentum,  Locri, 
Sybaris,  Syracuse,  and  Catania,  enjoyed  a  pre-eminence  over  the  cities  on  the 
western  littoral.  The  physical  configuration  of  Italy  thus  facilitated  the  march 
of  civilisation  from  the  south-east  to  the  north-west,  from  Ionia  to  Gaul.  The 
Gulf  of  Taranto  and  the  eastern  coasts  of  Greater  Greece  and  Sicily  were  freely 
exposed  to  Hellenic  influences,  whilst  further  north  the  peninsula  faces  about  to 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.  185 

the  west  as  it  were.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  features  greatly  facilitated 
the  expansion  of  ideas  in  the  direction  of  Western  Europe,  and  that  if  it  had  been 
otherwise  civilisation  would  have  taken  another  direction. 

For  nearly  two  thousand  j-ears,  from  the  fall  of  Carthage  to  the  discovery 
of  America,  Italy  remained  the  centre  of  the  civilised  world.  It  maintained  its 
hegemony  either  by  conquest  and  organization,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "  Eternal 
City,"  or  by  the  power  of  its  genius,  the  relative  liberty  of  its  institutions,  its 
sciences,  arts,  and  commerce,  as  in  the  times  of  Florence,  Genoa,  and  Venice. 
Two  of  the  greatest  events  in  historj-,  the  political  unification  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean world  under  the  laws  of  Rome,  and  at  a  later  epoch  the  regeneration 
of  the  human  mind,  so  appropriately  termed  "  Renaissance,"  originated  in 
Italy.  It  behoves  us,  therefore,  to  inquire  into  the  geographical  conditions 
which  may  account  for  this  preponderance  during  these  two  ages  in  the  Hfe  of 
mankind. 

Mommsen  and  others  have  pointed  out  the  favourable  position  of  Rome  as  an 
emporium.  From  the  very  first  that  city  became  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
neighbouring  populations.  Built  in  the  centre  of  a  circus  of  hills,  and  on  the 
banks  of  a  navigable  river,  not  far  from  the  sea,  it  likewise  possessed  the  advan- 
tage of  lying  on  the  frontiers  of  three  nations — Latins,  Sabines,  and  Etruscans. 
When  Rome  had  conquered  the  neighbouring  territories  it  undoubtedly  rose  into 
importance  as  a  place  of  commerce.  This  local  traffic,  however,  would  never  have 
converted  Rome  into  a  great  city.  Its  position  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that 
of  places  like  Alexandria,  Constantinople,  or  Bombay,  upon  which  the  world's 
commerce  converges  as  a  matter  of  course.  On  the  contrary,  its  situation  hardly 
favours  commerce.  The  Apennines,  which  environ  the  territory  of  Rome  in  a 
huge  semicircle,  constituted  a  formidable  obstacle  until  quite  recently,  and  were 
avoided  by  merchants  ;  the  sea  near  Rome  is  treacherous,  and  even  the  small  galleys 
of  the  ancients  could  not  enter  the  inefiicient  harbour  at  Ostia  without  risk. 

The  power  of  Rome,  therefore,  depended  but  in  a  small  measure  upon  com- 
mercial advantages  resulting  from  geographical  position.  It  is  its  central 
position  to  which  that  city  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  greatness,  and  which 
enabled  it  to  weld  the  whole  of  the  ancient  world  into  a  political  whole.  Three 
concentric  circles  drawn  around  the  city  correspond  with  as  many  phases  in  its 
development.  During  their  first  struggles  for  existence  the  Romans  enjoyed 
the  advantage  of  occupying  a  basin  of  limited  extent,  shielded  on  all  sides  by 
mountains.  When  Rome  had  exterminated  the  inhabitants  of  these  mountains 
the  remainder  of  Italy  naturally  gravitated  towards  her.  The  plains  of  Cis-  and 
Transpadana  in  the  north  presented  no  obstacles,  whilst  the  resistance  of  the 
uncivilised  tribes  of  the  mountain  regions  of  the  south  was  soon  broken,  for  they 
found  no  support  amongst  the  Greek  colonies  scattered  along  an  extensive  coast. 
Nor-  were  the  populations  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica  sufficiently  united  to 
ofier  an  effi;'ctive  resistance  to  the  organized  forces  of  the  Romans,  who  were  thus 
able  to  extend  their  power  over  all  the  countries  comprehended  within  the  second 
concentric  circle  referred  to. 


186 


ITALY. 


It  happened  that  the  plains  of  Northern  Italy  and  Sicily  were  both  rich 
granaries,  which  enabled  the  Romans  to  push  forward  their  conquests.  The  whole 
world  of  the  Mediterranean  gravitated  towards  Rome  and  Italy :  lUyria,  Greece, 
and  Eo'vpt  in  the  east,  Libya  and  Mauritania  in  the  south,  Iberia  in  the  west, 
Gaul  in  the  north-west,  and  the  transalpine  countries  in  the  north. 

Rome  maintained  her  power  and  influence  as  long  as  the  Mediterranean 
constituted  the  world ;  but,  in  proportion  as  the  borders  of  the  known  world  were 
enlarged,  so  did  Rome  lose  the  advantages  which  a  central  position  had  conferred 
upon  her.  Even  during  the  latter  days  of  the  Roman  empire  Milan  and  Ravenna 
usurped  the  position  once  held  by  Rome,  and  the  latter  became  the  capital  of 


Fi".  50. — Rome  and  the  Uoman  Empire. 


]  BofCtv    tC*  Rtifne        C^    Cis,\ptnruit^  lUxly 


\  Cisaifiin*  ILzUe  E=3  Hanutn  t'tnfu're 


the  Ostrogothic  kingdom,  and  subsequently  the  seat  of  the  Byzantine  exarchs. 
Rome,  the  city  of  the  Cifisars,  had  fallen  for  evermore !  True,  the  emperors  were 
succeeded  by  the  popes,  but  the  real  masters  of  the  "  Holy  Roman  Empire " 
resided  beyond  the  Alps,  and  only  came  to  Italy  to  have  their  power  consecrated. 
Even  in  Italy  itself  Rome  ceased  to  be  the  leading  town,  its  place  being  taken  by 
Pavia,  Florence,  Genoa,  Miljn,  Venice,  Bologna,  and  even  Turin. 

The  unity  of  Italy  has  been  realised  in  the  course  of  this  century,  and, 
excepting  a  few  Alpine  valleys,  its  political  boundaries  coincide  with  its  natural 
ones.  It  may  surprise  us  that  this  unity  should  not  have  been  established  long 
ago,    but   the    geographical    configuration    of  Italy   readily   lends   itself    to   the 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.  187 

establishment  of  small  states.  Its  islands,  its  mountain-bound  plains,  and  coast 
districts,  shut  off  from  the  interior  of  the  country  by  abrupt  mountains,  formed  as 
many  centres  where  populations  of  diverse  origin  were  able  to  lead  a  life  inde- 
pendently of  their  neighbours.  Now  and  then  the  whole  of  Italy  acknowledged 
a  single  master,  but  it  only  did  so  on  compulsion.  That  spirit  of  nationality 
which  has  given  birth  to  a  united  Italy  only  animated  very  few  citizens  of  the 
mediseval  republics.  They  might  unite  to  resist  a  common  danger,  but  no  sooner 
was  it  past  than  they  went  their  separate  ways,  or,  still  worse,  fought  amongst 
themselves  about  some  trifle. 

Cola  di  Eienzi,  the  tribune  of  Rome,  appealed  to  the  cities  of  Italy  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  he  adjured  them  to  "  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
tyrant,  and  to  form  a  holy  national  brotherhood,  whose  object  should  be  the 
liberation  of  Rome  and  the  whole  of  Italy."  His  messengers,  carrying  a  silver 
wand,  went  to  every  city  with  greetings  of  amity,  and  asked  that  deputies  should 
be  sent  to  the  future  parliament  of  the  Eternal  City.  Eienzi,  full  of  the 
memories  of  the  past,  declared  that  Rome  had  not  ceased  to  be  the  "  mistress  of 
the  world,"  and  had  a  natural  right  to  govern  all  nations.  It  was  his  aim  to 
resuscitate  the  past,  not  to  evoke  a  new  life,  and  his  work  disappeared  like  a 
dream.  Florence  and  Venice,  the  most  active  cities  of  that  period,  looked  upon 
him  as  a  visionary.  "Siamo  Veneziani,  poi  Cristiani,"  said  the  proud  citizens 
of  Venice  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They,  whose  sons  fought  so  valiantly  for 
Italian  independence,  never  thought  of  calling  themselves  Italians.  At  the  same 
time  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  impulse  which  has  made  Italy  one  did  not 
originate  with  the  masses,  for  there  are  still  millions  of  Sicilians,  Sardinians, 
Calabrians,  and  even  Lombards  who  do  not  appreciate  the  vast  changes  which 
have  taken  place. 

If  Italy  no  longer  remains  a  "  geographical  expression,"  it  is  owing  in  a 
large  measure  to  frequent  foreign  invasions.  Spaniards,  French,  and  Germans 
in  turn  have  seized  the  fertile  plains  of  Italy,  and  their  hard  oppression  has 
taught  the  Italians  to  look  upon  each  other  as  brothers.  The  Alps  might  be 
supposed  to  offer  an  effective  protection  against  such  invasions,  but  they  do  not. 
They  are  steepest  on  the  Italian  side,  whilst  their  exterior  slopes,  towards  France, 
Switzerland,  and  German  Austria,  are  comparatively  gentle.  Invaders,  tempted 
by  the  delightful  climate  and  the  wealth  of  Italy,  were  able  to  reach  easily 
the  Alpine  passes,  whence  they  rushed  down  upon  the  plains ;  and  thus  the 
"barrier  of  the  Alps"  is  a  barrier  only  to  the  Italians,  and  has  always  been 
respected  by  them,  excepting  during  the  Roman  empire.  Nor  is  there  any  reason 
why  they  should  cross  it,  for  there  is  no  country  beyond  equal  to  their  own. 
French,  Swiss,  and  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  have  always  looked  upon  Italy 
as  a  sort  of  paradise.  It  was  the  country  of  their  dreams  ;  they  yielded  frequently 
to  their  desire  to  possess  it,  and  dyed  its  coveted  plains  with  blood. 

Italj-,  exposed  as  it  is  to  attacks  from  beyond,  and  no  longer  situated  in  the 
centre  of  the  known  world,  has  definitively  lost  its  primato,  or  foremost  place 
amongst  nations,  which  some  of  its  sons,  carried  away  by  an  exclusive  patriotism. 


188  ITALY. 

would  restore  to  it.  But  though  no  longer  the  most  powerful  nation,  and 
eclipsed  in  industry,  commerce,  and  even  literature  and  science,  it  still  remains 
unrivalled  in  its  treasures  of  art.  There  is  no  other  country  in  the  world 
which  can  boast  of  an  equal  number  of  cities  remarkable  on  account  of  their 
buildings,  statues,  paintings,  and  decorations  of  every  kind.  There  are  provinces 
where  every  village,  every  group  of  houses  even,  delights  the  eye  cither  by  a 
fresco  painting  or  a  work  of  the  sculptor's  chisel,  a  bold  staircase  or  picturesque 
balcony.  The  instinct  for  art  has  passed  into  the  blood  of  the  people,  and  we 
need  not  wonder  if  an  Italian  peasant  builds  his  house  and  plants  his  trees  so  as 
to  bring  them  into  harmony  with  the  surrounding  landscape.  This  constitutes  the 
greatest  charm  of  Italy  ;  everywhere  art  goes  hand  in  hand  with  nature.  How 
many  artists  are  there  not  in  Lombardy,  Venetia.  or  Tuscany  who  would  have 
become  famous  in  any  other  country,  but  whose  names  will  never  be  remem- 
bered, in  consequence  of  their  overwhelming  numbers,  or  because  their  lot  was 
cast  in  some  remote  village  ! 

Italy  owes  the  rank  it  has  held  for  more  than  two  thousand  years  not 
merely  to  its  monuments  and  works  of  art,  which  attract  students  from  the 
extremities  of  the  earth,  but  also  to  its  historical  associations.  In  a  countr}'  which 
has  been  inhabited  for  centuries  by  a  civilised  people  there  cannot  be  a  town 
the  origin  of  which  is  not  lost  in  the  darkness  of  tradition.  The  modem  cities 
have  replaced  the  Roman  towns,  and  these  latter  rose  upon  the  ruins  of  some 
Greek,  Etruscan,  or  Gallic  settlement.  Every  fortress,  every  country  house, 
marks  the  site  of  some  ancient  citadel,  or  of  the  villa  of  a  Roman  patrician ; 
churches  have  replaced  the  ancient  temples,  and  though  the  religious  rites  have 
changed,  the  altars  of  gods  and  saints  arise  anew  in  the  spots  consecrated  of  old. 
An  examination  of  these  relics  of  all  ages  is  full  of  interest,  and  only  the  most 
obtuse  can  resist  the  influence  of  the  historical  reminiscences  which  surround  him. 

Italy,  after  a  long  period  of  decay  and  foreign  domination,  has  again  taken  its 
place  amongst  the  foremost  modern  nations.  The  aspect  of  the  peninsula  has 
imdergone  many  changes  since  it  received  the  name  of  Vitalia,  or  Italia,  from  the 
herds  of  cattle  which  roamed  over  it.  Its  well-cultivated  plains,  carefullv  tended 
gardens,  and  busy  cities  entitle  it  now  to  some  other  appellation.  The  passes  of 
the  Alps  and  its  central  position  give  Italj'  the  command  of  all  the  routes  which 
converge  from  France,  Germany,  and  Austria  upon  the  Gulfs  of  Genoa  and 
Venice.  Its  quarries,  sulphur  and  iron  mines,  its  wanes  and  agricultural  produce 
of  every  description,  and  its  industry  afford  ever-growing  resources.  Its  men  of 
learning  and  inventors  may  fairly  claim  to  be  on  a  level  with  those  of  other 
countries.  The  population  increases  rapidly.  It  is  not  only  more  dense  than  in 
France,  but  also  sends  a  considerable  contingent  of  emigrants  to  the  solitudes  of 
Southern  America.* 

•  Area  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  114,413  square  miles  ;  population  in  1875,  27,482,174. 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


189 


II. — The  Basin  of  the  Po. 

PlEMONT,*    LOMHARDY,    Ve.NETIA,    AND    EmILIA. 

The  vaUey  of  the  Po  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  Upper  Italy,  because  it  occupies 
the  northern  portion  of  the  peninsula,  but  might  more  appropriately  be  termed 
the  Italian  Netherlands,  for  its  elevation  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  group  of 
provinces.      It  is  a  river  valley  now,  but  during  the  Pliocene  epoch  it  still  formed 

Fig.  51. — MOXTE    ViSO    AS    IT    APPEAKS    FKOM    ChIAI'FREDO. 


a  gulf  of  the  sea.  This  gulf  was  gradually  filled  up  by  the  alluvium  brought 
down  by  the  rivers,  and  upheaved  by  subterranean  forces  above  the  surface  of  the 
waters,  the  erosive  action  of  the  mountain  torrents  continuing  all  the  while ; 
and  thus,  in  the  course  of  ages,  the  basin  of  the  Po  assumed  its  gentle  and 
regular  slope  towards  the  sea.  As  long  as  the  waters  of  the  Adriatic  penetrated 
the  valleys  between  Monte  Eosa  and  Monte  Viso,  Italy  was  attached  to  the  Alps 

•  Pie  di  Monte,  Piedmont,  or  Piemonte,  i.e.  mountain-foot. 
14 


190  ITALY. 

of  continental  Europe  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land  formed  by  the  Ligurian 
Apennines. 

No  other  region  of  Europe  can  rival  the  valley  of  the  To  as  regards  the 
magnificence  of  its  distant  prospects.  The  Apennines  in  the  south  raise  their 
heads  above  the  region  of  forests,  their  rocks,  woods,  and  pasturages  contrasting 
with  the  uniform  plain  spread  out  along  their  foot  ;  whilst  the  snow-clad  Alps 
rise  in  all  their  sublimity  from  the  Col  di  Tenda  in  the  west  to  the  passes  of  Istria 
in  the  east.  The  isolated  pyramid  of  Monte  Viso  (thus  called  from  the  beautiful 
prospect  which  may  be  obtained  from  its  summit)  looks  down  upon  the  fields  of 
Saluzzo,  and  the  small  lakes  in  its  pasturing  region  feed  a  roaring  rivulet  which 
subsequently  assumes  the  name  of  Po.  Enormous  buttresses  to  the  north-west  of 
Turin  support  the  ice-clad  Grand  Paradis,  near  which  peeps  out  the  Grivola, 
perhaps  the  most  charming,  the  most  gracefully  chiselled  of  all  Alpine  peaks. 
Right  in  the  bend  of  the  Alpine  chain  rises  the  dome  of  Mont  Blanc,  like  an 
island  above  a  sea  of  mountains.  Monte  Rosa,  crowned  with  a  seven-pointed 
diadem,  pushes  its  spurs  far  into  Italy.  Then  come  the  Spliigen,  the  Ortler,  the 
Adamello,  the  Marmolade,  and  many  another  summit  distinguished  for  some 
special  beauty.  When  from  the  top  of  the  dome  of  Milan  we  behold  spread 
out  around  us  this  magnificent  amphitheatre  of  mountains  rising  above  the 
verdant  plain,  we  may  well  rejoice  that  we  should  have  lived  to  contemplate  so 
grand  a  scene. 

Geographicall}'  the  Alps  belong  to  the  countries  which  surround  Italy.  P'rom 
the  south  we  seize  at  a  glance  the  entire  slope  of  the  mountains,  from  the  vine- 
yards and  plantations  of  mulberry-trees  to  the  forests  of  beech  and  larch,  the 
pastures,  the  naked  rocks,  and  the  dazzling  fields  of  ice.  But  the  cultivator  only 
ventured  into  this  difficult  region  when  forced  by  poverty.  The  features  of  the 
northern  slope  are  quite  different.  There  the  land  rises  gradually,  and  the  valleys 
arc  less  fertile,  but  the  inhabitants  can  easily  reach  the  heads  of  the  passes, 
whence  they  look  down  upon  the  inviting  plains  of  Italy.  It  is  this  structure  of 
the  Alps  which  explains  the  preponderance  of  the  Germanic  and  Gallic  elements 
throughout  their  extent,  and  whilst  Italian  is  spoken  only  in  a  few  isolated 
localities  beyond  this  mountain  barrier,  the  French  and  German  elements  are 
largely  represented  on  their  inner  slopes. 

Italy  can  only  claim  a  few  Alpine  mountain  masses  within  the  basin  of  the 
Po,  the  Adigc,  and  the  rivers  of  Venetia.  The  most  important  of  these,  alike  on 
account  of  its  height,  its  glaciers,  and  springs,  is  the  Grand  Paradis,  which  rears 
its  head  to  the  south  of  the  Dora  Baltea,  between  the  masses  of  Mont  Blanc  and 
the  plains  of  Pieraont.  An  Englishman,  Mr.  Mathews,  may  claim  to  be  the  first 
discoverer  of  this  moimtain  giant,  which  even  on  the  Sardinian  staff  map, 
published  only  recently,  is  confounded  with  Mont  Iseran,  a  far  less  noble  summit 
twenty-five  miles  to  the  west  of  it. 

None  of  the  other  Alpine  summits  on  Italian  territory  can  compare  in  height 
with  the  Grand  Paradis,  for  though  the  Italian  language  extends  in  numerous 
instances  to  the  central  chain  of  the  Alps,  the  political  boundaries  of  Italy  do  not. 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


191 


Switzerland  holds  possession  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Ticino,  whilst  Austria  still 
possesses  the  Upper  Adige.  The  only  rivers  rising  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Alps,  and  belonging  in  their  entirety,  or  nearly  so,  to  Italy,  are  the  Tagliaraento 
and  the  Piave.  In  consequence  of  this  violation  of  the  natural  frontiers  there 
are  many  snow-clad  Alpine  summits  which,  though  geographically  belonging  to 
Italy,  are  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  the  present  kingdom,  or  even  within 
Swiss  or  Austrian  territory.  Amongst  these  are  the  giant  summits  of  the  Ortler, 
the  Marmolade,  and  the  precipitous  Cimon  della  Pala.     The  Monte  della  Disgrazia, 


Fig.  52. — Grand  Pakadis. 
Erom  the  Map  of  the  French  Alpine  Club.    Scale  1 :  223,000. 


7  «  F   ni   tr 


i 


^/^^.v 


.  5  Miles. 


however,  to  the  south  of  the  Bernina,  is  an  Italian  mountain  ;  such  is  also,  for  the 
greater  part,  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Camonica,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Pass  of  Tonale,  which  plays  so  prominent  a  part  in  legendarj'  history,  and  is 
commanded  by  the  Adamo,  or  Adamello,  whose  glacier  streams  creep  down  to 
the  Upper  Adige.  Farther  to  the  east,  in  the  valley  of  the  Piave,  the  obelisk 
surmounting  the  huge  pyramid  of  the  Antelao  pierces  the  line  of  perennial  snow, 
and  there  are  other  peaks  scarcely  inferior  to  it  in  height. 

Most  of  the  Alpine  groups  lying  within  Italy  and  between  the  main  chain  and 


193  IT.U.Y. 

the  plains  do  not  exceed  the  Apennines  in  height,  and  only  a  few  amongst  them 
are  covered  with  perennial  snow.  But  the  prospects  which  may  be  enjoyed  from 
them  are  all  the  more  charming  for  this  reason,  for  we  find  ourselves  between  two 
zones,  with  cultivated  valleys,  to\\nis,  and  villages  at  our  feet,  and  a  panorama  of 
bare  and  snowy  summits  bounding  the  view  to  the  north.  Several  of  these 
mountains  deservedly  attract  large  numbers  of  tourists.  Favourites  amongst 
them  are  the  hills  rising  above  the  blue  lakes  of  Lombardy,  such  as  the  Motterone 
on  Lago  Maggiore,  the  pyramidal  Generoso  rising  in  the  midst  of  verdant  fields 
on  the  Lake  of  Lugano,  the  superb  hills  between  the  two  arms  of  the  Lake  of 
Como  and  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Brianza,  and  Monte  Baldo,  advancing  its 
buttresses  like  lions'  claws  into  the  waters  of  the  Lake  of  Garda.  The  mountains 
of  the  Val  Tcllina,  or  the  Orobia  range,  to  the  south  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Adda,  being  remote  from  towns  and  customary  highways,  are  less  frequently 

Fig.  53. — The  Plain  of  D^iikis  iietween  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 
According  to  S^llikofer. 


ii;t-j^iii.ji^rLy^V.;Bj^.^^L;^i^i,apyil^^^,^^ 


visited  than  they  deserve.  Standing  at  their  foot,  we  may  almost  fancy  being  in 
the  Pyrenees.  As  to  the  dolomites,  on  the  frontiers  of  Venetia  and  the  Tyrol, 
they  are  unique.  Their  fantastically  shaped  rocks,  delicately  tinted  with  pink 
and  other  colours,  contrast  marvellously  with  the  green  of  beeches  and  firs,  or 
the  blue  waters  of  the  lakes.  Richthofen  and  others  look  upon  these  isolated 
mountain  masses  as  ancient  coral  islands,  or  atolls,  upheaved  to  a  height  varying 
between  6,500  and  10,400  feet ;  and,  whatever  their  geological  origin  may  be, 
they  certainly  contribute  much  towards  the  beauty  of  the  Alpine  regions. 

If  we  descend  the  Italian  slope  of  the  Alps,  we  pass  gradually  from  the  more 
ancient  to  the  most  recent  geological  formation,  until  we  finally  reach  the  alluvial 
plain.  Metamorphic  rocks,  vcrrucatio,  dolomites,  and  other  rocks  overlie  the 
granites,  the  gneiss,  and  the  schists  of  the  more  elevated  mountain  masses.  These 
are  succeeded  by  beds  of  Triassic  and  Jurassic  age.     Lower  still  we  meet  with 


THE   BASIN   OF   THE   PO. 


193 


terraces  and  hills  composed  of  tertiary  marls,  clays,  and  conglomerates.  Monte 
Bolca,  so  famous  amongst  geologists  on  account  of  its  fossils,  belongs  to  this 
formation.*  The  whole  of  the  plain  of  Lombardy  and  Piemont,  with  the 
exception  of  the  isolated  hQlocks  rising  in  it,  and  a  few  marine  deposits  near  its 
margin,  consists  of  debris  brought  down  by  the  rivers.  The  depth  of  this  accu- 
mulation is  not  yet  known,  for  hitherto  no  borings  have  pierced  it ;  but  if  we 
suppose  the  slopes  of  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines  to  continue  uniformly,  it  would 
amount  to  no  less  than  4,130  feet.  The  two  diagrams  (Fig.  53)  are  intended  to 
illustrate  this  feature.  In  the  upper  of  these  the  heights  are  exaggerated  ten- 
fold ;  in  the  lower  both  the  horizontal  and  the  vertical  scales  are  the  same.  A 
glance  at  this  diagram  reveals  the  astounding  fact  that  the  volume  of  this  debris 
almost  equals  that  of  the  existing  mountain  systems. 


Fig.  54. — Slope  of  the  Valley  op  the  Po. 
The  vertical  scale  is  ten  times  larger  than  the  horizontal. 


5onrce  ofPo 


The  vast  plain  stretching  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  foot  of  the  Monte  Rosa  and 
the  Viso  may  boast  of  its  peninsulas,  its  islands,  and  even  its  archipelagos,  as  if 
it  were  a  sea.  The  tertiary  hills  of  Northern  Monferrato,  to  the  east  of  Turin, 
attain  a  height  of  1,600  to  2,000  feet,  and  the  valley  of  the  Tanaro  completely 
separates  them  from  the  Ligurian  Alps  and  the  Apennines.  Even  at  the  very 
foot  of  the  Alps,  as  at  Cavour  and  elsewhere,  isolated  granitic  or  porphyritic 
pyramids  and  domes  rise  in  the  midst  of  the  plain  sloping  down  towards  the  Po.t 
The  hump-backed  Bosco  Montello,  to  the  south  of  the  Piave,  is  another  isolated 
hill ;  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Po  maj'  be  seen  a  hillock  of  pebbles  and  marine 
sands,  abounding  in  fossils,  which  bears  the  village  of  San  Colombano  and  its 
vineyards.  Several  volcanic  peaks,  surrounded  by  cretaceous  formations,  rise  in 
the  midst  of  the  plains  to  the  east  of  the  Lake  of  Garda.  The  craters  of  the 
Berici,  near  Vicenza,  and  of   the  Euganean  HiUs,  near  Padua,  have  not  vomited 


*  Principal  Alpine  summits  of  Italy  : — ilonte  Viso,  12,.38o  feet;  Grand  Paradis,  13,271  feet;  Monte 
della  Disgrazia,  11,840  feet;  Adamello,  11,677  feet;  Antelao,  10,680  feet;  Brunone  (Orobia  range), 
10,370  feet ;  Generoso,  5,670  feet ;  Monte  Baldo,  7,310  feet ;  Monte  Bolca,  3.143  feet. 

t  Altitudes  :— Source  of  the  Po,  6,400  feet;  Saluzzo,  1.200  feet;  Turin,  755  feet;  Pavia  (mouth  of 
Ticino),  330  feet;  Piacenza,  217  feet;  Cremona,  130  feet;  Mantua,  89  feet;  Ferrara,  20  feet. 


194 


ITALY. 


flames  within  the  historical  epoch ,  but  the  hot  and  the  gas  springs  which  issue 
from  clefts  in  the  trachj'tic  and  basaltic  rocks  prove  sufficiently  that  volcanic 
forces. are  not  yet  quite  extinct  in  that  part  of  Italy.  Earthquakes  occur  fre- 
quently in  the  neighbouring  Alps,  and  particularly  near  Bolhuio  and  Bassano. 

A  similar  volcanic  zone  extends  along  the  northern  slope  of  the  Apennines, 
which  bound  the  valley  of  the  Po  on  the  south.  Hydrogen  gas  escapes  from 
fissures  in  the  rocks  to  the  south  of  Modena  and  Bologna,  and  is  utilised  in 
several  instances  in  the  manufacture  of  lime,  and  for  other  purposes.  These  gas 
springs  of  Pietra  Mala,  Porretta,  and  Barigazzo  were  known  by  the  ancients  and 
during  the  Middle  Ages  as  "  fiery  springs,"  and  they  illuminated  the  path  of  the 
traveller  overtaken   by  the  night.     Lower  down  the  slope,  almost  on  the  verge  of 


Fig.  .55. — Mi'i>  Volcanoes  axu  Hot  Sridxr.s  of  the  Nortmeun   Avennines. 

Sculp  1  :  l.ino.WHl. 


Hydrogen  Sprinps.    Mud  Volcanoes.    Hot  Springs. 
^-^-^—   10  Miles. 


the  plains,  we  meet  with  a  line  of  mud  volcanoes,  or  hoitibi,  the  most  famous  of 
which  are  those  of  Sassuolo,  near  Modena.  The  largest  of  these,  that  of  Mirano, 
has  no  less  than  forty  craters.  The  ancient  gulf  of  the  sea,  now  converted  into 
a  plain,  is  thus  skirted  by  volcanic  cones,  mud  volcanoes,  hot  springs,  and  deposits 
of  sulphur.  As  high  up  as  Piemont,  and  notably  at  Acqui,  we  meet  with  hot 
springs,  attesting  that  volcanic  activity  is  not  yet  altogether  extinct. 

The  valleys  of  the  Alps  and  the  plains  extending  along  their  foot  were  filled, 
in  a  former  geological  epoch,  with  huge  glaciers,  descending  from  what  was 
anciently  the  immen.se  glacial  region  of  Central  Europe.  There  is  not  a  valley 
between  that  of  the  Tanaro  in  the  west,  and  that  of  the  Isonzo  descending  from  the 
mountains  of  Carinthia,  but  contains  accumulations  of  debris  carried  down  by  the 


< 


o 

Ed 


o 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


195 


glaciers,  and  now  covered  with  vegetation.  Most  of  these  ancient  glaciers 
exceeded  those  of  the  Monte  Rosa  and  the  Finsteraarhom  in  extent,  and  several 
of  them  rivalled  the  existing  glaciers  of  the  Himalaya.  If  we  would  gain  a 
notion  of  what  the  Alps  were  like  during  this  glacial  epoch,  we  must  go  to  Green- 
land or  to  the  Antarctic  regions. 

One  of  the  smallest  of  these  ice  streams,  that  which  descended  from  the 
mountains  of  Tenda  in  the  direction  of  Cuneo,  had  a  length  of  thirty  miles. 
That  which  brought  down  the  ice  of  Mont  Genevre,  Mont  Tabor,  and  Mont  Cenis 
had  twice  that  length,  and  its  moraines  formed  a  veritable  amphitheatre  of 
hills,  locally  known  as  regione  alia  piefre,  or  stony  region.  Farther  north  the 
streams  of  ice  descending  from  the  Pennine  Alps  between  the  Grand  Paradis  and 


Fig.  56. — The  AxcrEST  Glacieks  of  the  Alps. 
Scale  1  : 4,800,000. 


'i.of  Cr  8" 


ME  D  T  TERRAXEAaN 


100  Miles. 


Mont  Blanc  united  in  a  single  stream  eighty  miles  in  length,  and  spread  over  the 
plain  far  beyond  Ivrea.  The  alluvial  accumulation  of  this  ancient  glacier  rises 
1,100  and  even  2,130  feet  above  the  valley  through  which  the  Dora  Baltea  now 
flows.  One  of  its  lateral  moraines,  known  as  the  Serra  d' Ivrea,  forms  a  regular 
rampart  to  the  east  of  the  river,  eighteen  miles  in  extent.  Its  slopes  are  now 
covered  with  chestnuts.  The  western  ravine  (Colle  di  Brossa)  is  less  prominent, 
because  it  is  inferior  in  height ;  but  the  frontal  ravine,  forming  a  complete  demi- 
circle,  can  still  be  traced  readily.  In  the  debris  accumulated  at  the  foot  of  this 
ancient  glacier,  rocks  derived  from  Mont  Blanc  are  mixed  with  others  brought 
down  from  Mont  Cer^^n.  And  yet  it  was  but  a  dwarf  when  compared  with 
the  ancient  twin  glacier  of  the  Ticino  and  the  Adda,  which  extended  from  the 
Simplon  to  the  Stelvio,  filled  up  the  cavities  now  occupied  by  the  Lago  Maggiore 


190 


ITALY. 


and  the  Lake  of  Como,  sent  a  lateral  branch  to  the  tortuous  bed  of  the  Lake  of 
Lugano,  and  finallj',  after  a  course  of  from  100  to  120  miles,  debouched  upon  tlie 
plain  of  Lombardy.  The  glacier  of  the  Oglio  was  small  in  comparison  with  it, 
but  it  was  exceeded  by  that  of  the  Adige,  the  most  considerable  of  all  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  Alps.  This  river  of  ice,  from  the  mountains  of  the 
Oetzthal,  where  it  originated,  to  its  terminal  moraine  to  the  north  of  Mantua, 
had  a  length  of  175  miles.     One  of  its  branches  descended  towards  the  east,  down 


Fig.  67. — Thb  Sekka  of  Ivuea  and  the  Ancient  Glacier  Lakes  of  the  Doha. 
Flx>m  the  Saraiiimii  Staff  llnp.    Sadc  1  :  250,000. 


the  valley  of  the  DraAc,  as  far  as  where  the  town  of  Klagenfurt  now  stands.  Its 
main  stream  filled  up  the  cavity  of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  pushing  along  a  formidable 
rampart  of  elevated  moraines. 

The  hand  of  man  is  scarcely  able  to  make  an  impression  upon  the  vast  accumu- 
lations heaped  up  by  the  action  of  the  glaciers.  The  hills  of  Solferino,  of  Cavriana, 
and  Somma  Campagna,  so  often  named  in  connection  with  battles,  are  nothing  but 
debris  brought  down  from  the  flanks  of  the  Alps,  and  they  were  much  higher 
formerly  than  they  are  now. 


THE  BASIX  OF  THE  PO. 


197 


Some  of  the  erratic  blocks  were  as  large  as  houses,  but,  being  used  as  quarries, 
they  are  fast  disappearing.  One  of  them  at  Pianezza,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Susa  valley,  is  80  feet  long,  40  feet  broad,  and  46  feet  high,  and  a  chapel  has 
been  built  upon  it.  The  huge  erratic  blocks  in  the  hills  between  the  two  arms  of 
the  Lake  of  Como  have  supplied  materials  for  the  monolithic  columns  of  the 
churches  and  palaces  in  the  environs.  The  slopes  of  the  hills  of  Turin  facing  the 
Alps  are  likewise  covered  with  erratic  blocks. 


"When  the  glaciers  retired  into  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Alps,  the  soil  which 
they  covered  was  left  bare,  and  the  depressions  now  occupied  by  the  beautiful 


Fis'.  o8. — AxciEST  Lakes  of  Verbano. 


;P?    ^^    :.;"5a 


'■mfim-  mc 


lakes  of  Lombardy  were  revealed.  These  depressions,  whose  bottom  even  now 
sinks  down  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  were  formerly  arms  of  the  sea,  in 
character  very  much  like  the  fiords  of  Norway.  That  such  was  the  case  is  proved 
bv  the  presence,  in  every  one  of  the  Lombard  lakes,  of  a  sardine  (the  agone), 
which  naturalists  consider  to  be  a  sea  fish.  In  Garda  Lake,  moreover,  there  still 
dwell  two  marine  fishes  which  have  adapted  themselves  to  their  new  condition  of 
life,  as  well  as  a  small  marine  shell-fish. 

The  number  of  these  Alpine  lakes  was  much  larger  formerly,  and  those 
which  still  exist  shrink  from  year  to  year.  In  Upper  Piemont  alluvial  deposits 
have  long  ago  filled  up   the   lakes,  and  there  now   only  remain  a  few  pools  of 


198 


ITALY. 


water  to  indicate  their  site.  The  first  sheets  of  water  to  which  the  term  "  lake  " 
may  fairly  bo  applied  are  met  with  on  both  banks  of  the  Dora  Baltea  (see 
Fig.  57).  The  little  basin  of  Candia  and  the  shallow  Lake  of  Azeglio,  to  the  west 
and  east  of  the  river,  are  the  only  remains  of  Lacus  Clisius,  which  covered  an  area 
of  several  hundred  square  miles  until  its  waters  broke  through  the  semicircular 
terminal  moraine  which  bounded  it  on  the  south.  The  Dora  Baltea  formerly 
escaped  from  this  lake  in  the  south-east,  its  present  course  only  dating  from  the 
fourteenth  century. 

Fig.  39. — The  Upper  Extremity  of  the  Lake  op  Coho. 
Scale  1  :  148,000. 


■  .■<•  .if  ' 


""■V     >.'-'^' 


t  L->.  V 


w 


,.«<^-  ■-•;' 


U:^, 


■^ 


'^::^^^^) 


^%Uj"^^' 


i»1#i'Rl# 


Tian.aio 


"Dmi* 


2  Miles. 


The  dotted  ti;ict  luis  btcome  dry  land  bince  1833. 

Since  this  reservoir  has  been  drained,  the  first  lake  of  importance  in  the  west 
is  that  of  A'erbano,  very  inappropriately  called  Lago  Maggiore,  or  the  "  principal 
lake,"  as  that  of  Garda  exceeds  it  in  extent.  Ancient  beaches,  at  an  elevation  of 
1,300  feet  above  the  sea,  prove  that  the  waters  of  the  lake  have  considerably 
subsided,  and  that  its  area  was  much  larger  formerh' ;  and  it  curiously  ramified 
with  neighbouring  lake  basins,  now  merely  connected  with  it  by  rivers.  The 
ancient  moraine  at  the  foot  of  this  lake,  and  through  which  the  Ticino  has  exca- 
vated itself  a  passage,  still  rises  to  a  height  of  980  feet. 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


199 


Centuries  elapsed  before  the  changes  which  we  now  perceive  were  accom- 
plished. Still  they  proceeded  at  a  sufficiently  rapid  rate.  Even  now  the  allu- 
vium carried  down  by  the  Ticino  and  the  Maggia  continually  encroaches  upon 
the  Lago  Maggiore.  Seven  hundred  years  ago  the  Nallage  of  Gordola  stood  on 
the  shore  of  the  lake  :  it  is  now  nearly  a  mile  away  from  it.  The  landing-places 
of  Magadino,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ticiuo,  have  to  be  continually  shifted,  for  the 
lake  retires  steadily.  Only  sixty  years  ago  barges  were  able  to  receive  their 
cargoes  at  a  wharf  nearly  half  a  mile  higher  up  than  the  present  one.     The  Gulf 

Fig.  60. — Section  of  the  Nokthers  Poktiox  of  Lake  Como. 
Scale  1  :  25,000 


o 
•So 


Fig.  61. — Section  of  the  L.\ke  of  Lecco,  near  the  Bifurcation. 
Scale  1 :  26,000. 


I 


<^^^^^^^W^^-'' 


Fig.  62. — Longitudinal  Section  of  IiAKB  Como. 
Horizontal  scale  1  :  50,000.    Vertical  scale  1  :  500,000. 


S8 

I 


II' 


of  Locarno  is  gradually  being  separated  from  the  main  sheet  of  water  by  alluvial 
deposits  brought  down  bj'  the  Maggia. 

The  Lario,  or  Lake  of  Como,  which  rivals  the  Maggiore  by  its  beauty,  is 
likewise  being  gradually  silted  up.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  navigation 
extended  as  far  as  Summolacus  (lake-head),  the  modern  Samolaco.  But  the 
torrent  of  Mera  gradually  converted  most  of  the  upper  extremity  of  the  lake  into 
an  alluvial  plain,  whilst  the  alluvial  deposits  carried  down  by  the  Adda  cut  off 
the  remainder  from  the  main  body  of  water.     There  now  remains  only  the  Laeus 


200 


ITALY. 


Diinidiatus,  or  Lake  of  Mezzola,  which  is  shrinking  from  year  to  year,  and  will 
finally  disajjpoar  altogether.  The  miasmata  rising  from  the  swamps  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Achhi  have  frequently  depopulated  the  environs,  and  the  ruined  fort  of 
Fuentes,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  built  to  defend  the  Yal  Tellina,  was  hardly 
ever  more  than  a  hospital  for  its  fever-stricken  garrison. 

The  south-eastern  arm  of  the  lake,  that  of  Lecco,  through  which  the  Adda 
makes  its  escape  to  the  south,  has  likewise  been  divided  into  a  series  of  separate 
basins.  Nature,  which  would  convert  these  lakes  into  bottom-lands  at  no  distant 
date,  is  being  aided  here  by  the  works  of  man.  The  barrier  which  obstructed  the 
free  egress  of  the  Adda  has  been  cleared  away,  the  structures  of  fishermen  have 
been  removed,  and,  in  consequence  of  these  and  other  engineering  measures,  the 
once-dreaded  rises  of  the  lake  have  been  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  southern- 
most of  the  lake  basins,  that  of  Brivio,  has  been  converted  into  drj'  laud.  The 
large  Lake  of  Brianza,  which  extended  formerly  far  to  the  south-west,  has  like- 
wise been  partially  drained,  and  there  now  remain  only  a  few  lakelets  of  small 
extent. 

We  know  sufficient  of  the  bottom  of  the  Lake  of  Como  to  enable  us  to  judge 
of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  becoming  gradually  filled  up  with  alluvium.  The 
mud  deposited  in  its  northern  portion  has  filled  up  all  the  original  inequalities  of 
the  soil,  and  even  in  the  centre  of  the  lake,  and  in  its  south-eastern  arm,  the 
bottom  is  ahnost  a  perfect  level.  In  the  Como  arm,  however,  whicli  receives  no 
tributary  river  of  any  importance,  the  bottom  is  still  full  of  inequalities.  These 
differences  amply  prove  to  us  the  geological  agency  of  the  rivers,  which  must 
terminate  in  the  lake  being  converted  into  a  bottom-land,  with  a  river  flowing 
through  its  centre.  The  third  of  our  diagrams  (Fig.  62)  shows  that  the  greatest 
depth  now  hardly  exceeds  1,300  feet,  whilst,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  which  bound  it,  the  depth  in  former  times  cannot  have  been  less  than 
2,300  feet. 

The  Sebino,  or  Lake  of  Iseo,  and  the  lakelet  of  Idro,  which  are  fed  by  the 
glacier  streams  of  the  Adamello,  exhibit  the  same  features  as  the  lakes  farther  to 
the  west.  The  Benaco,  or  Lake  of  Garda,  however,  the  most  extensive  of  these 
Alpine  lakes,  is  very  stable  as  regards  its  outline  and  the  configuration  of  its 
bottom,  a  fact  sufficiently  explained  by  the  small  size  of  its  tributary  streams  as 
compared  with  its  vast  area.  The  old  Alpine  lakes  of  the  Venetian  Alps  have 
disappeared  long  ago,  and  there  remain  only  a  few  ponds,  filling  cavities  in  the 
dolomitic  rocks  and  peat  bogs,  to  indicate  their  ancient  sites.* 

•  Itiilian  Alpine  lakes  having  an  area  of  more  than  five  square  miles  : — 


Average  Area. 

Averafre  Altitude.          Depth 

Feet. 

Capacity. 

Name. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Feet. 

Max 

Average. 

MiUions  of  GaUs 

Lake  of  Orta 

0-4 

1,122 

820 

(?) 

490  (?) 

462,000 

Verbano,  or  Lago  Maggiore 

81-4 

646 

1,230 

690 

9,680,000 

Lake  of  Yarese  . 

6-2 

771 

85 

33 

35,200 

Cercaio,  or  Lake  of  Lugai.o 

19-3 

889 

950 

490 

1,584,000 

Lario,  or  Lake  of  Como 

60-2 

663 

1,3.52 

810 

7,700,000 

Sebino,  or  Lake  of  Iseo 

23-0 

646 

980 

490 

1  980,000 

Liake  of  Idro 

6-4 

1,240 

400 

(•-) 

(?) 

(?) 

Benaco,  or  Lake  of  Garda  . 

115-8 

226 

960 

(:-) 

490 

9,900,000 

THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


201 


These  lacustrine  basins,  like  all  other  reservoirs  of  the  same  kind,  regulate  the 
outflow  of  the  torrents  which  empty  into  them.  During  the  freshets  they  store 
up  the  superabundant  waters,  and  only  part  with  them  in  the  dry  season,  and 
uj)on  their  difference  of  level  in  difl'erent  seasons  depend  the  oscillations  of  the 
emissary  rivers  which  issue  from  them.  In  the  case  of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  which 
drains  but  a  small  area  in  proportion  to  its  size,  this  difference  is  small,  and 
throughout  the  year  the  pellucid  waters  of  the  Mincio  flow  tranquilly  beneath  the 

Fig.  63. — YiLL.i  Serbelloxi,  ox  the  Peninsvla  of  Bell.\gio,  Lake  of  Como. 


blackened  ramparts  of  Peschiera.  Such  is  not  the  case  as  regards  either  the  Lago 
Maggiore  or  the  Lake  of  Como,  for  the  volume  of  water  discharged  into  them 
is  so  considerable  that  their  level  in  summer  and  winter  varies  to  the  extent 
of  several  yards,  and  corresponding  differences  may  be  observed  in  the  rivers 
issuing  from  them.  Lake  Como  rises  no  less  than  12  feet,  and  increases 
70  square  miles  in  area,  whilst  the  Lago  Maggiore  sometimes  rises  22  feet,  and 


202  ITALY. 

increases  to  tbe  extent  of  one-fifth.  The  volume  of  the  Ticino,  when  at  its  highest, 
almost  equals  the  average  volume  of  the  Nile,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  regulating 
influence  of  the  lake  from  which  it  issues,  it  would  alternately  convert  the  plains 
of  Lombardy  into  a  sheet  of  water  and  leave  them  an  arid  tract  of  land.* 

The  Alpine  lakes  of  Italy  thus  play  an  important  part  in  the  economy  of 
the  country  They  render  the  climate  more  equable,  serve  as  high-roads  of 
commerce,  and,  being  the  centres  of  animal  life,  attract  a  dense  population.  But 
it  is  not  this  which  has  rendered  these  lakes  famous,  which  has  attracted  thou- 
sands of  wanderers  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  caused  villas  and 
palaces  to  rise  on  their  shores  :  it  is  their  incomparable  beauty.  And,  indeed, 
there  are  few  spots  in  Europe  which  bear  comparison  with  the  delightful  Gulf  of 
Pallanza,  over  which  are  scattered  the  Borromean  Islands,  or  with  the  peninsula 
of  Bcllagio,  which  may  be  likened  to  a  hanging  garden  suspended  wifliin  sight 
of  the  snow-clad  Alps,  and  affording  a  prospect  of  the  rock-bound  shores  of  the 
Como  Lake,  cultivated  fields,  and  numerous  villas.  Perhaps  even  more  delightful 
is  the  peninsula  of  Sermione,  jutting  out  into  the  azure  waters  of  the  Garda  Lake, 
like  the  tender  stalk  of  a  flower  developing  into  a  many-coloured  petal. 

Most  of  the  lakes  in  the  plain  have  been  drained  into  the  neighbouring  rivers. 
The  Lake  of  Gerondo,  mentioned  in  mediaeval  records,  has  dwindled  down  into  a 
small  swamp,  or  mo-si,  now,  and  its  populous  island  of  Fulcheria  has  become  merged 
in  the  plain  of  Lombardy.  The  lakes  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Po,  above 
Guastalla,  have  likewi.se  been  drained ;  and  if  the  two  shallow  lakes  of  Mantua 
still  exist,  this  is  entirely  due  to  the  embankments  raised  in  the  twelfth  century. 
It  would  have  been  much  better,  and  would  have  saved  the  citj'  the  horrors  of 
many  a  siege,  if  these  lakes  had  been  allowed  to  disappear  likewise. 

The  lagoons  along  the  Adriatic  have  decreased  in  extent  in  the  course  of 
centuries,  and  whilst  new  lagoons  are  being  formed,  the  old  ones  are  gradually 
being  converted  into  dry  land.  The  old  maps  of  the  Venetian  littoral  differ 
essentially  from  our  modern  ones,  and  yet  all  the  vast  changes  they  indicate  have 
been  wrought  in  the  course  of  a  few  centuries.  The  swamps  of  Caorle,  between 
the  Piave  and  the  Gulf  of  Trieste,  have  changed  to  an  extent  which  prevents  us 
from  restoring  the  ancient  topography  of  the  country  ;  and  if  the  lagoons  of  Venice 
and  Chioggia  exhibit  a  certain  permanence  of  contour,  this  is  only  on  account  of 
the  incessant  interference  of  man.  The  ancient  lagoon  of  Brondolo  has  been  dry 
land  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centur}'.  The  large  lagoon  of  Comacchio, 
to  the  south  of  the  Po,  has  been  cut  up  into  separate  portions  by  alluvial  embank- 
ments formed  by  the  agency  of  rivers  and  torrents.  For  the  most  part  it  consists 
now  of  ra/Ii,  or  alluvial  deposits,  but  there  still  remain  a  few  profound  cavities,  or 
chiari,  which   the   rivers  have  not  yet  succeeded  in   filling  up.     Formerly  these 

•  Volume  of  Adda  and  Ticino  at  their  point  of  egress  from  the  Alpine  lakea,  according  to  Lom- 
bardini : — 

Adda. — Average  6,600,  minimum  567,  maximum  29,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Ticino. — Average 
11,400,  minimum  1,770,  maximum  77,400  cubic  feet  per  seeonil- 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


203 


lagoons  extended  far  to  the  south  in  the  direction  of  Ravenna,  and,  according  to 
Strabo   and  other    ancient  writers, 

Fig.  6-1. — Beech  and  Pine  Woods  of  Eavexna. 

Scale  1  :  2,470,000. 


that  ancient  city  once  occupied  a 
site  very  much  like  that  of  Venice 
or  Chioggia  in  our  own  days. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these 
lagoons  were  ancientlj^  separated 
from  the  Adriatic  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  over  120  miles  in  length, 
and  similar  to  what  we  stUl  meet 
with  on  the  coasts  of  Carolina  and' 
of  the  Brazils.  This  ancient  barrier 
still  exists  in  the  Ikli  of  Venice  and 
Comacchio,  which  are  pierced  at 
intervals,  admitting  the  vivifying 
floods  of  the  open  sea.  Elsewhere 
the  traces  of  this  ancient  beach 
must  be  looked  for  on  the  mainland. 
The  low  delta  of  the  Po  is  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  a  range  of 
dunes  constituting  the  continuation 
of  the  lidi  of  Venice,  and  extend- 
ing into  the  swamps  of  Comacchio, 
where  they  form  a  natural  embank- 
ment running  parallel  with  the 
coast.  These  dunes,  between  the 
Adige  and  Cervia,  are  covered  with 
sombre  pine  woods,  replaced  here 
and  there  by  oaks.  The  underwood 
mainly  consists  of  hawthorns  and 
juniper- trees,  and  wild  boars  still 
haunt  it. 

No  sooner  have  the  lagoons  pro- 
tected by  these  barriers  been  con- 
verted into  dry  land  than  the  sea 
seizes  upon  the  sand,  and  forms  it 
into  new  curvilinear  barriers  similar 
to  the  former  ones.  The  principal 
range  of  dunes  to  the  east  of 
Ravenna,  which  is  about  20  miles 
in  length,  and  varies  in  width 
between  50  and  3,;i00  yards,  has 
thus  two  other  ranges  of  dunes 
running  parallel  with  it,  one  of  them  being  still  in  course  of  formation . 


22 


sa 


Rice-fields. 


Pine  Woods.  Swamps. 
^_^^^^_       2  Miles 


Beech. 


Signer 


204  ITALY. 

Pareto  has  estimated  the  annual  advance  of  the  land  at  7|  feet,  and  at  much  more 
near  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

The  sea  thus  marks  by  a  series  of  barriers  its  successive  recoils.     Sometimes, 
however,  the  sea  gains  upon  the  land  in  consequence  of  a  gradual  subsidence  of  the 
Venetian  shore,  the  cause  of  wliich  has  not  yet  been  elucidated.      Thus  tlie  gravel 
bank   of  CortoUazzo,  opposite  the  swamps  of  Caorle,  appears  to  have  anciently 
been  a  lido  which  has  sunk  nearly  70  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.      The  islands 
which  fringed  the  littoral  of  Aquileja  during  the  Middle  Ages  have  almost  wholly 
disappeared.     In  the  time    of    the  Romans  these  islands  were  populous ;    there 
were  forests  and  fields  upon  them,  and  the  inhabitants  built  sliips.   The  chronicles 
of  the  Middle  Ages  tell  us  that  the  Doge  of  Venice  and  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileja 
hunted  stags  and  wild  boars  upon  them,  much  to  the  scandal  of  the  inhabitants. 
At  the  present  day  the  dunes  which  of  yore  protected  these  islands  have  almost 
wholly  disappeared,  the  forests  have   been  supplanted  by   reeds,  and   Grado    is 
the  only  place  on  the  littoral  which  may  still  boast  of  a  certain  number  of  inha- 
bitants.     I'iers,   walls,  mosaic    pavements,  and  even  stones  bearing  inscriptions, 
which  are  found  occasionally  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  or  of  swamps,  prove  that 
the  mainland  was    formerly    more    extensive   there.      Farther   to    the   west    the 
littoral  of  Venice  bears  evidence  of  a  similar  subsidence.      Artesian  wells  sunk  in 
the  city  of  the  lagoons  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  four  beds  of  turf,  the  deepest 
no  less  than  420  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.      The  subterranean  church  of 
St.  Mark  has  within  historical  times  been  converted  into  a  submarine  church,  and 
streets  and  buildings  are  gradually  sinking  beneath   the  waters  of  the  lagoous. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  rivers,  the  sea  would  con- 
tinually encroach  upon  the   land.     Ravenna,  too,  participates  in  this  subsidence, 
which  Signor  Pareto  estimates  to  amount  to  O'GO  inch    in    the  course  of  a  century. 

Amongst  the  geological  agents  constantly  at  work  to  modify  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  the  rivers  and  torrents  irrigating  the  plain  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  are 
the  most  active,  and  no  other  country  of  Europe,  Holland  alone  excepted,  can 
compare  in  this  respect  with  Northern  Italy. 

The  torrent  of  Isonzo  offers  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  these  geo- 
logical revolutions.  It  is  said  to  have  formerly  communicated  through  subter- 
ranean channels  with  the  Istrian  Timavo,  and  that  its  existence  as  a  separate  river 
does  not  date  verj'  far  back.  Ancient  writers  do  not  enumerate  the  Isonzo  amongst 
the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Adriatic.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  a  document  of  the 
sixth  century  as  a  river  irrigating  some  inland  valley.  On  Peutinger's  Table  we 
meet  with  a  station,  Ponte  Sonti,  far  to  the  east  of  Aquileja,  and  near  the  sources 
of  the  Timavo.  The  chronicles  are  silent  with  respect  to  the  peripatetics  of  this 
river,  but  a  careful  examination  of  the  surrounding  hills  justifies  the  assumption 
that  the  valley  of  Tolmein,  on  the  Upper  Isonzo,  was  formerly  a  lake  which  over- 
flowed towards  the  north-west  through  the  narrows  of  Caporetto,  and  that  its 
pent-up  waters  found  their  way  through  the  Natisone  into  the  Adriatic.  Subse- 
quently they  opened   themselves  a  passage  to  the  south,  and  another  lake  was 


THE  BASIX  OF  THE  PO. 


205 


formed  at  the  confluence  of  Isonzo  and  Wippach.  This  lake  communicated  by 
subterranean  channels  with  the  Timavo,  but  it  has  now  disappeared,  and  the  Isonzo 
flows  directly  into  the  sea,  its  bed  wandering  continuously  towards  the  east.  The 
alluvium  carried  down  by  this  river  has  formed  the  peninsula  of  Sdobba,  and 
joined  several  old  islands  to  the  mainland. 

The  Tagliamento  is  even  a  more  active  geological  agent  than  its  neighbour  just 
beyond  the  frontier.  The  debris  deposited  at  the  mouth  of  the  narrow  gorge  in 
which  it  rises  covers  many  square  miles  of  a  once  fertile  plain.  In  summer  its 
waters  trickle  through  these  accumulations  of  shingle,  but  after  heavy  rain  the 
river  is  converted  into  a  powerful  torrent  several  miles  in  width,  and  all  the  more 
formidable  as  its  bed  lies  higher  than  many  parts  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  Meduna  and  Zelline,  to  the  west  of  the  Tagliamento,  are  equally  destructive, 

Fig.  6.3. — Shin'gle  Beds  of  the  Tagliamento,  the  Meduna,  and  Zelline. 
From  the  Austrian  Staff  Map.    Scale  1 :  290,000. 


Shingle  Beds.     Meadows.     Pastures. 

^^— ^^._^^^.^..^_    5  Miles. 


and  an  extensive  tract  at  their  confluence  is  covered  with  shingles.  Lower  down, 
in  the  lagoons,  these  torrents  have  thrown  up  huge  embankments  of  sand  on  either 
side  of  their  ancient  beds.  The  alluvium  brought  down  by  those  torrents  to  the 
sea  is  in  every  instance  deposited  to  the  west,  a  circumstance  accounted  for  by  the 
direction  of  the  coast  current. 

The  Piave,  the  most  considerable  river  to  the  east  of  the  Adige,  is  likewise  a 
most  active  geological  agent,  converting  fertile  fields  into  sterile  shingle  tract.s, 
filling  up  swamps,  and  carrying  large  quantities  of  matter  into  the  sea.     At  its 

15 


20C 


ITALY. 


month   the   land  gains  rapidly  upon   the  sea,  and   Iluraclea  of  the  Veneti,  now 
known  as  Cittanova,  which  was  a  seaport  once,  at  the  present  time  lies  far  inland. 

The  riave  was  formerly  supposed  to  have  changed  its  bed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Isonzo.  Below  the  Capo  di  VouU',  a  wild  defile  in  the  Dolomite  Alps,  the 
Piave  flows  towards  the  south-west,  past  lielluno,  and  lower  down  is  joined  by  the 
Cordevole.  It  was,  however,  supposed  that  the  river  originally  flowed  through  the 
valley  of  Rai,  immediately  to  the  south  of  the  Capo  di  Ponte,  and  that  the  Meschio 
and  Livenzo  constituted  its  lower  course.  Earthquakes  or  landslips  were  supposed 
to  have  created  a  barrier  across  that  valley,  and  the  small  lakes  still  seen  there  were 
looked  upon  as  remains  of  the  ancient  river  bed.     But  M.  dc  Mortillet  bus  shown 

Fig.  66. — The  suprosEi)  Old  Bed  of  the  Piave. 

Fri  m  the  Auslrirm  Staff  Map.    Scale  1 :  550,000. 


\.ih,, 


^h'^-Jf^: 


e  Cr*ana\ 


fa"  '^i   ijiKSffiter^-- 


-l:nl:  \'..lU.l.    . 


that  this  hypothesis  is  untenable,  for  the  barrier  referred  to  is  merely  the  moraine  of 
an  ancient  glacier,  and  there  exist  no  traces  whatever  of  landslips. 

At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  extensive  changes  have  taken  place 
in  the  basin  of  the  Piave.  Thus  in  1771  the  course  of  the  Cordevole,  its  most 
important  tributary,  was  obstnicted  for  a  time  by  a  landslip  which  carried  the 
verdant  terraces  of  Pezza  down  into  tlic  valley.  Two  villages  were  destroyed,  and 
two  others  overwhelmed  by  the  rising  floods  of  the  river. 

The  Brenta,  which  rises  in  the  beautiful  Sugana  valley  of  the  Tyrol,  has  at  all 
times  been  a  source  of  anxiety  to  the  Venetians  on  account  of  its  irregularities. 
Formerly  it  entered  the  lagoons  at  Fusina,  and  its  alluvium  filled  up  the  canals 


o 

Cd 

> 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


207 


and  infected  the  air.  The  Paduans  and  other  inhabitants  of  the  lowlands  were 
anxious  to  divert  it  by  the  most  direct  course  into  the  lagoons,  so  as  to 
avoid  inundations,  whilst  the  Venetians  were  solicitous  to  get  rid  of  a  river  which 
threatened  to  fill  up  their  lagoons  and  render  them  insalubrious.  These  conflict- 
ing interests  gave  rise  to  numerous  wars.  The  possession  of  the  coast  became  a 
question  of  existence  to  the  Venetians,  and  no  sooner  had  they  obtained  it  than 


Fig.  67. — The  Lagoons  of  Venice. 

Scale  1  :  394,000. 


)  Jliles. 


they  set  about  "regulating"  the  Lower  Brenta.  Hy  means  of  two  canals,  the 
Brenta  Nuova,  or  Brentone,  and  the  Brenta  Nuovissima,  the  river  was  conducted 
right  round  the  lagoons  to  the  port  of  Brondolo,  a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  the 
Adige.  But  the  river,  whose  course  had  thus  been  considerably  lengthened, 
gradually  filled  up  the  bed  in  its  upper  course,  and  it  was  found  impossible  to 


ITAIA'. 

confine  it  within  its  lateral  embankments.  They  were  broken  through  by  (lie 
floods  no  less  than  twenty  times  between  1811  and  1859,  and,  as  the  chunnol  of 
the  river  became  more  and  more  choked,  a  more  frequent  recurrence  of  such 
disasters  was  naturally  expected.  It  was  then  resolved  to  shorten  the  course  of  the 
river  to  the  e.Ktent  of  ten  miles,  by  diverting  it  into  a  portion  of  the  lagoon  of 
Chioggia.  The  danger  of  irruptions  has  thus  been  averted  for  a  time,  but  the 
fisheries  of  Chioggia  have  been  completely  destroyed,  and  fever  is  a  frequent  visitor 
in  the  towns  of  the  littoral. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  tliat  but  for  the  efforts  of  the  Venetian  engineers  the 
lagoons  of  the  Lido,  Malainoeco,  and  Chioggia  would  long  ago  have  been  con- 
verted into  dry  land.  Venice  has  at  all  times  been  alive  to  the  necessity  of 
preserving  its  precious  inland  sea.  The  Venetian  engineers  were  not  content  with 
turning  aside  the  torrents  which  formerly  poured  their  waters  into  the  lagoons ; 
they  have  also,  by  means  of  canals,  moved  the  mouths  of  the  Sile  and  Piave  to  the 
east,  thus  securing  the  ports  of  the  Lido  from  the  dreaded  alluvium  of  the  rivers. 
They  even  conceived  the  gigantic  project  of  a  huge  encircling  canal  for  the 
interception  of  all  the  Alpine  toirents  between  the  Brenta  and  Isonzo.  This  pro- 
ject, however,  has  never  been  carried  out.  The  debris  carried  southward  by  the  coast 
current  has  silted  up  the  port  of  the  Lido,  which  was  abandoned  towards  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  new  military  port  was  constructed  eight  miles 
farther  south,  at  tlie  canal  of  Malamocco,  and  it  is  now  protected  by  a  pier 
extending  7,200  feet  into  the  sea. 

The  torrents  which  descend  from  the  slopes  of  the  Apennines  to  the  south 
of  the  delta  of  the  Adige  and  Po  are  as  erratic  in  their  course  as  those  of 
Venetia.  The  Trebbia,  the  Taro,  and  other  rivers  irrigating  the  districts  of 
Piacenza  and  Parma  only  cross  a  narrow  plain  between  the  mountains  and  the  Po, 
and  do  not  much  modify  the  topography  of  the  country.  But  this  cannot  be  said 
of  the  rivers  flowing  through  the  vast  plains  of  Modena,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and 
Imola.  They  are  constantly  changing  their  beds,  and  the  remains  of  embank- 
ments met  with  all  over  the  country  prove  that  all  efforts  to  confine  them  perma- 
nently have  proved  abortive.  Modena  itself  was  once  destroyed  by  the  floods  of  the 
Secchia.  The  Tanaro,  the  lleno,  and  otlier  rivers  flowing  towards  the  north-west, 
either  into  the  canal  encircling  the  lagoons  of  Comacchio  or  direct  into  the 
sea,  all  have  a  history  attached  to  them  ;  they  are  blessed  for  their  fertilising 
alluvium,  cursed  on  account  of  their  destructive  floods.  One  of  them,  probably 
the  Fiumicino,  is  the  famous  Rubicon  which  bounded  the  Italy  of  the  Romans, 
and  which  was  crossed  by  Caesar  when  he  pronounced  the  fatal  words,  "Alea 
jacta  est." 

The  Reno  is  the  most  erratic,  the  most  dangerous  of  all  these  Apennine  rivers. 
The  bed  of  debris  deposited  by  it  in  the  plain  measures  20  miles  across  from  east 
to  west.  Its  volume  varies  between  35  and  49,500  cubic  feet  a  second,  according 
to  the  season,  and  its  bed  is  in  places  no  less  than  .30  feet  above  the  adjoining 
country.  The  destruction  of  the  forests  has  augmented  the  danger  of  its  inunda- 
tions.    The   engineers,  puzzled   by  its  irregular   floods,  have  proposed  the  most 


THE  BASIX  OF  THE  PO. 


209 


opposite  plans  for  subduing  this  terrible  scourge.  The  river  has  been  turned 
into  the  Po ;  then  eastward,  direct  into  the  sea.  Recently  it  has  been  proposed  to 
divert  it  to  the  lagoons  of  Comacchio.  But  all  these  diversions  are  attended 
with  disadvantages,  aud  whilst  the  inhabitants  of  one  district  congratulate  them- 
selves upon  having  got  rid  of  so  troublesome  a  neighbour,  those  of  another  complain 
of  its  inundations,  see  their  fisheries  destroyed,  and  their  navigation  interfered 
with. 

Lombardini,  the  fiimous  hydraulic  engineer,  has  shown  how  we  may  discover 
the  places  to  which  the  soil  of  the  lowlands  of  Emilia  has  been  conveyed  by  the 
torrents,  and  trace  the  ancient  shores  of  the  lagoon  of  Padua,  now  converted  into 
dry  land.      A  traveller  following  the  Emilian  causeway  from  Cesena  to  Bologna 


Fig.   68. COLOXIES    OF    THE    RoMAN'    VETERANS 

Scile  1  :  aiP.cwi. 


tS.y:;'  .'"#'y//  /?«t-%^is 


)  Jlilea. 


can  hardly  help  noticing  the  quadrangular  fields  on  his  right,  all  of  them  of  the 
same  size.  Looked  at  from  the  spurs  of  the  Apennines,  the  plain  resembles  a  huge 
draught-board,  the  squares  of  which  are  covered  alternately  with  verdure  and 
ripening  crops.  "We  learn  from  the  topographical  maps  that  these  fields  are 
exactly  of  the  same  size,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  we  have  here  before  us  the 
fields  which,  according  to  Livy,  were  taken  from  the  Gauls  and  distributed  amongst 
Eoman  military  settlers.  A  sinuous  line  marks,  in  the  direction  of  the  Po,  the 
shore  of  an  ancient  lake.  The  rectangular  fields,  laid  out  by  the  cadastral  sur- 
veyors of  ancient  Rome,  cease  there,  and  we  find  ourselves  again  amidst  the  usual 
labyrinth  of  ditches  and  tortuous  roads.  This  lake  has  been  filled  up  long  ago  by 
the  debris  brought  down  by  the  torrents. 


210  ITALY. 

The  Po,  proportionately  to  the  area  it  drains  and  its  length,  has  undergone 
fewer  ehanges  than  either  the  Piave  or  the  Reno,  but  looking  to  the  populous 
cities  which  line  its  banks,  and  to  the  fertility  of  its  fields,  the  least  of  these  is  of 
some  importance. 

The  torrent  fed  by  the  snows  of  Monte  Viso  is  usually  looked  upon  as  the  head 
stream  of  Father  Po,  as  the  ancient  Romans  called  the  river ;  but  the  Mastra, 
Yaraita,  and  Clusone  are  quite  equal  to  it  in  volume,  and  feed  as  many  canals  of 
irrigation.  Indeed,  these  canals  would  quickly  drain  the  Po  if  it  were  not  for  a 
bountiful  supply  of  snow-water  brought  down  by  the  Dora  Riparia,  the  Stura,  the 
Orca,  and  the  Dora  Baltea  from  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps.  Lower  down,  the  Po 
receives  the  Scsia  from  the  north,  and  the  Tanaro,  which  is  fed  by  streams  rising 
in  the  Apennines  and  the  Alps.  Then  comes  the  Ticino,  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant tributary  of  the  Po,  "  without  which,"  as  the  river  fishermen  saj',  "  il  Po  non 
sarcbbe  Po." 

The  Po,  after  its  junction  with  the  Ticino,  exhibits  no  longer  the  features  of  a 
mountain  torrent ;  the  pebbles  have  been  triturated  into  the  finest  dust,  and  no 
piled-up  masses  of  debris  are  met  with  along  its  banks.  If  it  were  not  for  its 
dykes,  or  ari/ini,  it  might  spread  itself  freely  over  the  plain.  These  artificial 
embankments  rival  those  of  the  Netherlands,  and  date  back  to  the  most  remote 
ages.  Lucian  refers  to  them  as  if  they  had  existed  from  time  immemorial. 
During  the  great  migration  of  peoples  they  were  allowed  to  decay,  and  only  in  the 
course  of  the  ninth  century  were  measures  taken  to  restore  them.  In  1480  the 
great  work  had  been  achieved.  Its  importance  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
these  embankments  protect  3,000,000  acres  of  the  most  fertile  land,  yielding 
annually  more  than  £8,000,000  sterling's  wortli  of  agricultural  produce.  Most 
of  the  towns  have  been  built  upon  artificial  platforms  or  terraces,  and  up  to  the 
beginning  of  this  century  they  have  never  been  known  to  suffer  from  floods  ;  but 
whether  owing  to  the  devastation  of  the  forests  or  to  the  closing  up  of  all  breaches 
in  the  dykes,  the  floods  rise  higher  now  than  they  did  of  yore,  and  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  throw  up  embankments  around  Revere,  Sermide,  Ostiglia, 
Governolo,  Borgoforte,  and  other  places. 

Continuous  emliankments  begin  at  Cremona,  and  they  extend  not  only  along 
both  banks  of  the  Po,  but  also  along  the  lower  course  of  its  tributaries.  'I  he  main 
dykes  have  a  length  of  nearly  650  miles.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  smaller 
dykes  traversing  the  space  between  these  frohli,  or  main  dykes,  in  all  directions, 
and  enclosing  willow  plantations,  fields,  and  even  vineyards.  In  fact,  the  river 
extends  to  the  foot  of  the  main  dykes  only  in  a  few  localities.  It  is  ordinarily 
only  650  to  1,600  feet  yide,  whilst  the  dykes  are  several  miles  apart,  to  allow  the 
river  to  spread  during  the  inundations.  The  land  thus  lying  within  the  dykes  has 
been  divided  by  the  villagers  into  goleue,  and  is  protected  by  smaller  dykes  against 
ordinary  floods.  The  rules  laid  down  for  the  construction  of  embankments  have 
been  drawn  up  in  the  general  interest,  and  are  sufficiently  precise,  but  they  are  not 
always  observed.  The  old  system,  embodied  in  the  dreadful  proverb,  "  Vita  mia, 
morte  tua,"  is  not  yet  quite  extinct.     Formerly  the  peasants  were  in  the  habit  of 


^ 


DELTA    OF    THE    PO 


Engr   lryErh*r<l 


/  y.jHK   C    ■'■t'.-I--:TOM  i 


THE  BASIX  OF  THE  PO. 


211 


crossing  over  to  the  other  bank,  and  deliberately  cutting  through  the  embankments 
there,  thus  saving  their  own  crops  by  ruining  their  neighbours'. 

The  width  of  the  bed  of  inundation  enclosed  between  these  embankments 
grows  less  in  proportion  as  we  descend  the  river,  and  in  the  case  of  the  arms  of 
the  delta  does  not  exceed  900  to  1,600  feet.  This  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  the 
waters  to  escape  during  extraordinary  floods,  when  they  sometimes  rise  25  and 
even  30  feet.  Besides,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  villagers  fail  to  keep  the 
embankments  in  thorough  repair,  and  sometimes  entire  districts  are  ruined  because 
the  mole-tracks  were  not    stopped   up.      A  breach  in    the  embankment,    imless 


Fig.  69. — The  Po  between-  Piace.sza  and  Cremoxa. 

From  the  .\ustrian  Staff  Map.     Scale  1  :  325,000. 


ElS     ^     E^ 


Meadows.  Swamps.  Woods.  Rice-fields.  Canal  and 

Dykes. 


5  Miles. 


quickly  tilled  up,  produces  untold  misery.  The  crops  are  destroyed,  the  villages 
levelled  with  the  ground,  the  soil  is  torn  up  and  carried  off,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  swept  away  by  famine  and  its  fearful  attendant,  typhus  fever.  These  great 
floods  of  the  Po  and  the  earthquakes  of  Calabria  are  the  two  plagues  of  Italv.  In 
1872  1,200  square  miles  between  the  Secchia  and  the  sea  were  converted  into  a 
lake.     Two  years  afterwards  there  still  remained  pools  of  water. 

In  these  great  disasters  the  inhabitants  are  afi'orded  an  opiDortunity  of  exhibiting 
their  valour,  and  it  is  always  the  most  energetic  who  succeed  in  protecting  their 
property  from  being  washed  away  by  the  floods.     During  the  flood  just  referred 


212  ITALY. 

to,  the  inhabitants  of  the  littlo  town  of  Ostiglia  fought  successfully  with  the 
rising  waters,  whilst  many  of  their  neighbours  succumbed.  The  town  stands  close 
to  the  froldo,  and  there  is  no  second  line  of  dykes  to  protect  it.  The  dyke 
threatened  to  give  way.  The  inhabitants  at  once  set  about  throwing  up  a  second 
barrier.  All  the  able-bodied  men  of  the  place,  4,000  in  number,  turned  out  to 
work,  headed  by  their  mayor.  They  worked  day  and  night,  and,  as  the  floods 
carried  away  the  old  dyke,  the  new  one  rose  in  its  rear.  The  victory  was  won  ;  the 
floods  retired,  and  their  houses  were  safe. 

Some  of  those  breaches  in  the  dykes  have  led  to  permanent  changes  in  the 
course  of  the  river,  and  these  divagations  have  been  most  considerable  in  the  delta. 
During  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  up  to  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Po  di  Volano 
was  the  principal  branch  of  the  river,  whilst  now  it  has  dwindled  down  to  an 
insignificant  ditch  which  can  hardly  be  traced  through  the  swamps  of  Comacchio. 
Two  other  branches,  farther  to  the  south,  are  used  now  as  carriage  roads.  In  the 
eighth  century  the  Po  di  Piinwro,  which  enters  the  sea  to  the  north  of  Ravenna, 
took  the  place  of  these  old  channels.  Another  bifurcation  ensued  in  1152, 
when  the  embankment  at  Ficcarolo  was  destroyed,  it  is  said,  by  the  people  living 
above  that  town,  and  the  main  cliannel  of  the  river,  the  Maestra,  desej'tcd  the 
walls  of  Ferrara  in  the  midst  of  its  swamps,  and  united  itself  with  the  channels  of 
the  Adige.  Breaches  in  the  embankments  usually  take  place  in  October  or 
November,  and  generally  at  the  same  places.  The  danger  is  always  greatest  at 
Corbola,  where  the  Po  di  Maestra  bifurcates. 

The  Adige  is  quite  as  great  a  wanderer  as  the  Po.  Scarcely  has  that  river  left 
its  defile,  or  chiusa,  of  calcareous  mountains  and  the  fortifications  of  Verona  than  it 
begins  its  erratic  course  over  the  plain.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  xVdige 
flowed  much  farther  to  the  north,  along  the  foot  of  the  Euganean  Hills,  and  entered 
the  sea  at  Brondolo.  In  587  the  river  broke  through  its  embankments,  and  its  main 
branch  took  the  direction  which  it  maintains  up  to  the  present  day,  entering  the 
sea  at  Fossone.  But  new  channels  opened  repeatedly  towards  the  south,  until  the 
Adige  and  Po  conjointly  formed  but  one  delta.  The  Polesina  of  Rovigo,  between 
the  two  rivers,  and  that  of  Ferrara,  are  low  tracts  of  alluvial  land.  The  courtyard 
of  the  Castle  of  Ferrara,  which  occupies  one  of  the  most  elevated  sites  in  these  plains, 
is  nine  feet  lower  than  the  highest  level  of  the  Po  when  flooded. 

The  fi-equent  inundations  caused  hy  the  Po  and  the  numerous  changes  of  its  bed, 
by  spreading  the  alluvium  all  over  the  country,  have  raised  the  whole  of  the  plains 
to  about  the  same  level.  But  now,  when  all  the  arms  of  the  Po  are  confined  within 
embankments,  most  of  ihe  alluvium  brought  down  b}'  the  floods  is  deposited  on  the 
coast  of  the  Adriatic.  The  land,  therefore,  gains  much  more  rapidly  upon  the 
sea  than  it  did  formerly.  The  series  of  dunes  marking  the  ancient  shore  now  lies 
fifteen  miles  inland,  and  the  new  land  formed  annually  is  estimated  at  280  acres. 
In  excejjtional  years  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  carried  by  the  river  into  the  sea 
amounts  to  3,5^31,000,000  cubic  feet;  on  an  average  it  is  1,023,000,000  cubic  feet, 
sufficient  to  form  an  island  ten  square  miles  in  area  in  ten  feet  of  water.  The  Po, 
next  to  the  Danube,  is  the  most  active  geological  agent  amongst  all  the  rivers 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO.  213 

entering  the  Mediterraneali.*  The  Rhone  is  inferior  to  it,  and  so  is  the  Nile.  At 
the  present  rate  of  progress,  the  Po,  in  the  course  of  a  thousand  years,  will  throw  a 
tongue  of  land  six  miles  wide  across  the  Adriatic,  converting  the  Gulf  of  Trieste 
into  an  inland  sea. 

Northern  Italy,  in  addition  to  these  numerous  rivers,  possesses  one  of  the  most 
extensive  systems  of  canals  in  the  world,  which  has  served  as  a  pattern  to  all  the 
rest  of  Europe.  Lombardy,  portions  of  Piemont,  the  Campagna  of  Turin,  the 
Lomellina  on  the  Ticino,  and  the  Polesinas  of  Ferrara  and  Eovigo  possess  a 
wonderful  ramification  of  irrigation,  which  carries  fertile  alluvium  to  the  exhausted 
fields.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  when  the  remainder  of  Europe  was  still  shrouded  in 
darkness,  the  Lombard  republics  already  practised  the  art  of  irrigation  on  the 
vastest  scale,  and  drained  their  low-lying  plains.  Milan,  after  she  had  thrown  ofE 
the  yoke  of  her  German  oppressors,  towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  con- 
structed the  Naviglio  Grande,  a  ship  canal  derived  from  the  Ticino,  thirty  miles 
distant — probably  the  first  great  engineering  work  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  superabundant  waters  of  the  Adda  were 
utilised  in  filling  the  Muzza  Canal.  The  same  river,  at  a  subsequent  period,  was 
made  to  feed  another  canal,  the  Martesana,  which  was  constructed  by  the  great 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  The  art  of  surmounting  elevations  of  the  ground  by  means  of 
locks  had  been  discovered  by  Milanese  engineers  about  a  century  before  that  time, 
and  was  applied  to  the  construction  of  secondary  canals.  Amongst  works  of  more 
recent  date  are  the  naviglio  from  Milan  to  Pavia  ;  the  Cavour  Canal,  fed  by  the  Po, 
below  Turin  ;  and  the  Canal  of  Verona,  derived  from  the  Adige.t 

Not  only  the  rivers  of  Northern  Italy,  but  also  the  springs,  ov  fontanelle,  however 
small,  which  burst  forth  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  are  utilised  for  purposes  of 
irrigation.  Virgil  alludes  to  these  springs  in  his  Bucolics,  where  he  says, 
"  Children,  stop  the  water ;  the  meadows  have  drunk  enough."  Lombard}' 
is  indebted  to  these  springs  for  her  fine  prairies,  or  marcite,  which  sometimes 
yield  eight  crops  a  year.  The  great  Adriatic  plain  has  indeed  undergone  vast 
changes  through  the  work  of  man.  Originally  it  was  a  swamp  surrounded  by 
forests  and  h-eaths,  but  is  now  one  of  the  best- cultivated  countries  of  Europe. 
One  of  its  great  features  consists  in  plantations  of  mulberries,  the  uniformity  of 
which  is  relieved  in  many  districts — and  especially  in  the  Brianza  of  Como,  that 

*  Principal  rivers  of  Norlhern  Italy  : — 


Isonzo 
Tagliamento 
Livenza    . 
Piave 
Sile  . 

Brenta     . 
BacohigHone 
Adige 
Po    . 
Reno 

t  Average  volume  of  the  canals  of  the  valley  of  the  Po  (cubic  feet  per  second) : — Muzza,  2,153  ; 
Naviglio  Grande,  1,800;  Canal  Cavour,  1,482;  Martesana,  918  cubic  teet. 


jength. 

Area  of  Basin. 

Volume  in 

Cubic  Feet 

per  Second. 

Miles. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Average. 

80 

1,235 

— 

— 

4,240? 

105 

800 

— 

— 

5,300  ? 

72 

795 

25,400 

— 

1,400  ? 

134 

2,010 

— 

— 

11,300 

37 

540 

1,550 

350 

700  5- 

105 

1,510 

30,000 

137 

1,930 

74 

187 

3^0 

— 

1,270 

246 

8,648 

85,000 

70 

16.950 

416 

26.799 

18i,500 

550 

60,7(10 

112 

i.9.;o 

53,500 

35 

8,300 

214  ITAI,Y. 

garden  of  Itnly — by  f^roups  of  tall  trees,  little  lakes,  and  sinuous  valleys.  There 
still  remain  extensive  heaths  covering  the  moraines  of  ancient  glaciers,  which 
become  more  and  more  sterile  from  year  to  year ;  but  the  engineers  are  consider- 
ing schemes  for  irrigating  them  by  means  of  the  fertilising  waters  of  the  Alpine 
lakes. 

The  irrigated  area  in  the  valley  of  the  IV)  nearly  amounts  to  o,0U0  square 
miles,  and  the  water  it  absorbs  every  second  is  estimated  at  y5, 000,000  cubic 
feet,  equal  to  about  one-third  of  the  volume  of  the  Po.  If  tlie  proposed  works 
of  irrigation  are  carried  out,  the  Po,  which  now  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the 
economy  of  the  country  by  its  floods  and  alluvial  deposits,  will  be  reduced  to 
the  dimensions  of  a  small  river. 

The  evaporation  from  the  numerous  rivers  and  canals  of  the  country  fills  the 
air  with  moi.sture.  Ruins  are  less  frequent  than  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  England 
and  France,  but  the  clouds,  driven  by  southerly  winds  against  the  cool  slopes  of 
the  Alp.s,  discharge  themselves  in  torrents.  The  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the 
upper  Alpine  valleys  equals  that  of  the  most  humid  districts  of  Portugal,  the 
Hebrides,  and  Norway,  and  the  rainfall  in  the  i)lains  of  Lombardy  is  equal  to  that 
of  Ireland.  The  annual  rainfall  in  tlie  basin  of  the  Piave  is  estimated  at  five  feet, 
exclusive  of  what  may  evaporate  or  be  absorbed  by  plants.  These  rains  are  not 
confined  to  certain  seasons,  though  it  has  been  observed  that  they  are  most 
abundant  in  May  and  October,  and  least  so  in  February  and  July.* 

As  regards  the  direction  of  the  winds,  the  great  plain  bounded  by  the  Apen- 
nines and  the  Alps  resembles  an  Alpine  valley,  the  winds  either  blowing  up  it 
from  east  to  west,  or  in  an  inverse  direction.  The  winds  descending  from  the 
Alps  rarely  bring  rain,  for  they  have  deposited  their  moisture  on  the  western 
slopes,  but  those  coming  from  the  Adriatic  are  generally  charged  with  moisture. 
Nevertheless,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of  the  plains  and  the  numerous  breaks  in 
the  mountain  chains,  this  rule  is  frequently  interfered  with.  In  the  Alpine  valleys 
the  ascending  and  descending  currents  are  far  more  regular,  and  the  navigators  on 
the  lakes  fully  avail  themselves  of  this  circumstance. 

The  forty-fifth  degree  of  north  latitude  intersects  the  valley  of  the  Po,  but  the 
climate,  nevertheless,  is  not  as  mild  as  might  be  expected  from  this  circumstance, 
and  the  range  of  temperature  is  great.  In  the  Val  Tellina  the  temperature  some- 
times rises  above  90°,  and  frequently  fails  below  freezing  point.  In  the  plain  the 
climate  is  less  austere,  but  it  is  notwithstanding  continental  in  its  character ;  and 
Turin,  Milan,  and  Bologna  are  for  this  reason  the  least  pleasant  cities  of  Italy  to  live 
in.  A  few  favoured  spots  on  the  Alpine  lakes,  such  as  the  Borroraean  Islands,  are 
an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  enjoy  an  equable  climate,  thanks  to  the  moderating 
influences  of  a  vast  expanse  of  water.  In  the  Gulf  of  Pallanza  the  thermometer 
never  falls  below  40"  F.,  and  we  must  go  as  far  as  Naples  if  we  would  meet  with 
a  climate  equally  favourable  to  vegetation.  Venice,  too,  is  a  privileged  spot, 
thanks  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Adriatic,  and  is  healthy,  too,  in  spite  of  the  lagoons 

•  Humidity  of  tlio  air  at  Miliin,  74'0  per  cont. ;  annual  rainfall  at  Milan.  .'iS-S  in. ;  at  Turin,  31-8  in. ; 
at  Tolmezza,  on  the  U)i]iur  Tagliamento,  823  in. 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO.  215 

which  surround  it.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  brackish  lakes  and  swamps  of 
Northern  Italy  do  not  give  rise  to  the  dreaded  malarial  fevers.  Venice  undoubtedly 
owes  its  healthiness  to  the  tides,  which  are  higher  there  than  in  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea,  and  perhaps,  also,  to  the  cold  winds  descending  from  the  Alps.  Comacchio,  too, 
is  a  healthy  place,  and  young  natives  of  the  Polesina  suffering  from  consumption 
are  sent  there  to  recover  their  health.  Wherever  the  engineers  have  cut  up  the 
connection  between  the  lagoons  and  the  open  sea,  marsh  fever  has  made  its 
appearance.  The  swamps  of  Ravenna  and  Cervia  breed  malignant  fevers,  especially 
where  avaricious  landowners  have  cut  down  the  protecting  rows  of  pines  and  oaks. 
A  heavy  miasmal  air  hangs  likewise  over  the  environs  of  Ferrara  and  Malalbergo, 
at  the  head  of  the  Paduau  delta. 

The  Alpine  valleys  are  the  most  unhealthy  spots  of  Northern  Italy,  for  they 
are  deprived  of  sunlight.  Goitre  and  idiotcy  are  frequent  there,  and  in  the  valley 
of  Aosta  nearly  all  the  women  are  afflicted  with  the  former,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the 
water  which  flows  over  magnesian  rocks.  The  inhabitants  of  districts  traversed 
by  numerous  canals  suffer  from  diseases  traceable  to  miasmal  efiluvia.  The  food  of 
the  peasantry  is  not  sufficiently  nourishing  or  varied  to  counteract  these  deleterious 
influences,  and  many  die  of  pcIlcKjir,  an  incurable  skin  disease,  only  known  in  coun- 
tries where  the  flour  of  maize,  in  the  diluted  form  of  polenta,  constitutes  the  principal 
article  of  food.  In  the  province  of  Cremona  one  in  every  twenty-four  inha- 
bitants is  afflicted  with  this  malady.  The  sanitary  condition  of  the  people  is  even 
worse  in  the  rice-fields  of  Milan  and  the  Polesina.  The  women  there  frequently 
stand  for  hours  in  tepid  putrefying  water,  and  are  obliged  from  time  to  time  to 
pick  off  the  leeches  which  creep  up  their  legs.* 

But  in  spite  of  maladies,  misery,  and  famines,  always  following  in  the  train  of 
the  inundations,  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Po  is  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled 
portions  of  Europe.  Every  plot  of  ground  there  has  been  utilised.  The  forests, 
very  much  reduced  in  size,  harbour  no  game,  except,  perhaps,  on  the  Alpine  slopes, 
and  even  small  birds  are  rare.  Not  only  snipes,  quails,  and  thrushes  are  shot  or 
trapped,  but  also  nightingales  and  swallows.  Tschudi  estimates  the  number  of 
singing  birds  annually  killed  on  the  shores  of  the  Lago  Maggiore  at  60,000  ;  and 
at  Bergamo,  Verona,  Chiavenna,  and  Brescia  they  are  slain  by  millions,  the  nets 
being  spread  in  the  hedges  of  every  hill. 

The  population  of  the  valley  of  the  Po  is  composed  of  the  most  diverse 
elements.  Amongst  its  ancestors  were  Ligurians,  probably  the  kinsmen  of  our 
Basks ;  Etruscans,  famous  for  their  works  of  irrigation  ;  Gallic  tribes,  whose 
peculiar  intonation  is  still  traceable  in  the  rural  Latin  spoken  in  Northern  Italy ; 
and  Celtic  Ombrians,  the  most  remote  of  all,  and  looked  upon  by  historians  as  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country. 

The  German  invasions  during  the  first  centuries  of  our  era  have  left  a  perma- 

*  Mean  annuul  temperature  of  Turin,  5310^  F.;  hottest  month  (April),  7313°;  coldest  month 
(January),  33-10°.  Milan:  mean,  14-0-1';  July,  7-l'84°;  January,  iS-'iG'.  Venice:  mean,  5o-o2°  F. ;  July, 
2506°;  January,  35-28". 


216 


ITALY. 


nent  mark  upon  tlio  population  of  Northern  Italy.  Tlie  many  tall  men  mot  with 
in  the  valley  of  the  I'o  are  proof's  of  this  Transalpine  influence.  The  Goths  and 
Vandals,  Herulians  and  Longobards,  or  Lombard.s,  soon  became  merged  in  the 
Latinised  masses,  but  their  position  as  conquerors  and  feudal  lords  gave  them  an 
influence  which  their  mere  numbers  would  not  have  insured  them.  The  ancient 
history  of  Lombardy  is  a  continual  struggle  between  the  towns  and  these  feudal 
lords,  and  as  soon  as  the  latter  had  been  defeated — that  is  to  say,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century — German  was  superseded  everywhere  by  Italian. 

Fig.  70. — The  Geuman  Commi-.ves  of  Noktheun  Itai.v. 
Scale  1  :  G50,000. 


t  1.,, — r^ ■ I, piv   ,.^?'~T ".   WWW...      L-'  -  '^~  "  -h" 


Family  and  topographical  names  of  Lombard  origin  are  very  common  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Po,  and  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  Aponinnes.  Marengo,  for  instance,  is 
a  corruption  of  the  German  ]Mehring. 

This  German  influence  upon  manners  and  language  has  been  most  enduring  in 
the  Friuil,  or  Furlanei,  a  district  bounded  by  the  Adriatic,  the  Carniolan  Alps,  and 
the  plateau  of  the  Karst,  or  Carso.  The  Friulians  were  even  looked  upon  as  a 
distinct  race,  though  their  ancestors,  like  those  of  most  Italians  of  the  north,  were 
Latinised  Celts.     Frequent  intermarriages  with  their  Slovenian  neighbours  con- 


THK  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


217 


tributed  in  some  measure  to  produce  a  type  distinct  from  that  of  Venice  orTreviso. 
The  number  of  these  Friulians  still  speaking  their  own  dialect  does  not  now  exceed 
50,000  souls. 

Amongst  the  numerous  German  colonies  of  which  traces  have  been  found  in 
the  plains  of  Northern  Italy  and  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Alps,  the  "  Thirteen 
Communes "  to  the  north  of  Verona,  and  the  "  Seven  Communes  "  in  the  deep 
valleys  to  the  north-west  of  Eassano,  are  the  most  considerable.      The  homines 

Fig.  71. — Monte  Rosa,  as  seen  fkom  Galcoko. 


3:gSi5J^g^J^^S^^!fea^^3t;g^^g] 


Teiifoinri  of  these  two  districts  are  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  Cimbrians 
defeated  by  Marius,  and  blue  eyes  and  fair  hair  still  prevail  amongst  them,  but  in 
all  other  respects  they  resemble  the  Italians  of  the  plains,  and  only  a  few  old 
women  amongst  them  still  talk  the  language  of  their  ancestors,  which  is  said  to 
resemble  the  dialect  spoken  on  the  Tegern  Lake,  in  Bavaria.  Nor  were  they 
the  champions  of  German  authority  on  Italian  soil.  On  the  contrary,  they  were 
charged  by  the  Republic  of  Venice  with  the  defence  of  the  northern  frontier,  and 


218  ITALY. 

have  always  valiantly  acquitted  themselves  of  this  duty.  In  return,  thej-  were 
granted  sclt'-governmeut  and  exemption  from  military  service.  But  neither  the 
Republic  of  Venice  nor  Austria  was  able  to  protect  these  German  colonies  against  an 
invasion  of  the  "  Welsh  "  or  Italian  element,  and  there  do  not  now  exist  any  non- 
Italian  communities  to  the  cast  of  the  great  lakes.  To  the  north  of  I'iemont,  however, 
in  the  valleys  descending  from  Monte  Rosa  and  in  the  valley  of  I'omiuat,  where  the 
Toce  forms  one  of  the  most  beautiful  waterfalls,  German  colonies  still  maintain 
their  ground.  They,  too,  would  long  ago  have  lost  their  language  were  it  not  for 
the  support  they  receive  from  the  Germans  occupying  the  Swiss  valleys  on  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Alps.  Alagna,  or  Olen,  one  of  these  German  villages, 
preserved  its  ancient  customs  until  quite  recently.  For  centuries  there  had  been 
no  lawsuit  there  ;  contracts,  testaments,  and  other  legal  documents  were  unknown  ; 
and  everything  was  regulated  by  "  custom  ;  "  that  is,  by  the  absolute  authority  of 
the  heads  of  families. 

The  French  element  is  far  more  numerous  on  the  Italian  slope  of  the  Alps  than 
the  German.  The  inhabitants  of  the  valle}-  of  Aosta,  between  the  Grand  Paradis 
and  the  Monte  Rosa,  of  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Dora  Riparia,  Cluson,  Felice, 
and  Varaita,  speak  French,  and  are  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Savoyards  and 
Dauphinois  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Alps.  The  configuration  of  the  ground 
has  facilitated  this  pacific  invasion  of  the  western  Celts,  numbering  about  120,000 
souls.  They  descended  from  the  passes,  and  occupied  the  whole  of  the  forest  and 
pastoral  region  down  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  the  last  mountain  defile,  in  many 
instances,  forming  their  boundary.  But  the  French  language  is  steadily  losing 
ground,  for  the  official  language  is  Italian,  and  every  village  has  already  two 
names,  of  which  the  modern  Italian  one  is  used  by  preference.  The  Vaudois,  or 
Waldenses,  in  the  valleys  of  Felice  (Fellis)  and  Cluson,  above  Finerolo  (Fignerol), 
alone  resist  this  Italianisation  with  a  certain  amount  of  success,  for  they  have  a 
literature  and  history,  and  are  held  together  by  strong  religious  ties.  Their  sect 
was  persecuted  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  long  before  the  Reformation,  and 
ever  since,  until  their  final  emancipation  in  1848,  they  have  struggled  against 
adversity.  Many  times  it  was  thought  they  had  been  exterminated,  but  they 
always  rose  again,  and  in  history  they  occupy  a  rank  far  out  of  proportion  to  their 
small  numbers. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  which  need  not  be 
wondered  at  if  we  bear  in  mind  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  abundant  supply  of 
water,  and  the  improvements  effected  in  bygone  ages.  The  labour  invested  in 
every  kind  of  agricultural  improvement,  such  as  canals,  embankments,  terraces,  or 
ronchi,  built  up  like  steps  on  the  slope  of  every  hill,  has  been  immense,  and  defies 
computation.  The  mode  of  cultivation,  moreover,  entails  a  vast  amount  of  labour, 
for  the  peasant  knows  not  the  iron  plough,  but  tills  his  field  with  the  spade :  he  is 
a  g;irdener  rather  than  an  agriculturist.  The  agricultural  produce  is  immense  ; 
its  annual  value  is  estimated  at  £80,000,000  sterling,  and  it  furnishes  large  quan- 
tities for  exportation.  Cereals,  forage,  mulberry  leaves  and  cocoons,  vegetables 
and  fruit,  and  cheese,  including  the  famous  Parmesan,  are  the  principal   products. 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO.  219 

Lombardy  and  Piemont  occupy  the  first  rank  in  the  ivorld  for  certain  kinds  of 
agricultural  produce,  and  they  are  almost  the  only  countries  in  Europe  in  which 
rice,  introduced  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  is  extensively  grown. 
The  vineyards,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  as  carefully  tended  as  they  might  be, 
and  the  wines,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  Asti,  Monferrato,  San  Colombano, 
and  Udine  (the  pico/ifo),  are  of  small  repute. 

The  valley  of  the  Po  divides  itself  into  several  well-marked  agricultural 
provinces.  In  the  Alpine  valleys,  between  Col  di  Tenda  and  Monte  Tricorno,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  forests  and  pastures  is  held  in  common,  but  nearly  every 
mountaineer  is  likewise  the  free  proprietor  of  a  bit  of  meadow  or  land,  which  his 
labour  has  converted  into  a  garden.  The  social  condition  of  these  mountaineers 
thus  resembles  that  of  the  French  peasantry ;  for  they,  likewise,  enjoy  the  advan- 
tages of  a  minute  division  of  the  land  amongst  freehold  proprietors.  The  hilly  tracts 
along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  are  divided  into  farms  of  moderate  size.  The 
peasant  no  longer  owns  the  land,  but,  in  accordance  with  old  feudal  customs,  he 
shares  in  its  produce.  In  the  plain,  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  up  a  complicated 
system  of  canals,  nearly  all  the  land  belongs  to  rich  capitalists,  who  cut  it  up  into 
numerous  small  farms,  and  for  the  most  part  reside  in  the  towns.  These  small 
farmers  have  no  resources  of  their  own,  and  are  hardly  above  the  rank  of  agricul- 
tural labourers.  Though  they  cultivate  the  most  fertile  region  of  Northern  Italy, 
they  are  miserably  fed,  frequently  decimated  by  disease,  and  least  alive  to  the 
advantages  of  education.  The  contrast  between  these  miserable  peasants  and  the 
mountaineers  of  Vaudois  and  the  Val  Tellina  is  great  indeed. 

Periodically  many  of  the  mountaineers  migrate  to  the  towns  and  neighbouring 
countries  in  search  of  work,  and  a  proverb  tells  us  that  there  is  no  countr)'  in  the 
world  "  without  sparrows  or  Bergamosks."  But  though  the  natives  of  the  hills  of 
Bergamo  furnish  a  numerous  contingent  of  these  migrants,  they  are  outnumbered 
by  Friulians,  inhabitants  of  the  shores  of  the  Lago  Maggiore,  and  Piemontese. 
The  latter  cross  the  passes  of  the  Western  Alps  in  large  numbers  in  search  of 
work  at  Marseilles  and  other  towns  of  Southern  France,  and,  small  wages  suflicing 
for  their  frugal  wants,  they  are  not  particularly  liked  by  their  French  fellow- 
workmen. 

The  metallic  wealth  'of  Northern  Italy  is  but  small.  The  only  mines  of  note 
are  those  which  formerly  supplied  the  famous  armourers  of  Brescia  with  iron,  and 
the  gold  diggings  of  Anzasca,  at  the  foot  of  Monte  Rosa,  where  5,000  slaves  were 
kept  at  work  by  the  Romans,  and  which  are  not  yet  quite  exhausted.  Marble, 
gneiss,  granite,  potters'  clay,  and  kaolin  are,  however,  found  abundantly.  In 
former  times  silks,  velvets,  carpets,  glass,  porcelain,  metal-work,  and  other  art 
productions  of  the  workmen  of  Venice  and  Lombardy  enjoyed  a  very  high  reputa- 
tion. These  ancient  industries  decayed  with  the  downfall  of  the  old  republics, 
but  there  are  signs  now  of  their  revival.  The  want  of  coal  or  other  fuel  for  setting 
in  motion  the  machinery  of  modern  factories  is  compensated  for,  to  some  extent, 
by  an  abundant  water  power,  and  this  explains  why  nearly  all  the  important 
manufactories  are  met  with  at  the  debouchures  of  the  Alpine  valleys. 


220 


ITALY. 


Amonirst  the  ancient  industries  of  the  country  not  vet  extinct,  the  fisheries  of 
the  higoons  of  Comacchio  occupy  a  foremost  place.  The  Canal  of  Magnavacca, 
now  hardly  navigable,  admits  the  waters  of  the  sea  into  the  Canal  Palotta,  which 
may  be  described  as  the  great  artery  of  these  lagoons.  It  was  constructed  in 
1631 — -M,  and,  bj'  an  ingeniously  designed  system  of  ramifying  canals,  carries  the 
vivifying  floods  to  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  lagoons.  The  various  basins, 
or  ralli,   of  the  lagoons  are  thus  tilled  with  sea-water,  and  constitute  as  many 


I'is.  72. — The  I.aoooxs  of  Comacchio. 

Scale  1  :   L".«i,l"»i, 


.  5  Miles. 


breeding  beds,  where  the  fi.sh  come  from  the  sea  multiply  abundantly.  A  labyrinth 
of  canals  provided  with  flood-gates  cuts  off  their  retreat  to  the  sea,  and  they  are 
caught  in  immense  numbers  when  the  fishing  season  arrives.  Spallanzani  has  seen 
60,000  pounds  of  fish  taken  in  a  single  bed,  or  valle,  within  an  hour ;  but  some- 
times the  draught  is  even  more  considerable,  and  the  fish  are  actually  used  as  manure. 
The  fishing  population  of  Comacchio  numbers  about  5,000  individuals,  most  of 
them  distinguished  by  tall  stature,  great  strength,  and  suppleness.  Coste,  the 
fish-breeder,  mentions  it  as  a  curious  fact  that  this  secluded  colony  of  fishermen 


THE  BASIN  OP  THE  PO. 


221 


sliould  have  retained  these  characteristic  features  for  centuries,  though  sustained 
exclusivelj'  by  fishing,  and  living  upon  mullets,  eels,  and  acquadelle.  Unfortunately 
these  fishermen  are  not  the  proprietors  of  the  ponds,  for  they  belong  to  the  State 
or  to  rich  private  individuals.  The  workmen  live  in  large  barracks  away  from  the 
town,  to  which  they  return  only  at  stated  intervals,  and  even  their  wives  and 
relatives  are  not  permitted  to  visit  them  in  their  places  of  exile. 

Fig.  73. — The  Fisheries  of  Comacchio. 
Scale  1 :  78,000. 


2  Miles. 


The  enormous  population  of  the  valley  of  the  Po,  which  almost  equals  that  of 
the  remainder  of  continental  Italy,  is  verj'  unequallj'  distributed  ;  but,  except  in 
the  high  and  cold  Alpine  valleys,  the  inhabitants  live  in  towns,  dozens  of  which 
may  be  seen  peeping  out  amidst  the  verdure  if  we  ascend  a  high  tower.  There 
are  scarcely  any  villages  or  hamlets.  The  farmers  alone  live  in  the  countrj', 
completely  isolated  from  each  other,  whilst  the  numerous  landed  proprietors  throng 
the  towns,  and  impart  to  them  an  aspect  of  wealth  which  similar  places  in  other 
IG 


222  I'lVVLY. 

parts  of  Europe  cannot  boast  of.  No  other  country  in  the  world  is  as  densely 
populated,  and  in  Lombardy  the  number  of  towns  is  relatively  larger  than  any- 
where else.* 

Large  towns,  too,  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  enjoy  a  deserved  reputation 
amongst  the  cities  of  the  world  on  account  of  their  monuments,  art  treasures,  and 
historical  associations.  Their  number  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  density  of  the 
population,  and  by  the  facility  with  which  the  inhabitants  were  able  to  shift  their 
abodes,  according  to  tlic  hazards  of  war  or  tlic  vicissitudes  of  events.  And  this 
accounts,  too,  for  the  largo  number  of  towns  which  became  famous  as  the  capitals 
of  republics,  or  as  ro3'al  and  ducal  residences. 

Several  of  the  towns  at  the  base  of  the  Alps  occupy  sites  marked  out  for  them 
by  nature.  Such  are  the  towns  at  the  mouth  of  the  valleys  or  defiles,  which  were 
places  of  defence  as  well  as  staples  of  commerce.  Ariminum,  the  modern  Rimini, 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  great  plain  of  thePo,  was  one  of  these,  for  during 
the  reign  of  the  Roman  it  defended  the  narrow  littoral  passage  between  the 
Adriatic  and  the  Apennines.  The  Flaminian  Road  there  reached  the  sea,  the 
Emilian  Road  thence  departed  for  the  north-west,  as  did  also  the  littoral  road  of 
Ravenna.  When  Rome  had  ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  the  world,  and  Italy  was 
divided  into  small  hostile  states,  the  towns  in  the  southern  part  of  the  plain, 
or  near  the  passes  over  the  Po,  such  as  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  retained  their 
strategical  importance.  Piacenza,  which  defends  the  passage  of  the  Po  between 
Piemont  and  Emilia,  remains  a  first-rate  fortress  to  the  present  day  ;  Alessandria, 
near  the  confluence  of  Tanaro  and  Bormida,  and  in  a  plain  famous  for  many  a 
bloody  battle,  was  likewise  destined  to  become  a  formidable  fortress,  though 
derisively  called  a  "  city  of  straw."  Every  valley  debouching  from  France  or 
Austria  was  locked  at  its  mouth  by  a  strong  fort ;  but  most  of  these  places,  such  as 
Vinadio,  Pinerolo,  Fenestrella,  and  Susa,  have  become  untenable,  owing  to  the 
range  of  modern  artillery. 

The  defences  of  the  road  over  the  Brenner,  ever  since  the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  had  to  be  looked  to  most  carefuUj',  for  the  plain  between  the 
Mincio  and  the  Adigc,  to  the  south  of  the  Lake  of  Garda,  is  the  least-protected  part 
of  Italv  from  a  military  point  of  view.  History  has  proved  this.  Well  might 
the  peaceable  inhabitants  of  the  plain  consecrate  this  Alpine  road  to  the  gods,  and 
intrust  its  defence  to  the  neighbouring  tribes.  But  the  northern  barbarians  were 
not  to  be  stopped  by  altars  ;  and  manj-  a  time  they  swept  down  it  like  an  avalanche, 
pillaging  the  towns  and  massacring  the  inhabitants.  No  spot  on  the  earth's  surface 
has  been  so  frequently  saturated  with  human  blood.  Most  of  the  battles  for  the 
possession  of  Italy,  down  to  our  own  days,  were  fought  near  the  mouth  of  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Adige.     Hardly  a  town  or  a  Adllage  of  this  small  district  but 


Area,  square  ^>iiies. 
Dec.  31st,  1875. 

Population. 

Density. 

•  Piemont    . 

. 

11,308 

2,99.5,213 

265 

Lombiirdy 

9,084 

3,5.53,913 

391 

Venice 

9,060 

2.733,406 

302 

Emilia 

Total 

7,921 

2,153,381 

272 

37,373 

11,435,913 

306 

THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


223 


has  gained  a  mournful  notoriety  in  the  dark  pages  of  human  history.  It  is  there 
we  must  seek  for  the  battle-fields  of  Castiglione,  Lonato,  Rivoli,  Solferino,  and 
Custozza.  When  the  Austrians  held  Lombardj  and  Yenice,  they  took  care  to 
protect  this  district  by  the  four  fortresses  known  as  the  Quadilateral  (Verona, 
Peschiera,  Mantua,  and  Legnago)  and  other  works.  These  constituted  the  "key 
of  the  house,"  of  which  Italy  has  now  repossessed  herself. 

The  configuration  of  the  country  which  rendered  these  defiles  of  the  Alps 
of  importance  strategically,  likewise  insured  their  commercial  importance.  The 
fortresses  were  placed  there  to  defend  the  passes,   the   commercial   entrepots    to 


Fig.   74. — Mouth    of   the   Adige   A'alley. 
from  the  Austrian  Staff  Map.    Scale  1  :  S'JT.OOO. 


lo°SoE  of Cr 


Jfarfiifs. 


PJee  Fields 

10  Miles. 


intercept  the  trade.  The  rank  of  these  places  of  commerce  depends  essentially 
upon  the  number  and  the  importance  of  the  roads  which  converge  upon  them. 
Turin,  upon  which  converge  aU  the  Alpine  roads  from  Mont  Blanc  to  the 
Apennines,  naturally  became  one  of  the  vital  points  of  European  commerce. 
Milan,  to  which  lead  the  seven  great  Alpine  routes  of  the  Simplon,  the  Gotthard, 
the  Bernardino,  the  Spliigen,  the  Julier,  the  Maloya,  and  the  Stelvio,  was  marked 
out  by  nature  as  a  commercial  emporium.  Bologna,  too,  which  was  separated  by 
the  swamps  of  the  To  from  the  Alpine  passes,  has  risen  into  importance  since 
railways  have  joined  it  to  Vienna,  Paris,  Marseilles,  and  Naples. 


224 


ITAl-Y. 


The  valley  of  the  Po  would  never  have  attained  its  importance  in  the  history 
of  Europe  unless  roads  had  been  constructed  for  traversing  the  obstructive  moun- 
tains which  surround  it  on  all  sides  except  towards  the  east,  where  it  opens  out 
upon  the  Adriatic.  No  other  district  of  Europe  is  so  completely  hemmed 
in  by  natural  obstacles  as  is  this,  but  the  construction  of  carriage  roads  and  railways 
has  converted  Northern  Italy  into  one  of  the  great  centres  of  European  commerce. 
Venice  gives  it  the  command  of  the  Adriatic,  the  Apennine  railways  connect  it 
with  Genoa,  Savona,  the  Gulf  of  Spezia,  and  the  Tyrrhenian,  and  it  thus  commands 
the  two  seas  which  wash  the  shores  of  Italy.  Other  railways  cross  the  Alps,  and 
put  it  into  communication  with  France  and  Germany.  This  central  position, 
joined  to  the  natural  fertility  of  the  country,  has  converted  Northern  Italy  into  one 

Fig.  7'5. — The  Passages  over  the  Alps. 
Scale  1 :  6,000,000. 


,  HXi  Miles. 


of  the  most  flourishing  portions  of  Europe.  Human  hands  have  conquered 
original  geographical  disadvantages,  and  the  true  centre  of  Italy  is  in  the  ancient 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  not  at  Rome.  Had  the  Italians  been  guided  in  the  choice  of 
their  capital  by  actual  importance,  and  not  by  historical  tradition,  they  would 
have  chosen  one  of  the  great  cities  of  their  northern  plain. 

Turin,  though  an  old  town,  seeing  that  it  was  burnt  by  Hannibal,  is  never- 
theless a  modern  city,  if  we  compare  it  with  other  towns  of  Italy.  Its  straight  and 
broad  streets  almost  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  town  of  the  New  World.  Until 
made  a  ducal  residence,  Turin  was  but  a  small  pro^•incial  town.  During  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  and  even  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  great  high-road  between  Italy 
and  Gaul  led  along  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa.  The  passage  of  the  Alps 
was  looked  upon  with  dread  by  travellers.     Still  some  traffic  went  on  even  in  these 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO.  225 

early  days,  and  small  towns  sprang  into  existence  at  the  foot  of  each  Alpine 
pass.  Amongst  these  were  ilondovi,  the  triple  town  built  on  three  hills  ;  Cuneo, 
favourably  placed  upon  a  terrace  between  Stura  and  Gesso,  in  which  rise 
the  hot  sulphur  springs  of  Valdiera  ;  Saluzzo,  on  the  gentle  slope  of  the  foot- 
hills of  Monte  Viso  ;  Pinerolo,  with  its  ancient  castle,  so  often  converted  into  a 
prison  of  state  ;  Susa,  the  Italian  key  of  Mont  Cenis ;  Aosta,  still  aboundino-  in 
Eoman  antiquities ;  Ivrea,  built  on  a  site  formerly  occupied  by  a  glacier 
descending  from  Monte  Rosa  ;  and  Riella,  with  its  flourishing  woollen  industry. 
The  towns  lower  down  in  the  plain,  upon  which  several  of  these  Alpine  roads 
converged,  likewise  attained  some  local  importance.  In  Upper  Piemont  there  are 
Fossano,  on  a  heap  of  shingle  at  the  junction  of  the  roads  of  Mondovi  and  Cuneo ; 
Savigliano,  lower  down,  where  the  roads  of  the  Po  and  Maira  valleys  join ;  and 
Carmagnola,  which  commands  one  of  the  principal  roads  over  the  Apennines. 
Novara,  the  commercial  outlet  of  the  Lago  Maggiore,  and  in  the  midst  of  one  of 
the  most  productive  agricultural  districts,  is  the  most  populous  town  of  Eastern 
Piemont.  VerceUi,  on  the  Sesia,  and  below  the  confluence  of  the  rivulets  descend- 
ing from  Monte  Rosa,  enjoys  natural  advantages  similar  to  those  of  Novara. 
Casale,  the  ancient  capital  of  Monferrato,  defends  one  of  the  principal  passages  of 
the  Po. 

But  Turin,  owing  to  its  favourable  position,  has  become  the  great  emporium 
of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Po.  Its  commerce  has  grown  immensely,  since  the 
town  no  longer  enjoys  the  perilous  honour  of  being  the  capital  of  a  kingdom, 
and  the  places  vacated  by  the  court  and  Government  oflicials  have  been  filled  up 
quickly  by  immigrants  carried  thither  by  the  railways.  Its  libraries,  a  fine 
museum,  and  various  learned  societies  entitle  it  to  rank  as  one  of  the  intellectual 
centres  of  the  peninsula,  whilst  its  manufactures  of  silks  and  woollens,  of  paper 
and  other  articles,  are  of  great  importance.  The  environs  of  Turin  are  delightful. 
From  the  hill  of  the  Superga,  a  few  miles  to  the  east  of  the  city,  and  crowned  by 
a  sumptuous  church,  may  be  enjoyed  one  of  the  finest  panoramas  of  the  Italian 
Alps.  The  numerous  small  towns  in  its  vicinity,  such  as  MoncaKeri,  Chieri,  and 
Carignano,  abound  in  villas  and  participate  in  the  prosperity  of  the  capital.  As 
to  the  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Tanaro,  in  the  south,  they  form  a  group  apart, 
and  are  the  natural  intermediaries  between  the  valley  of  the  Po  and  the  port  of 
Genoa.  Alessandria,  a  strong  fortress  of  hideous  regularity,  which  has  superseded 
the  old  fortresses  of  Tortona  and  Xovi,  is  the  terminus  of  eight  railways,  and  one 
of  the  busiest  places  of  Italy.  The  neighbouring  cities  of  Asti,  famous  for  its 
sparkling  wines,  and  Acqui,  celebrated  from  the  time  of  the  Romans  for  its  hot 
springs,  are  likewise  important  for  their  commerce.* 

Milan,  the  capital  of  Lombardy,  is  in  every  respect  one  of  the"leadiag  cities  of 
Italy.     In  population  it  is  inferior  to  Xaples,  in  commerce  it  is  outstripped  only 

*  Population   of    the   principal   towns   of  Piemont    (1871): — Turin.   192,4-12 ;   Alessandria,  29,102; 
Novarra,   24,185;    Vercelli,  20,626;    Casale   Monferrato,  20,436;    Asti,   19,466;    Novi    Ligure,  12,102 
Mondori,  11,958;  Cuneo,  11,859;  Pinerolo,   11,832;  Biella,   11,814;  Saluzzo,  9,796;   Savigliano,  9,544 ; 
Bra,  9,196;   Alba,  9,147;   Chieri,  8,986;   Tortona,  8,620,  Acqui,  8,332;    Fossano,  7,272;  Carmagnola, 
3,830. 


226  ITALY. 

by  Genoa,  but  in  industry  it  is  the  equal  of  both.  Its  scientific  and  literary  life 
entitles  it,  probably,  to  the  first  rank  amongst  the  cities  between  the  Alps  and  Sicily. 
lu  the  most  remote  times  Milan  was  an  important  town  of  the  Celts,  and  since 
then  the  advantages  of  its  position  have  given  it  the  preponderance  amongst  all 
other  cities  of  Northern  Italy.  Its  power  during  the  Middle  Ages  gained  it  the 
epithet  of  the  "  Second  Home."  At  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  had 
200,000  inhabitants,  whilst  London  had  not  then  a  sixth  of  that  number.  Milan 
stood  in  want  of  water,  for  it  was  dependent  upon  the  feeble  stream  of  the  Olona, 
and  its  citizens  created  the  Naviglio  Grande  and  the  Martcsana,  veritable  rivers, 
which  furnish  a  quantity  of  water  double  that  of  the  Seine  at  Paris  during 
summer.  They  likewise  erected  magnificent  monuments,  but  most  of  these  have 
perished  during  innumerable  wars,  and  the  aspect  of  ^lilan  is  now  that  of  a 
modern  town  of  Western  Europe.  Its  most  famous  building,  the"  Duomo,"  with 
its  prodigious  crowd  of  statues,  its  finely  chiselled  marbles  and  granites,  must  be 
looked  upon  as  a  marvel  of  architecture,  though  from  an  artistic  point  of  view  it  is 
hardly  more  than  an  elaborately  carved  trinket  out  of  all  proportion.  The  stones 
for  this  edifice  were  quarried  on  the  Lago  Maggiore,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Toce. 

The  capital  of  Lombardy,  proud  of  the  past  and  confident  of  the  future,  boasts 
of  never  yielding  servilely  to  impulses  given  from  beyond.  It  has  its  own  opinions, 
manners,  and  fashions,  and  anything  accepted  from  abroad  is  moulded  in  accord- 
ance with  local  traditions.  The  other  towns  of  Lombardy  likewise  maintain  their 
local  character,  are  proud  of  their  traditions,  and  glory  in  the  annals  of  the  past. 
Como,  on  the  beautiful  lake  named  after  it,  the  ancient  rival  of  Milan,  gains 
wealth  by  spinning  silk  and  exporting  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  Brianza. 
Monza,  surrounded  by  parks  and  villas,  is  the  coronation  city.  Pavia,  with  its 
525  towers,  now  in  ruins,  remembers  the  time  when  it  was  the  residence  of 
the  Lombard  kings,  and  proudly  points  to  the  university,  one  of  the  oldest  in 
Europe,  and  to  the  Certosa  (Chartreuse),  one  of  the  most  sumptuous  monasteries 
of  Italy.  Yigevano,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Ticino,  rejoices  in  a  fine  castle.  Lodi, 
in  the  eleventh  century,  was  the  most  powerful  city  of  Italy  next  to  Milan,  and 
carried  on  a  war  of  extermination  with  the  latter ;  it  is  still  a  busy  place. 
Cremona,  an  old  republic,  boasts  of  its  torrazzo,  or  tower,  393  feet  in  height,  the 
loftiest  in  Europe  until  Gothic  cathedrals  were  built.  Bergamo,  on  a  hill  com- 
manding the  rich  plains  of  Brembo  and  Serio,  produced  a  larger  number  of  great 
men  than  any  other  town  except  Florence  ;  and  Brescia,  the  armourers'  town, 
more  haughty  still,  proclaims  herself  to  be  the  mother  of  heroes. 

3I;intua,  on  the  ilincio,  is  one  of  the  fortresses  of  the  Quadrilateral,  and  can 
hardly  be  said  to  belong  to  Lombard)-,  though  included  within  its  political  bound- 
aries. It  is  essentially  a  military  town.  It  has  lost  much  of  its  old  commerce, 
thougi.  Jews  are  more  plentiful  there  than  in  any  other  inland  city  of  Italy.  Its 
swamps,  woods,  rice-fields,  ditches,  and  fortified  canals  are  productive  of  a  degree 
of  humidity  exceptional  even  in  Lombardy,  and  the  inhabitants  consequently 
eschew  this  ancient  birthplace  of  Virgil.  Strikingly  different  is  the  character  of 
the  towns  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains,  such  as  Sondrio,  the  capital  of  the 


THE  BASIN  OF  THE  PO. 


227 


Val  Tellina,  or  delightful  Salo,  on  the  Lake  of  Garda,  with  its  group  of   villas 


scattered  amongst  groves  of  orange-trees.* 


The  physiognomy  of  the  large  towns  of  Emilia,  beyond  the  Po,  offers  far  fewer 
peculiarities,  for,  as  most  of  them  are  situated  along  the  great  Emilian  highway, 
they  have  been  exposed  for  ages  to  the  levelling  influences  of  travelling  merchants 
and  soldiers.     Piacenza,  a  sorry  place  as  a  fortress,  carries  on  an  important   com- 


Fig.  76. — The  Lakes  and  Canals  op  Mantoa. 

From  the  Austrian  Staff  Map.    Scale  1  :  198.000. 


lD'E.ofG«enw  h5 


fm   ^s   ^   ^ 

Meadows.    Swamps.    Woods.    Rice-tields.    Canals  and  Dykes. 
.^^^— ^^^—  2  Miles. 


merce.      Parma,   an  old    ducal    residence,   has  a    rich    library,   a   museum,   and 
wonderful   frescoes  by   Correggio  in   its  churches.      Reggio,   another  important 

*  Population  of  the  towns  of  Lomtardy  (1S71| : — Milan  (Milano),  261,98.5;  Brescia,  38,906  ;  Bergamo, 
34,.5.3.5  ;  Cremona,  30,919;  Pavia,  29,618;  Mantua  (Mantova),  26,687;  Como,  24,350;  Lodi,  19,088; 
Monza,  17,431;  Vigevano,  14,096;  Busto  Arsizio,  12,909;  Varese,  12,605;  Voghera,  11,903;  TrevigUo, 
11,883. 


228  ITALY. 

station  on  the  Emilian  highway,  is  famous  as  fhe  birthplace  of  Ariosto.  Modena 
has  its  niusuum,  and  the  precious  collection  of  books  and  manuscripts  known  as  the 
Bihlioteca  Estevne.  Bologna  the  "  Learned,"  which  has  taken  the  word  "  Libertas  " 
for  its  motto,  still  remains  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  Italian  cities.  There  are 
its  Etruscan  cemetery,  its  palaces  and  medi:cval  buildings,  and  its  two  leaning 
towers,  which  will  most  certainly  come  down  in  the  end.  Bologna  is  one  of  the 
great  railway  centres,  carries  on  much  commerce,  and  increases  rapidly  in  popula- 
tion. It  would  have  made  a  far  better  capital  than  Rome.  Of  late  years  the 
environs  of  the  city  have  been  frequently  flooded  by  the  Reno,  and  these  disasters 
have  cost  Bologna  its  ancient  ejiithet  of  "  the  Fat." 

Near  this  bustling  place  there  are  others,  now  stagnant,  which  can  point  only 
to  buildings  in  proof  that  they,  too,  were  once  flourishing.  Ferrara,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Estcs,  has  fallen  from  its  high  estate  since  the  Po  has  deserted  it, 
but  still  remains  a  place  of  .some  importance.  Ravenna  has  not  been  deserted  by 
the  Po,  b\it  by  the  sea,  with  which  it  cojnmunicates  now  by  a  canal  seven  miles 
in  length,  and  navigable  for  ships  drawing  thirteen  feet  of  water.  The  town 
became  the  capital  of  Ilonorius  and  Theoderic  the  Goth,  on  account  of  the  protec- 
tion offered  by  the  surrounding  marshes.  To  the  exarchs  it  is  indebted  for  its 
curious  Byzantine  edifices,  so  rich  in  mosaics.  As  to  the  ancient  Etruscan  city  of 
Adria,  on  Venetian  soil,  to  the  north  of  the  Po,  it  could  hardly  have  claimed  at 
anv  period  during  the  last  two  thousand  years  to  give  a  name  to  the  neighbouring 
sea.  It  lies  now  at  a  distance  of  fourteen  miles  from  it,  and  even  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans  it  must  have  been  surrounded  by  lagoons  or  swamps,  for  how  else  can 
we  explain  its  epithet  of  "  Town  of  the  Seven  Seas  ?  "  Porto,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Euganean  Hills,  may  owe  its  name  to  an  ancient  lake  or  river. 

Towns  famous  on  account  of  their  historj',  and  still  popvdous,  are  most  crowded 
together  in  the  southern  angle  of  the  plain,  usually  known  as  the  Romagna.  The 
towers  and  crenellated  walls  of  Imola  rise  there  on  the  banks  of  the  Santerno. 
Lugo,  the  "  town  of  the  beautiful  Romagncsc,"  occupies  the  centre  of  the  district 
of  Ravenna,  and  has  much  trade.  Faenza,  on  the  Emilian  Road,  is  a  large  village 
rather  than  a  town,  though  it  has  given  its  name  to  a  particular  kind  of  porcelain 
(faience).  Forli  is,  next  to  Bologna,  the  most  populous  city  of  Romagna.  Cesena 
is  known  for  the  excellence  of  the  hemp  grown  in  the  neighbourhood.  Rimini, 
where  the  Emilian  Road  reaches  the  sea,  still  has  a  few  Roman  ruins,  including  a 
triumphal  arch.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Romagna  are  distinguished  by  great 
energy.  Their  passions  are  violent,  and  as  frequently  lead  them  into  crime  as  to 
deeds  of  heroism.* 

In  \'enetia  there  are  several  provincial  towns  of  importance.  Padua  abounds 
in  monuments  of  art,  possesses  a  university,  and  was  formerly  the  rival  of  Venice. 
Vicenza  is  embellished  by  the  palaces  erected  by  Palladio.  Treviso  and  Belluno 
are  towns  of  some  importance,  the  one  on  the  Sile,  the  other  in  the  upper  valley 

•  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Emilia  (1S71)  : — Bologna,  89,104  ;  Parma,  41,91.5 ;  Piaoenza, 
34,908;  Ferrara,  3,3,327;  Mod.  na,  30,8.54;  Faenza,  23,7.52;  Ravenna,  21,774;  Reggie,  19,131;  Imola, 
18,189;  Cesena,  17,594;  Forli,  15.324;  Rimini,  9,747;  Lugo,  8,664;  Comacchio,  7,007. 


< 


o 


THE  BASIN  OP  THE  PO. 


229 


Fifi 


77. — Palmanova. 

Scale  1  :  86.400. 


of  the  Piave.  At  Udiae  is  pointed  out  a  mound  of  earth  said  to  have  been 
thrown  up  by  Attila,  from  which  he  contemplated  the  conflagration  of  Aquileja. 
Palmanova,  on  the  Austrian  frontier,  is  a  regularly  built  fortress.  Verona,  at  the 
other  extremity  of  Venetia,  has  played  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  Italy, 
but  its  commerce  and  industry  have  fallen  into  decay.  It  hardly  fills  up  the  space 
enclosed  by  walls  and  bastions,  and  its  present  population  is  quite  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  multitude  of  its  public  buildings  dating  from  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
the  dimensions  of  its  Roman  amphitheatre,  capable  of  seating  50,000  spectators. 
Amongst  all  the  cities  of  Venetia  it  is  Venice  itself,  the  "  Queen  of  the  Adriatic," 
which  has  suffered  least  in  the  course  of  ages. 

Venice  is  a  very  ancient  city.      The  remains  of  Roman  buildings  discovered 
on  the  island  of  San  Giorgia,  far  below  the  present  level  of  the  sea,  and  therefore 
referred  to  in  proof  of  the  slow  subsidence   of  the  Venetian  coast,  prove  to  us 
that  the  mud  islands  of  the  gulf  supported  a  population  long  before  the  invasion 
of  the   Barbarians.       These    half-drowned 
lands  may  have  attracted  the  coast  popu- 
lation at  an   early  age,    for  they  aflForded 
security   against  attack,  and  offered    great 
advantages    for     carrj'ing    on    commerce. 
Nevertheless,  the  Venice  of  our  time  only 
dates  from  the  commencement  of  the  ninth 
centur}',  when  the  government  of  this  ma- 
ritime  republic  was    established  upon   the 
islands    separated    from   the    sea    by    the 
lidi,   and  from   the  mainland  by  estuaries 
and  swamps.      This   unique    position  ren- 
dered   Venice    almost    impregnable ;     and 
whilst  the  rest  of  Europe  was  being  deso- 
lated by  war,  Venice   sent  forth  its  com- 
mercial and  warlike   exf)editions   to  every 
part  of  the  Mediterranean,  established  factories,   and  built  fortresses.     Not  with- 
out   arduous    struggles,    it    became    the    most    powerful   and    wealthiest   of   the 
commercial  republics  of   Italy.      It  was  largely  indebted  for  this  success  to  its 
favourable  geographical  position,  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  mediseval  world.      Its 
commerce  brought  the  Venetians  into  contact  with  nearly  every  nation,  and  they 
had  no  prejudices  against  foreigners.     The  Armenians  were  admitted  to  their  city, 
and  an  alliance  was  made  even  with  the  Turks.     At  the  time  of  the  Crusades  the 
Venetian  Republic  occupied  the  foremost  position  amongst  the  states  of  Europe, 
and  its  ambassadors  enjoyed  a  vast  amoimt  of  influence.      This  influence  was  sus- 
tained by  enormous  material  forces.     Venice  had  a  navy  of  300  vessels,  manned 
by  36,000  sailors,   and  the  riches  of  the  world,   whether  obtained  by  legitimate 
commerce  or  by  violence,  were  accumulated  in  its  2,000  palaces  and  200  churches. 
Even  one    of  the  islets  upon  which   the  city  is   built  would    have   purchased  a 
kingdom  of  Asia  or  Africa.     One  of  the  most  sumptuous  cities  of   the  West  had 

17 


1  Mile. 


280  ITALY. 

arisen  upon  banks  of  mud,  inhabited  formerly  only  by  poor  fishermen.  The  larch 
forests  of  Dalmatia  had  been  cut  down,  and  converted  into  piles  upon  which  to  build 
palaces.  More  than  400  bridges  of  marble  joined  island  to  island,  and  superb 
embankments  of  granite  defended  this  marvellous  city  against  the  encroachments 
of  the  sea.  Great  achievements  in  the  arts  contributed  their  share  in  making 
Veiirzia  la  Belhi  a  city  without  its  equal. 

But  geographical  discoveries,  in  which  Venice  itself  took  a  leading  share, 
undermined  the  power  of  the  Italian  Republic.  "WTien  Africa  had  been  circum- 
navigated and  the  New  World  discovered,  the  Mediterranean  ceased  to  be  the 
great  commercial  sea  of  the  world.  Venice  was  doomed  to  die.  It  no  longer 
monopolized  the  road  to  India,  and  the  increasing  power  of  the  Turks  crippled  its 
Eastern  trade.  Still,  so  great  were  its  resources,  that  it  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence for  more  than  three  hundred  years  after  it  had  lost  its  factories,  and 
only  fell  when  shamefully  deserted  by  General  Bonaparte,  its  supposed  ally. 

The  decadence  of  Venice  was  most  remarkable  during  the  dominion  of  Austria. 
In  1840  the  city  had  less  than  100,000  inhabitants,  hundreds  of  its  palaces  were 
in  ruins,  the  grass  grew  in  its  squares,  and  seaweeds  encumbered  its  landing- 
places.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  gradually  recovering.  A  bridge  of  222  arches 
and  2,000  feet  in  length  connects  it  with  the  mainland,  and  its  commerce,  though 
not  equal  to  that  of  Trieste,  is  nevertheless  of  considerable  importance.*  The 
manufacture  of  looking-glasses,  lace,  and  other  articles  has  imparted  fresh  life  to 
Venice,  and  there,  as  well  as  in  other  towns  of  the  lagoons  (Malamocco,  Burano, 
Murano,  and  Chioggia),  thousands  of  workmen  are  busy  in  the  production  of 
those  gay-looking  glass  beads  which  find  their  way  into  every  part  of  the  world, 
and  which  in  certain  countries  of  the  East  and  in  Central  Africa  take  the  place 
of  coin.  But  Venice,  though  less  populous  and  active  than  of  yore,  still  rejoices 
in  its  delightful  climate  and  its  bright  skies.  Its  gaiety  and  fetes  are  not  yet 
things  of  the  past,  and  its  palaces,  built  in  a  style  half  Italian,  half  Moorish,  still 
contain  the  priceless  masterpieces  of  Titian,  Tintoretto,  and  Paul  Veronese. t 


III. LiGURIA    AND    THK    RiVTKRA    OF    GeNOA.+ 

Lica  KiA  is  but  a  narrow  slip  of  land  if  we  compare  it  with  the  broad  plain  of 
the  Po,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  clearly  defined  districts  of  Europe,  and  its  inhabit- 
ants have  retained  many  original  traits.  The  contrast  between  the  Podane  plains 
and  the  littoral  region  beyond  the  barren  Apennines  is  striking,  but  if  we 
travel  in  the  direction  of  Provence  or  of  Tuscany  the  landscape  changes  only 
by  degrees.      The  rampart  of  the  Apennines  surrounds  the  whole  of  the  Gulf  of 

•  Tonnage  of  vessels  which  entered  and  cleared  (including  the  coasting  trade) : — 588,095  tons  in 
1865  ;   1,070,600  tons  in  1875.     Value  of  imports  by  sea  (1874) :— £5,960,200  ;  of  exports,  £2,848,040. 

t  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Venetia  (1871) :— Venice  (Venezia),  128,901  ;  Verona,  05,876; 
Padua  (Padova),  52,011;  Vicenza,  26,994;  Udine,  22,692;  Chioggia.  19,841  ;  Tre\nso  18,547:  Cavarzere, 
12,336;  Vittoria  (formerly  called  Ceneda),  10,533;  Adria,  9,834;  Kovigo,  7,974;  Feltre,  6,570;  Belluno, 
5,770  ;  Este,  5,743. 

X  Aiea,  2,153  aquare  miles  ;  population  (1871),  843,250 ;  density,  391. 


LIGUEIA  AND  THE  EIVIERA  OF  GENOA. 


231 


Genoa,  and  there  is  not  a  single  break  in  it.  These  mountains  are  very  different  in 
character  from  the  Alps,  though  joined  to  them  as  the  branch  of  a  tree  is  united  to 
its  trunk.  It  is  not  possible  to  tcU  where  one  chain  ends  and  the  other  begins.  If 
the  main  direction  of  the  mountain  is  to  be  the  criterion,  the  Ligurian  Apennines 
may  be  said  to  begin  at  the  frontier  of  France,  near  the  sources  of  the  Tinea  and 
Vesubio  ;  but  if  great  height,  pastures,  and  perennial  snow  are  considered  sufficient 
to  constitute  an  Alpine  region,  then  the  Apennines  only  begin  to  the  east  of  the 
Col  di  Tenda,  for  the  fine  summits  of  the  Clapier,  Fenetre,  and  Gordalesque,  to  the 
west  of  that  pass,  attain  a  height  of  10,000  feet.  They  are  quite  Alpine  in  their 
character,  and  may  boast  even  of  small  glaciers,  the  most  southerly  in  the  mountains 
of  Central  Europe.     Geologists  usually  draw  the  line  where  cretaceous  and  tertiary 

Fig.  78. — The  Junction  of  Alps  and  Apennines. 
Scale  1  :  1,600,000. 


10  Miles. 


rocks  take  the  place  of  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Alps.  But  this,  too,  is  only  a 
conventional  division,  for  these  crystalline  rocks,  which  constitute  the  crest  of  the 
Alps  in  the  west,  extend  far  to  the  east,  and  occasionally  they  break  through  the 
sedimentary  formations  which  overlie  them,  and  rise  into  summits  similar  to  those 
of  the  Alps.  Thus  the  granitic  summits  of  the  mountains  of  Spezia  remind  us  of 
the  mountain  mass  near  the  Col  di  Tenda. 

The  chain  of  the  Ligurian  Apennines  is  by  no  means  of  uniform  height,  but,  like 
that  of  the  Alps,  it  consists  of  mountain  masses  separated  b}^  passes.  The  lowest  of 
these  passes  is  that  to  the  west  of  Savona,  named  indifferently  after  one  of  the 
neighbouring  villages,  Altare,  Carcara,  or  Cadibona.  This  pass  is  hardly  more 
than  1,600  feet  in  height,  and  is  popular]}-  looked  upon  as  constituting  the  boundary 
between  the  Alps  and  Apennines.     The  possession  of  this  pass  during  war  has 


232  ITALY. 

always  been  considered  of  great  importance,  for  it  commands  the  approaqhes  to 
Genoa  and  the  upper  valleys  of  Piemont,  and  the  Tanaro  and  Bormido,  which  rise 
near  it,  have  often  run  with  blood. 

The  Apennines  to  the  east  of  this  pass  have  an  average  height  of  3,300  feet,  and 
beyond  the  Pass  of  Giovi  (1,538  feet),  through  which  the  road  leads  from  Genoa  to 
the  northern  plain.s,  many  summits  attain  a  height  of  4,500  feet.  Several  spurs, 
abounding  in  ravines,  extend  here  to  the  north.  The  main  chain,  at  the  same  time, 
retires  from  the  coast,  and  the  Pass  of  Pontremoli,  which  separates  the  Ligurian 
from  the  Tuscan  Apennines,  and  through  which  leads  tlie  road  from  Parma  to 
Spezia,  is  no  less  than  thirty  miles  from  the  sea.  In  this  eastern  portion  of  the 
Genoese  Apennines  a  spur  detaches  itself  from  the  main  chain,  and  terminates  in  the 
fine  promontory  of  Porto  Venere,  a  magnificent  rock  of  black  marble,  surmounted 
formerly  by  a  temple  of  Venus.  This  spur,  which  protects  the  Gulf  of  Spezia 
against  wcsterl}'  -wind.s,  has  at  all  times  constituted  an  obstacle  to  the  intercourse 
between  neighbouring  peoples,  not  so  much  on  account  of  its  height,  but  because 
of  its  steepness.  In  some  places  the  crest  of  the  Apennines  is  hardly  more  than 
four  miles  from  the  sea.  The  slope,  in  such  places,  is  exceedingly  steep,  and  roads 
can  ascend  it  only  in  numerous  windings.* 

The  small  width  of  the  maritime  slope  of  the  Ligurian  Apennines  accounts  for 
the  absence  of  perennial  rivers.  The  most  considerable  streams  to  the  east  of  the 
Roya,  which  runs  for  the  greater  part  through  French  territory,  such  as  the  Taggia 
or  the  Centa,  only  assume  the  appearance  of  rivers  when  the  snows  melt,  or  after 
heavy  rains.  Ordinarily  they  are  but  small  streams,  closed  at  the  mouth  by  bars 
of  pebbles.  Between  Albenga  and  Spezia,  for  a  distance  of  160  miles,  there  are 
only  torrents,  and  in  order  to  meet  again  with  a  real  river  we  must  go  beyond  the 
Gulf  of  Spezia.  This  river  is  the  Magra,  which  separates  Liguria  from  Etruria, 
and  which,  up  to  the  epoch  of  Augustus,  formed  the  boundary  of  Italy.  Its 
alluvium  has  converted  an  ancient  bay  of  the  sea  into  a  lake,  and  formed  a  beach, 
1,300  yards  in  width,  in  front  of  the  ancient  Tyrrhenian  city  of  Luni,  which 
formerly  stood  on  the  seashore. 

The  want  of  great  rivers  in  Liguria  is  compensated  for  to  some  extent  by  sub- 
terranean water-courses.  Several  springs  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  at  some 
distance  from  the  shore.  The  springs  of  La  Polla,  in  the  Gulf  of  Spezia,  are  amongst 
the  most  bountiful  amongst  them.  They  have  been  isolated  by  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment from  the  surrounding  salt  water,  and  their  water  is  supplied  to  ships. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  rivers,  the  sterility  of  the  soil,  and  the  steep  escarpments, 
this  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  region  contrasts  strikingly  with  other  parts 
of  temperate  Europe.  Having  reached  the  summit  of  the  mountains  beyond  the 
magnificent  chestnut  forests  at  the  head-streams  of  the  EUcro,  the  Tauaro,  and  the 
Bormida,  we  look  down  upon  a  scene  almost  African  in  its  character.  Scarcely  a 
blade  of  grass  is  to  be  seen  between  Nice  and  Spezia,  and  only  the  grass-plots,  kept 
up  at  great  expense  in  some  pleasure-gardens,  remind  us  that  Piemont  and  Lom- 

•  Principal  altitudes  in  Liguria: — Clapier  de  Pa^arin,  10,073  foet;  Col  di  Tenda,  6,146  feet;  Monte 
Carsino,  8,794  fuct;  Col  d'Altare,  1,600  feet;  Col  di  Giovi,  1,.538  feet;  Muale  Peniia,  5,709  feet. 


LIGURIA  AND  THE  EIVTEEA  OF  GENOA.  233 

bardy  are  near  at  hand.  Pines  and  brambles  would  have  remained  the  only 
verdure  in  these  Ligurian  valleys  and  ravines  if  it  were  not  for  the  transformation 
wrought  by  gardeners  and  agriculturists.  Strange  to  say,  trees  do  not  ascend  to 
the  same  height  on  the  slopes  of  the  Apennines  as  in  the  Alps,  though  the  mean 
temperature  is  far  higher,  and  at  an  altitude  at  which  the  beech  still  attains  noble 
proportions  in  Switzerland  we  find  it  here  stunted  in  growth.  Larches  are  hardly 
ever  seen. 

The  sea  is  as  sterile  as  the  land.  There  are  neither  shallows,  islands,  nor  sea- 
weeds affording  shelter  to  fish.  The  cliffs  descend  precipitously  into  the  sea,  and 
the  narrow  strips  of  beach,  extending  from  promontory  to  promontory,  consist  only 
of  sand  without  the  admixture  of  a  single  shell.  The  Genoese  fishermen,  therefore, 
resort  to  distant  coasts,  those  of  the  "Ponente,"  or  west,  going  to  Sicily,  whilst 
those  of  Camogli,  on  the  Riviera  di  Levanto,  visit  the  coasts  of  Tuscany.  This 
sterility  of  land  and  sea  accounts  for  the  large  number  of  Genoese  met  with  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

But  though  an  unfruitful  country,  Liguria  is  exceedingly  picturesque.  A 
traveller  availing  himself  of  the  railway  between  Nice  and  Genoa,  which  follows 
the  sinuosities  of  the  coast  and  pierces  the  promontories  in  numerous  tunnels,  is 
brought  within  reach  of  the  most  varied  scenery.  At  one  time  the  line  runs  close 
to  the  beach,  with  the  foam  of  the  sea  almost  touching  the  track  on  the  one  side, 
while  tamarisks  bearing  pink  blossoms  overshadow  it  from  the  other.  Elsewhere 
we  creep  up  the  steep  slope,  and  obtain  a  view  of  the  cultivated  terraces  raised  at 
immense  labour  bj'  the  peasantry,  whilst  the  bluish  sea  is  seen  afar  to  the  right, 
almost  hidden  bj'  a  grove  of  olive-trees,  and  stretching  away  until  lost  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Corsica.  Towns,  villages,  old  towers,  villas,  ship-yards,  and  other  industrial 
establishments  impart  an  almost  infinite  variety  to  the  scenery.  One  town  occupies 
the  top  of  a  hill,  and,  seen  from  below,  its  old  walls  and  towers  stand  out  boldly 
against  the  sky  ;  another  is  built  amphitheatrically,  close  to  the  strand  upon  which 
the  fishermen  have  drawn  their  boats  ;  a  third  is  hidden  in  a  hollow,  and  sur- 
rounded by  vines,  olive,  orange,  and  lemon  trees.  A  date-tree  here  and  there 
imparts  an  oriental  aspect  to  the  landscape.  Bordighera,  a  small  place  close 
to  the  French  frontier,  is  quite  surrounded  by  palm-trees,  whose  fruit,  however, 
but  rarely  ripens. 

The  climate  of  Albenga,  Loana,  and  some  other  places  on  the  Genoese  coast  is 
far  from  salubrious,  on  account  of  the  miasmata  exhaled  by  sheets  of  stagnant 
water  left  behind  by  freshets.  Even  Genoa  cannot  boast  of  an  agreeable  climate, 
not  because  there  are  marshes  near  it,  but  because  the  southerly  winds  charged 
with  moisture  are  caught  there  by  the  semicircle  of  mountains,  and  are  made  to 
discharge  their  superabundant  humidity.  The  number  of  rainy  days  at  Genoa 
averages  121  a  year.  There  are,  however,  several  towns  along  this  coast  protected 
by  the  mountains  against  the  north,  and  yet  out  of  the  usual  track  of  the  moisture- 
laden  southerly  winds,  whose   climate  is  exceptionally  delightful.*      Bordighera 

*  Average  temperature  of  Genoa,  GOS"  F. ;    days  with   rain,   121;    rainfall,  45   inches.      Average 
temperature  of  San  Kemo,  62'6  ;  days  with  rain,  45  ;  rainfall,  3-15  in. 


ITALY. 


and  Sau  Remo,  near  the  French  frontier,  are  the  rivals  of  Meutone  as  regards 
climate  ;  and  Nervi,  to  the  east  of  Genoa,  is  likewise  a  favourite  place  of  resort,  on 
account  of  its  clear  sky  and  pure  atmosphere.  Villas  and  castles  rise  on  every 
promontory  and  in  every  valley  of  these  favoured  districts.  For  a  dozen  miles 
on  either  side  of  Genoa  the  coast  is  lined  by  villas.  The  poi)ulation  of  the  city 
has  overflowed  the  walls  which  once  confined  it,  and  is  establishing  itself  in  popu- 
lous subui-bs.  The  long  street  which  winds  between  factories  and  gardens,  scales 
promontories,  and  descends  into  valleys,  will  continue  to  grow  in  length  until  it 
extends  along  the  whole  coast  of  Liguria,  for  the  charms  of  the  country  attract 
men  of  leisure  from  every  quarter  of  Europe. 


Fig.  79. — Genoa  and  its  Suiiurbs. 
From  the  Sardiniau  Staff  Map.    Scile  1  :  100,000. 


M     E     D      I     T     E 


7°lic.- 


r^ii- 


•2  Miles. 


The  historical  development  of  the  ancient  Ligurians,  who  were  probably  of 
Iberian  race,  was  largelj'  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  country  they 
inhabited.  The  cultivable  land  being  only  of  small  extent,  the  superabundant 
population  was  forced  to  look  to  the  sea  for  a  livelihood,  and  engaged  in  navigation 
and  commerce.  Antium,  the  modern  Genoa,  was  an  "  emporium  "  of  the  Ligu- 
rians ever  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  its  vessels  frequented  every  corner  of 
the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Genoese  flag  was  carried  into  every 
part  of  the  known  world,  and  it  was  Genoa  that  gave  birth  to  Christopher  Columbus, 
whose  name  is  inscribed  upon  the  first  page  of  modern  history  as  the  discoverer  of 
America.  It  was  a  Genoese,  too,  Giovanni  Gabotto,  or  Cabot,  who  afresh  discovered 
the  coast   of    North  America   five  centuries   after  its  original   discovery  by  the 


LIGUELl  AND  THE  EIVIEEA  OF  GENOA. 


235 


Normans.  The  hardy  mariners  of  Genoa  have  thus  navigated  the  seas  from  the 
most  remote  times.  Even  now  they  almost  monopolize  the  navigation  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  The  Genoese  likewise  enjoy  a  high  reputation 
as  gardeners,  and  are  met  with  in  every  large  town  of  the  Mediterranean. 

As  long  as  the  Apennines  were  not  crossed  by  practicable  carriage  roads, 
Genoa  possessed  no  advantages  whatever  over  the  other  ports  of  Liguria,  but  ever 
since  it  has  been  placed  in  easy  communication  with  the  fertile  plains  of 
Lombardy  and  Piemont,  the  great  advantages  of  its  geographical  position  have 

Fig.  80. — View  of  Genoa. 


told  upon  its  development.  Pisa  was  the  only  republic  on  the  western  coast  of 
Italy  which  contested  this  superiority  of  Genoa,  but  was  defeated  after  a  sanguinary 
struggle.  The  Genoese  possessed  themselves  of  Corsica,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
were  treated  most  cruelly  ;  they  took  Minorca  from  the  Moors,  and  even  captured 
several  towns  in  Spain,  which  they  restored  onlj'  after  important  commercial 
privileges  had  been  granted  them.  In  the  iEgean  Sea  the  nobles  of  Genoa 
became  the  proprietors  of  Chios,  Lesbos,  Lemnos,  and  other  islands.  At  Constanti- 
nople the  Genoese  merchants  were  as  powerful  almost  as  the  Emperor.     Kaffa,  in 


286  ITAI.Y. 

the  Crimea,  was  one  of  their  wealthy  colonies.  Their  factories  and  towers  were 
met  along  everj' commercial  high-road  in  Asia  Minor,  and  even  in  the  recesses  of  the 
Caucasus.  The  possession  of  the  Black  Sea  gave  them  the  command  of  the  trade 
with  Central  Asia.  These  distant  colonies  explain  the  use  of  a  few  Arab, 
Turkish,  and  Greek  terms  by  the  Genoese,  and  though  the  dialect  spoken  by 
them  is  decidedly  Italian,  the  intonation  is  French. 

Nevertheless  Genoa,  though  more  powerful  than  Pisa,  failed  in  wresting  the 
command  of  the  sea  from  the  Venetians,  who  enjoyed  immense  advantages 
through  their  connection  with  Germany.  Her  political  influence  has  never 
equalled  that  of  Venice,  nor  has  she  produced  as  many  men  eminent  in  literature 
and  art  as  has  her  Adriatic  rival.  The  Genoese  had  the  reputation  in  former 
times  of  being  violent  and  false,  fond  of  luxury  and  power,  and  indifferent  to 
everything  which  did  not  enrich  them.  "  A  sea  without  fish,  mountains  with- 
out forests,  men  without  faith,  women  without  modesty — thus  is  Genoa,"  was  a 
proverb  ever  in  the  mouth  of  the  enemies  of  the  Ligurian  city.  The  dissensions 
amongst  the  noble  families  of  Genoa  were  incessant,  but  the  Bank  of  St.  George 
never. allowed  civil  strife  to  interfere  with  business.  "Wealth  flowed  into  the  city 
without  any  cessation,  and  enabled  its  citizens  to  construct  those  palaces,  marble 
arcades,  and  hanging  gardens  which  have  won  for  it  the  epithet  of  la  Supcrba.  In 
the  end,  however,  ruin  overtook  the  Bank,  and  that  justly,  for  it  had  supplied 
princes  with  money  to  enable  them  to  wage  war,  and  its  bankruptcy  in  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  rendered  Genoa  politically  impotent. 

The  capital  of  Liguria,  in  spite  of  its  small  extent,  its  sinuous  streets,  its  ramparts, 
stairs,  and  dirty  narrow  quays,  may  justly  boast  of  palaces  equally  remarkable  for 
the  splendour  and  originality  of  their  architecture.  Many  of  these  magnificent 
buildings  appeared  to  be  doomed  to  ruin  during  the  decay  of  the  town,  but,  on  the 
return  of  more  prosperous  times,  the  citizens  again  devoted  themselves  to  the 
embellishment  of  their  city.  Genoa  is  the  busiest  port  of  Italy.*  Its  shipowners 
possess  nearly  half  the  Italian  mercantile  marine,  and  three-fourths  of  the  vessels 
annually  built  in  Italy  are  furnished  from  its  ship-yards.  The  harbour,  though 
320  acres  in  extent,  no  longer  suffices  for  the  hundreds  of  sailing  vessels  and 
steamers  which  crowd  into  it.  Nor  is  it  sufficiently  sheltered  against  the  winds, 
and  it  has  therefore  been  proposed  to  construct  a  vast  breakwater  far  beyond  its 
present  limits.  Genoa  fancies  that  its  interests  are  not  sufficiently  attended  to  by 
the  Central  Government.  A  second  railway  across  the  Apennines  is  urgently 
demanded,  in  order  to  manage  the  traffic  that  will  be  created  by  the  opening  of 
the  direct  railway  through  Switzerland,  which  will  place  Genoa  in  direct  com- 
munication with  Western  Germany.  • 

In  the  meantime  Genoa  is  expanding  in  all  directions.  Its  factories  of  maca- 
roni, paper,  silks  and  velvets,  soap,  oil,  jewellery,  metal-work,  pottery,  ornamental 
flowers,  and  other  objects  are  ever  increasing ;    and  ovrar  del  Genoes — Genoese 

•  Tonnage  of  vessels  which  entered  and  cleared  (including  coasting  vessels) : — 1861,  1,936,764;  1867, 
2,330.000;  1875,  3,109,796  tons.  In  the  last-named  year  3.144  sailing  vessels  and  970  steamers  entered 
in  the  coast  trade,  1,462  sailing  vessels  and  860  steamers  from  abroad. 


LIGUEL^.  AND  THE  EIVIEEA  OF  GENOA. 


237 


industry — is  a  marvel  now,  as   it  was  in  the  Middle  Ages.      San  Pier  d' Arena 
(Sampierdarena),  to  the  west,  has  become  a  veritable  manufacturing  town.     Corni- 


.        Fig.  81. — Thb  GuiF  OP  Spezia. 
From  the  Sardinian  Staff  Map.    Scale  1 :  80,000. 


,\U     Military        "; 
/^Va      Port 

<-     .'mrola 


•>      -^ 


S"Barlolomeo%''   -  '^ 


©  Fort  Pessino 
,>r       Lazaret 


U» 


^^               I  . 

Palmaria 

1  de  Tino%^^^jHo 

o 

.  1  3Iile. 


gliano,  Eivarolo,  Sestri  di  Ponente  with  its  large  ship-yards,  Pegli,  and  Voltri  are 
populous   towns,   having  spinning-mills  and  foundries.      Savona,  whose   port  was 


238  ITALY. 

filled  up  by  the  jealous  Genoese,  occupies  the  bottom  of  a  vast  ba}\  It  has  glass- 
works and  potteries,  and  is  connected  by  a  railway  with  Turin.  Elsewhere  on  the 
Riviera  di  Ponente  the  towns  are  crowded  closely  together.  Such  is  the  case  with 
the  twin  cities  of  Oneglia  and  Porto  Maurizio,  the  one  built  on  the  beach,  the  other 
on  a  steep  hill  close  by,  and  known  as  the  "  Fountains  of  Oil,"  because  of  their 
extensive  plantations  of  olives.     At  San  Remo,  however,  olives  are  more  plentiful 

still.* 

On  the  Riviera  di  Levante  town  joins  town  like  pearls  in  a  necklace.  Albaro, 
with  its  charming  mansion,  Quarto,  whence  departed  the  expedition  which  took 
Sicilv  from  the  Bourbons,  and  Nervi,  a  health  resort  for  persons  suffering  from 
pulmonary  diseases,  constitute  a  long-stretching  suburb  of  Genoa,  extending  in  the 
direction  of  Recco  and  Caraogli,  two  towns  abounding  in  shipping.  The  rocky 
promontory  of  Porto  Fino,  thus  named  after  the  dolphins  which  formerly  fre- 
quented it,  imposes  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  further  extension  of  Genoa 
in  this  direction.  Having  traversed  the  tunnel  leading  through  this  promontory, 
we  reach  another  group  of  towns,  viz.  Rapallo,  the  industrious ;  Chiavari,  a  great 
place  of  trade ;  Lavagna,  with  its  famous  quarries  of  grey  slates ;  and  Sestri  di 
Levante,  a  town  of  fishermen. 

The  coast  beyond  Sestri  is  but  sparselj-  inhabited,  for  there  bold  cliffs  approach 
the  sea  ;  but  ha\ing  doubled  the  superb  cape  of  Porto  Venere,  we  enter  the  fine 
Gulf  of  Spezia.t  with  its  numerous  forts,  ship-yards,  ar.senals,  and  other  build- 
inss.  The  Italian  Government  has  been  busv  ever  since  1861  in  converting  this 
gulf  into  a  first-rate  naval  arsenal,  but  no  sooner  has  a  portion  of  the  work  been 
completed  than  the  progress  made  in  the  arts  of  destruction  compels  the  engineers 
to  remodel  it  —  a  very  costly  task.  Whatever  future  may  be  in  store  for 
Spezia  as  a  military  port,  it  has  none  as  a  commercial  one,  for  though  it  affords 
excellent  shelter  to  vessels,  no  railway  connects  it  with  the  fertile  countries  beyond 
the  Apennines,  and  its  exports  are  limited  to  the  produce  of  the  valleys  in  its 
immediate  vicinity.  Spezia  is  indebted  for  its  high  rank  amongst  the  cities  of 
Italy  to  its  beautiful  gulf,  the  rival  of  the  Bay  of  Naples  and  the  roadstead  of 
Palermo.  From  the  summit  of  the  marble  hill  above  the  decayed  town  of  Porto 
Venere  we  look  down  upon  a  marvellous  succession  of  bays  and  promontories,  and 
far  in  the  distance  the  mountains  of  Cor.sica  rise  indistinctly  above  the  blue  waters. 
Looking  to  the  east,  we  behold  the  picturesque  towns  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  gulf  embedded  in  groves  of  olive-trees  and  cypresses,  the  Apuanic  Alps 
and  the  Apennines  bounding  the  horizon.  Right  opposite  is  the  charming 
town  of  Lerici,  and  to  the  south  of  it  the  shore  upon  which  Byron  reduced  to 
ashes  the  body  of  his  friend  Shellej' :  no  spot  more  appropriate  for  this  mournful 
holocaust. 

•  Annual  produce  of  olive  oil  in  the  province  of  Porto  Maurizio,  which  includes  San  Remo.  778,.500 
gallons. 

t  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Liguria  (1871) : — Genoa  (Geneva),  132,621  ;  Savona,  24,851 , 
Spezia,  15,636 ;  San  Pier  d' Arena,  15,568 ;  Sestri  Ponente,  9,605 ;  San  Remo,  9,017  ;  Chiavari,  8  414 ; 
Oneglia,  7,944. 


TUSCANY.  239 


IV. TUSCAKY. 


Tuscany,  like  Liguria,  lies  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Apennines,  but  is  of  far 
greater  width,  for  that  back-bone  of  Italy  retreats  there  from  the  Gulf  of  Genoa, 
and  stretches  right  across  the  broadest  part  of  the  peninsula  to  the  Adriatic. 
Besides  this'there  are  several  detached  plateaux  and  mountain  ranges  to  the  south 
of  the  valley  of  the  Arno.* 

The  Apennines  of  Tuscany  are  of  very  unequal  height,  and  they  are  traversed 
by  numerous  low  passes,  which  could  easily  be  converted  into  carriage  roads. 
Speaking  generally,  they  consist  of  a  series  of  elongated  and  parallel  mountain 
masses,  separated  from  each  other  by  valleys,  through  which  flow  the  head-streams 
of  the  Serchio  and  the  Arno.  The  first  important  mountain  mass  of  the  main 
chain  near  the  frontiers  of  Liguria,  which  is  commanded  bj'  the  Orsajo  and  Succiso, 
is  thus  separated  by  the  vaUey  of  the  Magra  from  the  parallel  range  of  Lumigiana. 
The  chain  of  Garfognana,  to  the  north  of  the  plains  of  Lucca,  has  for  its  pendant 
the  Al^js  of  Apuana.  Monte  Cimone,  farther  east,  and  the  other  summits  of  the 
A/pe  Apcnnina  to  the  north  of  Pistoja  and  Prato,  are  attended  by  the  parallel 
ridges  of  the  Monti  Catini  and  Monte  Albauo,  on  whose  slope  is  the  famous  grotto 
of  Monsummano,  with  a  thermal  spring.  A  fourth  mountain  mass,  that  which  the 
direct  road  from  Florence  to  Bologna  crosses  in  the  Pass  of  Futa,  has  likewise  its 
lateral  chains,  viz.  the  Monte  Mugello,  to  the  south  of  the  Sieve  ;  the  Prato  Magno, 
encircled  by  the  Upper  Arno  ;  and  the  Alps  of  Catenaja,  between  the  Arno  and  the 
Tiber,  t 

The  Apennines  of  Tuscany  in  many  places  attain  a  height  of  5,000  feet,  and  are 
quite  Alpine  in  their  aspect,  the  upper  slopes  remaining  covered  with  snow  for 
more  than  half  the  j-ear.  They  owe  much  of  their  grandeur  to  the  precipitous  slopes 
and  fantastic  profiles  of  the  calcareous  rocks  which  enter  so  largely  into  their  com- 
position. The  forests  of  chestnuts,  firs,  and  beeches  which  formerly  clothed  the 
whole  of  the  range  have  not  yet  been  entirely  destroyed.  The  beautiful  woods 
which  cover  the  slopes  of  Prato  Magno  have  impressed  the  mind  of  many  a 
poet ;  and,  since  Milton  sang  the  delights  of  Yallombrosa,  the  "  shaded  vale  " 
has  become  a  proverbial  name  for  everything  sweet  and  touching  in  the  poetry  of 
nature.  Farther  to  the  west  the  monastery  of  the  Campo  di  Maldulo  (Camaldoli) 
occupies  one  of  the  most  beauteous  spots  in  all  Italy,  the  woods  and  meadows  of 
which  have  been  celebrated  by  Ariosto.  From  the  summit  above  the  convent  both 
the  "  Tuscan  and  the  Slavonian  Sea"  can  be  seen,  as  that  poet  tells  us. 

The  barren  escarpments  and  forests  of  the  Apennines  form  a  charming  contrast 
to   the  valleys  and  rounded  hills  of  Lower  Tuscany,  where  nearly  ever}- height  is 

*  Area  of  Tuscany.  9,287  square  miles;  population  (1S71),  1,983,810;  density,  214. 

t  Altitudes  (in  English  feet)  : — 

Apennines. — Alpsof  Succiso,  6.62.5  ;  Alps  of  Camporaghena  (Garfagnana),  6,.565  ;  Monte  Cimone,  7,111; 
Monte  Falterone,  or  Falterona,  .5,407. 

Passes. — Pass  of  Pontremoli,  or  La  Cisa  (Sarzana  to  Parma),  3,410;  Pass  of  Fiumalbo  (Lucca  to 
Modena),  3,940  ;  Pass  of  Futa,  or  Pietramala  (Florence  to  Bologna),  3,002  ;   Pass  of  Camaldoli,  3,290. 

Anti- Apennines. — Pisaniuo  (Alpe  Apuana),  6,608;  Pietra  Marina  (Monte  Albano),  1,886;  Prato  Blagno, 
5,183  ;  Alpe  di  Catenaja,  4,.595  feet. 


240 


ITALY. 


surmounted  by  the  ruins  of  a  mediaeval  castle  ;  graceful  villas  are  scattered  over  the 
verdant  slopes,  farmhouses  stand  in  the  midst  of  vineyards  and  pointed  cj'presses, 
and  every  cultivable  spot  is  made  to  yield  a  rich  harvest.  Historical  associations, 
the  taste  of  its  inhabitants,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  an  abundance  of  running  water, 
and  the  sweetness  of  the  climate  all  combine  in  making  Central  Tuscany  one 
of  the  most  privileged  regions  of  Italy.  Protected  by  the  rampart  of  the  Apen- 
nines against  cold  northerly  winds,  this  region  faces  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  whence 
blow  warm  and  humid  winds  of  tropical  origin.     The  rains  they  bring  are  not 

Fig.  82. — The  Golfolino  of  the  Akso,  neau  Signa. 


excessive,  thanks  to  the  screen  formed  by  the  mountains  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
and  the  happy  disposition  of  the  detached  hills  near  the  coast.  The  climate  of 
Tuscany  is  essentially  temperate,  and  to  its  equability,  no  less  than  to  the  natural 
beauty  of  their  abode,  the  Tuscans  owe,  no  doubt,  much  of  their  gaiety,  their  good- 
nature, fine  taste,  poetical  feeling,  and  facile  imagination. 

The  valley  of  the  Amo  completely  separates  the  hills  of  .Southern  Tuscany, 
usually  known  as  the  "  Sub- Apennines,"  from  the  principal  chain  of  the  mountains. 
This  valley,  with  its  defiles  and  ancient  lake  basins,  may  be  likened  to  a  moat 


TUSCANY. 


241 


bounding  the  wall  of  the  Apennines.  The  vale  of  Chiana,  originally  an  arm  of  the 
sea,  and  then  a  lake,  forms  the  uppermost  portion  of  the  zone  which  separates  the 
Apennines  from  the  hills  of  Southern  Tuscany.  Then  follows  the  Campagna  of 
Florence,  an  ancient  lake  basin,  which  it  would  be  easy  to  flood  again  by  building 
a  dam  across  the  defile  of  the  Goifolina,  through  which  the  river  makes  its  escape, 
and  which  was  rent  asunder  by  the  "  Egyptian  Hercules."  Castruccio,  the  famous 
commander  of  the  Luccans,  actually  proposed  to  flood  the  plains  of  Florence  in  the 
fourteenth  century  by  constructing  a  dam  across  this  defile;  but  happily  his 
engineers  pronounced  the  scheme  to  be  impracticable,  for  they  supposed  the 
difl'erence  of  level  to  amount  to  288  feet,  whilst  in  reality  it  is  only  fifty. 

The  Sub-Apenniue  hiUs  to  the  south  of  the  Arno  are  of  rounded  contours,  of  a 
gloomy  grey  colour,  and  devoid  of  all  verdure.  Whilst  the  Apennines  consist  exclu- 
sively of  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  rocks,  the  Sub-Apennines  are  of  tertiary  formation, 
their  sandstones,  clays,  marls,  and  pudding-stones  being  pierced  here  and  there  by 
serpentine.     Well-defined  ranges  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist.     Southern  Tuscany, 

Fig.  83. — Defiles  op  the  Akno. 
From  the  Austrian  Staff  Map.     Scale  1  ;  285,000. 


'  -^d... 

■^ 

-' 

lis- 

•  lliles. 


indeed,  may  be  described  as  a  table-land  intersected  by  rivers  in  all  directions,  sur- 
mounted by  irregular  groups  of  hills,  and  pierced  by  "  sinks,"  which  swallow  up 
some  of  the  rivers.  The  cavities  of  the  IngoUa  form  one  of  these  sinks,  in  which 
several  rivulets  lose  themselves,  to  reappear  lower  down  as  the  source  of  the  Elsa 
Viva,  one  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Arno.  The  most  elevated  hills  of  this 
Sub-Apennine  region  form  the  water-parting  between  the  Arno,  the  Cecina,  and  the 
Ombrone,  and  in  the  Poggio  di  Montieri,  a  mountain  abounding  in  copper,  they 
attain  an  elevation  of  3,323  feet.  The  Labbro  (3,815  feet),  Cetona  (3,650  feet),  and 
Monte  Amiata  (5,450  feet),  to  the  south  of  the  Ombrone  valley,  rise  to  a  greater 
height,  but  geologically  thej-  belong  already  to  Central  Italy.  The  Cetona  is  a 
Jurassic  outlier  surrounded  by  recent  formations.  Monte  Amiata,  a  trachytic  cone, 
is  the  most  elevated  volcano  of  continental  Italy.  It  no  longer  vomits  lava,  but 
numerous  hot  springs  and  solfataras  prove  that  the  volcanic  forces  are  not  yet  quite 
extinct.  The  Radicofani  (2,950  feet)  is  likewise  an  extinct  volcano,  whose  lava 
resembles  petrified  froth,  and  can  be  cut  with  a  hatchet. 

Subterranean  agencies  must  indeed  be  very  active  in  Tuscany,  for  metalliferous 


242  ITALY. 

veins  ramify  in  all  directions,  and  the  number  of  mineral  springs  of  every  descrip- 
tion is  larger  than  in  any  other  part  of  Italy.  Amongst  these  springs  there  are 
several  of  world-wide  reputation,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  Monte  Catini,  of  San 
Giuliano,  and  of  the  IJagni  di  liucca.  The  brine  springs  of  Tuscany  are  very 
productive  ;  but  the  most  curious,  and  at  the  same  time  most  useful,  springs  of  all 
are  the  famous  layoiii,  in  a  side  valley  of  the  Cecina,  and  at  the  northern  foot  of  the 
Poggio  di  Montieri.  From  a  distance  dense  clouds  of  white  vapour  are  seen  roll- 
ing over  the  plain,  and  the  bubbling  noise  made  by  gases  escaping  througli  the 
ponds,  or  lagotii,  is  heard.  These  ponds  contain  various  salts,  silica,  and  boracic 
acid,  which  is  of  great  value  in  the  manufacture  of  china  and  glass,  and  yields  a 
considerable  revenue  to  Tuscany.  Nowhere  else  in  Europe,  except,  perhaps,  in 
the  crater  of  the  Eolian  Vulcano,  is  boracic  acid  met  with  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  repay  the  labour  of  extracting  it.  In  Tuscany,  however,  there  are  several  other 
localities  where  it  might  be  won  with  advantage,  as,  for  instance,  near  Massa 
Maritima,  to  the  south  of  the  Montieri. 

The  subterranean  fermentation  of  which  Tuscany  is  the  scene  is  no  doubt  due 
in  a  large  measure  to  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  relative  ^jropor- 
tions  of  land  and  sea.  Several  isolated  hills  rise  near  the  coast  like  islands  from 
the  sea,  and  these  have  evidently  been  joined  to  the  mainland  by  the  alluvial 
deposits  brought  down  by  the  rivers.  The  Monti  Serra  (3,000  feet),  to  the  east  of 
Pisa,  between  the  Arno  and  the  Serchio,  are  almost  insulated  even  now,  for  they 
are  surrounded  by  swamps,  and  the  level  of  the  Lake  of  Bicntina,  at  their  eastern 
foot,  is  scarcely  thirty  feet  above  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  heights  along 
the  coast  to  the  south  of  Leghorn  are  not  quite  so  isolated,  but  the  lowland  which 
connects  them  with  the  table-land  of  the  interior  is  only  of  small  elevation.  The 
promontory,  however,  whose  extremities  are  occupied  by  the  towns  of  Populonia 
and  Piombiuo  (653  feet),  is  joined  to  the  mainland  only  by  a  low  plain  of  sand. 
The  most  perfect  type  of  these  ancient  islands  is  presented  to  us  in  the  superb 
Monte  Argeiitaro,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Tuscan  littoral,  which  rises 
boldly  from  the  sea  to  a  height  of  2,085  feet,  and  is  attached  to  the  mainland  by 
two  narrow  strips  of  land  covered  with  pine-trees,  enclosing  a  lake  of  regular 
shape  :  in  the  midst  of  it,  on  a  fragment  of  the  ancient  beach,  is  built 
the  town  of  Orbctcllo.  This  lake,  which  looks  almost  as  if  it  were  the  work 
of  a  generation  of  giants,  has  been  converted  into  an  eel-pond,  and  millions  offish 
are  caught  in  it  every  year.  Towards  the  west  of  this  mountain,  in  the  direction 
of  Corsica,  lie  the  islands  of  Giglio  and  Monte  Cristo  (2,062  feet)  and  the  rock 
of  Formica.     The  island  of  Elba,  farther  north,  forms  a  small  world  of  its  own. 

The  rivers  of  Tuscany  have  wrought  great  changes  in  the  plains  through  which 
they  flow,  and  along  the  sea-coast.  Their  labour  has  been  facilitated  by  the  nature 
of  the  soil  which  they  traverse.  The  least  rain  converts  the  barren  hill-slopes 
into  a  semi-fluid  paste,  which  is  carried  by  the  rivers  down  to  the  sea.  The 
mouth  of  the  Arno  has  thus  been  pushed  forward  to  the  extent  of  seven  miles  in 
the  course  of  a  few  centuries.  In  former  times  the  Serchio  and  the  Arno  united 
before  they  flowed  into  the  sea,  but  the  Pisans  diverted  the  former  river  to  the 


TUSCANY. 


243 


north,  in  order  to  rid  themselves  of  its  unwelcome  deposits.  Pisa,  in  the  time  of 
Strabo,  stood  at  a  distance  of  only  twenty  Olympian  stadia  from  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea,  and  when  the  cascina  of  San  Rossore  was  built,  towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
century,  its  walls  were  close  to  the  beach,  which  is  now  at  a  distance  of  three 
miles.  Extensive  plains  intersected  by  dunes,  or  tomhoU,  and  partly  covered  with 
forests  of  pines,  have  been  added  to  the  land  in  the  course  of  centuries.  These 
sandy  wastes  have  become  the  home  of  large  herds  of  horses  and  half-wild  cattle, 
and  the  camel  has  been  acclimatised  there,  it  is  said,  since  the  Crusades.     These 


Fig.  84. — Monte  Akoentaro. 
From  the  French  Chart.    Scale  1  :  168,000. 


Duflhs 


27 -« 


ovorJJ /'(atfwvn*. 


.  2  Miles. 


changes  in  the  coast-line  may  not,  however,  be  due  exclusively  to  the  agency  of 
the  rivers,  for  there  exists  evidence  of  an  upheaval  of  the  land.  The  building 
stone  known  at  Leghorn  as  panchina  is  clearly  of  marine  origin,  and  the  shells 
which  enter  into  its  compo.sition  are  still  met  with  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea. 

Amongst  the  changes  effected  by  human  agency  in  the  ba.sin  of  the  Arno 
those  referring  to  the  Val  di  Chiana  are,  perhaps,  the  most  important.  This 
depression  connects  the  basins  of  the  Arno  and  Tiber,  and  may  possibly  have  served 
as  an  outlet  to  the  former  river  before  it  had  opened  itself  a  way  through   the 


244 


ITALY. 


gorge  below  Florence.  Formerly  the  water-parting  between  the  two  rivers  was 
close  to  the  Arno.  A  small  portion  of  its  drainage  was  carried  to  the  Tuscan 
river,  but  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  vale  was  occupied  by  stagnant  pools, 


Fig.  85. — Val  ui  C'uiana. 
From  the  Austrian  Staff  Map.    Scale  1  :  213,000. 


ii°|So- 


extending  to  the  south  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  Montepulciano,  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles.  The  whole  of  this  region  was  a  breeding-place  of  fever.  Dante  and  other 
Italian  writers  speak  of  it  as  an  accursed  place.  The  inhabitants  made  vain 
attempts  at  drainage.      The  illustrious  Galileo,  when  consulted  on  the  subject, 


TUSCANY. 


245 


declared  that  nothing  could  be  done  to  mend  this  evil ;  and  though  Torricelli 
conceived  that  it  would  be  possible  to  drain  the  valley,  he  took  no  steps  to  put  his 
theories  into  practice. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centurj^  the  work  of  drainage  was  at 
length  seriously  taken  in  hand,  directed  by  Fossombroni,  the  celebrated  engineer. 
"Warps,"  or  colmate,  were  thrown  up  at  the  outlet  of  each  lateral  ravine  between 
which  the  debris  carried  down  from  the  flanks  of  the  mountains  was  deposited. 
The  swamps  gradually  filled  up,  and  the  soil  became  firm.  By  constructing 
a  dam  (argine)  across  the  vale  at  the  point  chosen  for  the  new  water-parting, 
an  outfall  was  created,  and  a  line  of  stagnant  swamps  was  thus  converted  into 
a  pure  rivulet.     The  valley,  at  one  time  a  hotbed  of  fever,  has  now  become  one  of 

Fig.  86. — The  Lake  of  Biextika. 

From  the  Austrian  Staff  Map.    Scale  1  :  328,000. 


the  most  salubrious  districts  of  Italy.  The  newly  won  lands  were  at  once  taken 
possession  of  by  agricidturists,  and  500  square  miles  were  thus  added  to  the  pro- 
ductive area  of  Tuscany.  Villages,  formerly  inhabited  by  fever-stricken  wretches, 
have  become  wealthy  towns,  and  the  success  of  this  honificatiun,  or  reclama- 
tion, has  been  thorough.  The  torrents  are  under  control  now,  and  have  already 
deposited  17,650  million  cubic  feet  of  alluvium  over  an  area  of  50,000  acres,  as  if 
they  were  intelligent  workmen.  The  same  system  of  drainage  has  been  success- 
fully applied  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  particularly  near  Grosseto,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ombrone. 

Amongst  the  great  drainage  works  which  will  evermore  contribute  to  the  glory 
of  Tuscan  engineers,  the  innumerable  canals  di-aining  the  plains  of  Fucecchio, 

18 


246  ITALY. 

Pontedera,  Pisa,  Lucca,  Leghorn,  and  Viareggio,  each  of  which  was  formerly 
occupied  by  its  hike,  deserve  to  be  noticed.  One  of  the  most  difficult  of  these 
lakes  is  that  of  Bientina,  or  Sesto,  to  the  east  of  the  Pisan  hills,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  formed  by  an  overflow  of  the  Serchio.  In  former  times  this  lake  had 
two  effluents,  one  running  north  to  the  Serchio,  the  other  south  to  the  Arno.  The 
outfall  left  nothing  to  bo  desired  in  ordinary  times,  but  after  heavy  rains  the  two 
eiflucnts  were  converted  into  inflowing  rivers,  and  if  the  sluices  had  not  been 
closed,  the  Arno  and  the  Serchio  would  have  rejoined  each  other  in  this  inland  sea. 
The  Bientina,  during  such  freshets,  covered  six  times  its  ordinary  area,  and  in 
order  to  save  the  fertile  fields  of  Tuscany  it  became  absolutely  necessary  to  create 
a  third  effluent.  The  engineers  conceived  the  happy  idea  of  conveying  this  new 
effluent  through  a  tunnel,  passing  beneath  the  Arno,  three  feet  in  width,  into  an 
ancient  bed  of  that  river,  now  supplanted  by  the  Colombrone. 

In  most  of  these  enterprises  it  was  necessary  to  struggle  on  in  spite  of  the 
miasmatic  atmosphere,  which  hung  more  particularly  over  the  littoral  zone, 
where  the  fresh  inland  water  mingles  with  the  salt  water  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  blending  of  the  two  waters  destroyed  the  fresh-water  plants  and  animals,  and 
the  deleterious  gases  arising  from  their  decomposition  poisoned  the  atmosphere. 
About  the  middle  of  last  century  an  engineer,  Zeudrini,  proposed  to  construct 
sluices  separating  the  fresh  from  the  salt  water.  This  was  done,  and  the  fevers  at 
once  disappeared.  In  17(58,  the  sluices  having  been  allowed  to  fall  out  of  repair, 
the  miasmatic  scourge  immcdiatcl}'-  reappeared,  and  it  was  not  until  they  had 
been  repaired  that  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  villages  along  the  coast  was 
improved.  Twice  since  neglect  to  keep  the  sluices  in  a  proper  condition  has 
been  punished  with  the  same  results  ;  but  from  1821  the)'  have  been  maintained 
in  thorough  order,  and  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  country  has  ever  since  been 
most  satisfactory.  Viareggio,  in  the  centre  of  this  malarial  district,  was  up  to 
1740  hardly  more  than  a  hamlet,  avoided  on  account  of  its  insalubrity,  but  is  now 
a  seaside  town,  the  favourite  resort  of  numbers  of  visitors. 

Much  has  been  done,  no  doubt,  in  draining  the  land,  but  there  is  still  room 
for  many  improvements.  The  Marcmma,  a  track  between  Piombino  and  Orbetello, 
remains  one  of  the  most  insalubrious  regions  of  Europe,  in  spite  of  what  has  been 
done  by  sanitary  engineers.  The  inhabitants  never  reach  a  high  age,  and 
though  they  descend  to  the  plain  only  when  it  is  absolutely  required  for  culti- 
vating their  fields,  they  frequentlj'  carry  away  with  them  the  germs  of  disease. 
In  the  two  summers  of  1840  and  1841  no  less  than  36,000  persons  suffered  from 
fever  amongst  a  total  population  of  80,000  souls,  most  of  whom  reside  in  villages 
built  on  hills,  and  only  rarely  visit  the  pestilential  plain.  In  order  to  escape  the 
pernicious  influence  of  the  poisonous  air,  it  is  necessary  to  reside  constantly  at  an 
elevation  of  325  feet  above  the  sea,  and  even  that  does  not  alwaj-s  suffice,  for 
the  episcopal  city  of  Sovana  is  notoriously  unhealthy,  though  built  at  that 
height.  Fevers  occur  frequently  at  a  distance  from  the  swamps,  and  Salvagnoli 
Marchetti  is  of  opinion  that  they  are  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  malaria 
is  said  to  creep  up  clayey  hills  permeated  by  empyreumatic  substances  ;  it  likewise 


TUSCANY. 


247 


poisons  tlie  air  of  districts  abounding  in  saline  springs,  and  still  more  that  near 
deposits  of  alum.  Southerly  winds  are  likesvise  most  pernicious,  and  fevers 
rise  highest  in  the  valleys  which  are  exposed  to  them.  Places,  on  the  other 
hand,  which  are  fully  open  to  the  sea  breeze  are  quite  free  from  malaria,  even 
if  swamps  are  near,  as  at  Orbetello  and  Piombino. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  coasts  of  Etruria  did  not  suffer  from  malaria 
whilst  the  ancient   Tyrrhenian   cities  were  prosperous.     The   excavations    made 


Fig.  87. — The  Malarial  Regions. 
From  the  Austrian  Staff  Map.    Scale  1  :  2,700,000. 


Most  affected. 


Bendered  salubrious. 


recently  in  connection  with  the  railways  have  revealed  a  complete  system  of 
subterranean  canals,  which  formerly  drained  the  whole  of  the  Maremmas. 
Populonia  and  other  large  cities,  of  which  only  a  few  ruins  are  found  now,  could 
certainly  not  have  existed  if  the  climate  had  been  as  unhealthy  as  at  present. 
The  ancient  Etruscans  were  famous  as  hydraulic  engineers.  They  embanked 
torrents,  drained  swamps,  and  rendered  the  country  cultivable,  but  their  engineering 
works  were  allowed  to  decay  soon  after  they  had  been  subjected,  and  the  country 
returned  to  its  primitive  savageness.     On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  towns 


248  ITALY. 

which  were  considered  healthy  durinj^  the  Jliddlc  Ages,  but  are  now  desohitcd  by 
fever.  Massa  Maritima,  to  the  south-west  of  the  Moutieri  mouutuiu,  was  rich 
and  populous  as  long  as  it  maintained  its  republican  liberties ;  but  no  sooner  had 
it  been  enslaved  by  Pisans  and  Sienese  than  its  drainage  works  were  allowed  to 
fall  into  decay,  and  in  the  end  it  found  itself  reduced  to  the  "  shadow  of  a  town." 
Sanitary  works  carried  out  recently  have  brought  back  some  of  its  ancient  pros- 
perity. 

Amongst  the  causes  which  have  contributed  most  materially  towards  a 
deterioration  of  the  climate  may  be  mentioned  the  destruction  of  the  mountain 
forests  and  the  rapid  increase  of  alluvial  lands  resulting  from  it.  The  monasteries 
of  Tu.scany,  which  until  quite  recently  were  the  owners  of  the  lish-ponds  in  the 
Maremmas,  energetically  protested  againt  the  construction  of  embankments  or 
other  drainage  works,  which  they  conceived  would  interfere  with  their  cherished 
Lenten  food.  Several  of  the  inland  towns  rejoiced  in  the  possession  of  some 
unhealthy  swampy  tract,  to  which  obnoxious  persons  might  be  banished  with  a 
certainty  of  their  dying.  Even  the  Kings  of  Spain  established  a  penal  establish- 
ment at  one  of  the  most  deadly  spots  on  this  coast,  and  banishment  to  Talamone, 
at  one  time  a  flourishing  port  of  the  Republic  of  Siena,  was  tantamount  to  a 
sentence  of  death. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  reclaim  these  lands.  Macchiavelli  and  other 
statesmen  of  Tuscany  thought  that  the  former  salubrity  of  the  climate  could  be 
restored  by  merely  repeopling  the  country.  Colonists  were  sent  for  from  other 
parts  of  Italy,  and  even  from  Greece  and  Germany,  but  they  soon  succumbed  to 
the  climate.  Since  that  time  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  rendering 
these  mar.shy  districts  more  salubrious.  Trees  have  been  planted,  and,  in  com- 
bination with  proper  drainage,  they  have  rendered  many  districts  habitable  which 
were  not  so  former^.  I'opulonia  is  a  case  in  point.  FoUonica,  where  there  are 
furnaces  in  which  the  iron  ores  of  Elba  are  smelted,  is  likewise  looking  up, 
though  its  inhabitants  still  fly  the  place  on  the  approach  of  the  fever  season. 

The  Etruscans,  or  Tyrrhenians,  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Tuscans,  and  long 
before  tlie  dominion  of  the  Romans  they  were  tlic  preponderating  race  of  all 
Italy.  They  occupied  not  only  the  whole  of  the  southern  slope  of  the  Apennines 
as  far  as  the  Tiber,  but  had  also  founded  a  confederation  of  twelve  towns  in  the 
Campagna,  of  which  Capua  was  the  head,  and  as  traders  and  pirates  they  held 
possession  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  still  named  after  them.  The  island  of  Capri 
was  one  of  their  most  advanced  outposts  towards  the  south.  The  Adriatic  was 
likewise  'their  own,  for  Adria,  Bologna  (called  Fclsina  by  them),  Ravenna,  and 
Mantua  were  Etruscan  colonies,  and  the  Rhtctians  in  the  AljDine  valleys  were  their 
allies,  and  perhaps  kinsmen.  But  who  were  the  Etruscans?  They  have  been 
classed  with  Aryans,  Ugrians,  and  Semites;  with  Greeks,  Germans,  Scythians, 
Egyptians,  and  Turks.  The  Etruscan  inscriptions  on  ancient  monuments,  though 
very  legible,  have  not  hitherto  been  deciphered  satisfactorily.  If  Corssen's  inter- 
pretation   is    accepted,   their  language    resembled  the   Latin   tongues ;    but   this 


TUSCANY.  249 

philologist,  after  all,  may  not  be  entitled  to  be  called  the  "  (Edipus  of  the 
Etruscan  sphinx." 

The  most  common  type  of  the  Etruscans,  as  transmitted  to  us  on  cinerary 
vases,  is  that  of  squat  men,  often  inclining  to  obesity,  with  broad  shoulders,  pro- 
minent face,  curved  noses,  broad  retreating  forehead,  dark  complexion,  dolicho- 
cephalous  skull,  and  curly  hair.  This  type  is  neither  Hellenic  nor  Italian. 
Amongst  their  monuments  there  are  none  of  those  curious  structures  known  as 
nuraghi,  which  abound  in  Malta,  Sardinia,  and  Pantellaria,  but  dolmens  are 
numerous.  The  sepulchral  monuments,  of  which  many  thousands  have  already 
been  brought  to  light,  prove  that  the  arts  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  develop- 
ment in  ancient  Etruria.  The  paintings  in  the  interior  of  the  vaults,  the  bas-reliefs 
on  the  sarcophagi,  the  vases,  candelabra,  pottery,  and  bronzes,  resemble  similar 
work  produced  by  the  genius  of  Greek  artists.  The  arrangement  of  their  dwelling- 
houses,  though  not  devoid  of  originality,  proves  the  intimate  connection  existing 
between  the  civilisations  of  the  Etruscans  and  early  Greeks.  It  was  the  Etruscans 
who  initiated  Rome  into  the  arts.  The  Cloaca  Maxima,  the  most  ancient  monument 
of  the  Eternal  City,  the  wall  named  after  Servius  TuUius,  the  Mamertine  prison, 
and,  in  fact,  all  the  remains  of  the  Eome  of  the  kings,  were  their  work.  It  was 
they  who  erected  the  temples,  supplied  the  statues  to  deities,  built  the  dwelling- 
houses,  and  furnished  them  with  articles  of  ornament.  Even  the  she-wolf  of 
bronze,  now  in  the  Capitoline  Museum,  and  a  symbol  of  the  Roman  people,  appears 
to  be  of  Etruscan  workmanship. 

The  Tuscans  of  our  day  differ,  however,  in  many  respects  from  their  Etruscan 
ancestors.  These  latter,  to  judge  from  the  paintings  in  their  sepulchral  cities, 
were  an  austere  race.  They  appear,  likewise,  to  have  been  a  nation  of  cooks  and 
gluttons.  Neither  of  these  qualities  can  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  their  descend- 
ants. The  modern  Tuscan  is  of  an  amiable  and  kindly  disposition,  he  is  pos- 
sessed of  wit  and  artistic  tastes,  easy  to  move,  and  altogether  perhaps  a  trifle  too 
pliant  of  character.  The  Tuscans  of  the  plain,  but  not  those  of  the  Maremmas, 
are  the  most  gentle  of  Italians  ;  they  "  live  and  let  live,"  and  are  exceedingly 
good-natured.  A  singular  trait  distinguishes  them  from  the  rest  of  the  Italians  : 
though  brave  when  carried  away  by  passion,  they  turn  with  horror  from  a  dead 
body.  In  this  we  may  trace  the  persistence  of  ancient  superstitions,  for  though 
the  Tyrrhenians  concealed  their  tombs,  the  worshij)  of  the  dead  was  the  most 
prominent  of  their  religious  observances. 

The  modern  Tuscans,  like  their  ancestors,  have  known  a  time  when  they  took 
the  lead  amongst  the  people  of  Italy,  and  even  now  they  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
nation  in  certain  respects.  After  the  decadence  of  Rome,  when  civilisation 
gravitated  towards  the  north,  the  valley  of  the  Arno  became  one  of  the  great 
centres  of  the  world's  activity.  At  that  time  the  passage  of  the  Alps  was  still 
difficult,  but  communications  bj'  sea  were  established  between  Tuscany,  France, 
and  Spain.  The  Apennines  not  onlv  sheltered  the  fertile  valleys  opening  upon 
the  Tj-rrhenian  against  cold  northerly  winds,  but  also  against  the  hordes  of 
barbarian  invaders.      Tuscany  was,  indeed,  a  favoured  region,  and  its  intelligent 


250  ITALY. 

inhabitants  made  the  most  of  the  natural  advantages  they  possessed.  "  Work  " 
was  the  great  law  of  the  Florentines,  and  all,  without  exception,  were  expected  to 
engage  in  it.  Whilst  Pisa  disputed  the  dominion  of  the  sea  with  Genoa  and 
Venice,  Florence  became  the  head-quarters  of  commerce,  and  its  bankers  extended 
their  operations  to  every  part  of  Europe. 

Eut  Tuscany  was  more  than  a  commercial  and  industrial  country.  What 
Athens  had  been  to  the  world  two  thousand  years  ago,  republican  Florence 
became  during  its  period  of  prosperity,  and  for  the  second  time  in  the  history  of 
mankind  there  arose  one  of  those  centres  of  light  the  reflected  rays  from  which  still 
illuminate  our  own  times.  Arts,  letters,  sciences,  and  political  economy — every- 
thing, in  fact,  that  is  noble  in  this  world  was  cultivated  with  an  energy  to 
which  nations  had  been  strangers  for  a  long  time.  The  pliant  genius  of  the 
Tuscans  revelled  in  every  species  of  work,  and  amongst  the  names  great  in 
history  Florence  may  fairly  claim  some  of  the  greatest.  Where  are  the  men  that 
have  exercised  a  greater  influence  in  the  world  of  art  and  intellect  than  Giotto, 
Orgagna,  Masaccio,  Michael  Angelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
Brunelleschi,  Savonarola,  Galileo,  or  Macchiavelli  ?  It  was  a  Florentine,  too, 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  New  World,  and  justly  so,  for  it 
was  Vespucci  through  whom  the  discoveries  made  by  the  Spaniards  first  became 
known,  and  who,  in  1501,  bestowed  the  name  of  Novus  Miindus  upon  the  newly 
discovered  countries,  whilst  Columbus  died  in  the  belief  that  he  had  reached  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia. 

The  dialect  of  Florence  has  become  the  polished  language  of  the  whole  of 
Italy,  and  it  is  curious  that  this  honour  should  not  have  been  carried  off  by  Rome. 
But  whilst  Florence  cultivated  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  through  her  great  writers 
exercised  an  immense  influence,  the  city  of  the  popes  yielded  herself  up  to  the 
worship  of  the  past,  and  its  literature  was  written  in  a  dead  language,  more  or  less 
successfully  imitated  from  that  of  Cicero.  The  dialect  of  Rome  never  became  a 
language  like  that  of  Florence,  but  Italian  is  nevertheless  indebted  to  Rome  for 
its  musical  pronunciation,  that  of  the  Tuscans  being  harsh  and  guttural.  Hence 
the  old  proverb,  "  Lingua  Toscana  in  bocca  Romana."  The  delicate,  pure  poetry 
breathed  in  the  ritornelli  which  Tuscan  peasants  chant  in  the  evening  is  highly 
appreciated  bj'  all  admirers  of  Italian,  and  the  influence  which  the  fine  dialect  of 
the  Florentines  exercised  upon  the  unification  of  Italy  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. The  worshippers  of  Dante  are  almost  justified  in  saying  that  Italian 
unity  dates  from  the  day  on  which  the  great  poet  first  expressed  himself  in  the 
firm  and  sonorous  language  which  he  had  forged  out  of  the  various  dialects  spoken 
throughout  the  peninsula. 

The  geographical  position  of  Tuscany  accounts  for  the  influence  it  has  exer- 
cised upon  Italy  and  the  rest  of  the  world,  whilst  its  topography  gives  us  the  key 
to  the  local  historj'  of  the  country.  The  Apennines  and  the  mountains  to  the 
south  of  the  Arno  divide  it  into  a  number  of  separate  basins,  each  of  which  gave 
birth  to  a  small  state  or  republic.     At  the  time  of  the  Tyrrhenians  Etruria  formed 


TUSCANY.  251 

a  confederation  of  cities,  whilst  during  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  divided  into 
numerous  small  republics,  frequently  at  war  with  "each  other.  Since  that  time 
many  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  towns, 
but  even  now  most  of  the  free  cities  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  some  founded 
by  the  ancient  Etruscans,  occupy  a  high  rank  amongst  the  provincial  towns  of 

Italy. 

Florence  (Firenze)  is  not  one  of  these  ancient  cities  of  the  Tyrrhenians ;  it  is 
merely  a  Roman  colony  of  comparatively  modern  origin.  In  the  time  of  the 
Empire  it  was  of  small  importance,  for  Fiesole,  on  a  hill  to  the  north,  remained 
the  leading  town  of  the  country  until  destroyed  by  the  Florentines,  who  carried 
its  columns  and  statues  to  their  own  town.  The  rapid  growth  of  Florence  during 
the  Middle  Ages  is  due  to  its  position  on  the  highway  which  connects  Germany, 
Lombardy,  and  even  Bologna  with  Southern  Italy.  As  long  as  Rome  was  the 
capital  of  Italy  travellers  starting  from  the  valley  of  the  Tiber  crossed  the  Apen- 
nines in  the  direction  of  Ancona  and  Ariminum.  But  after  the  fall  of  Rome, 
when  barbarian  hordes  inundated  the  country  from  the  north,  the  high-roads 
connecting  the  plains  of  Lombardy  with  the  valley  of  the  Arno  rose  into  impor- 
tance. This  great  military  highway  became  simultaneously  a  high-road  of  com- 
merce, and  it  was  only  natural  that  a  great  emporium  should  spring  up  on  the 
site  occupied  by  Florence.  The  "city  of  flowers"  prospered,  and  became  the 
marvel  which  we  still  admire.  But  the  wealth  of  the  growing  commonwealth 
proved  its  destruction.  The  rich  bankers  grasj^ed  at  political  power,  the  Medici 
assumed  the  title  of  princes,  and  though  the  arts  continued  to  flourish  for 
awhile,  public  virtues  decayed,  the  citizens  became  subjects,  and  intellectual  life 
ceased. 

Florence,  as  in  the  days  of  republican  liberty,  owes  much  of  its  wealth  to  the 
industr}'  of  its  inhabitants.  There  are  manufactories  of  silks  and  woollen  goods, 
of  straw  hats,  mosaics,  china,  cut  stones  (pierra  dura),  and  other  objects,  all  of 
them  requiring  workmen  possessed  of  taste  and  manual  dexterity.  But  neither 
these  industries  nor  the  commerce  carried  on  by  the  town  would  have  raised 
Florence  above  the  level  of  other  populous  Italian  cities.  The  prominent  position 
it  holds  is  due  entirely  to  the  beauty  of  its  monuments,  which  attract  to  it  the 
lovers  of  art  from  every  quarter  of  the  world.  Not  even  Venice  is  equalU^  rich  in 
architectural  masterpieces  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance.  The  museums 
of  Florence  "  la  Bella" — such  as  the  Uffizi,  the  Pitti  Galleries,  and  the  Academy 
of  Arts — are  amongst  the  richest  in  Europe,  and  contain  some  of  the  most 
highly  prized  treasures  of  art ;  its  libraries  abound  in  curious  manuscripts  and  rare 
old  books.  Nay,  the  very  streets  and  piazzas  of  the  town,  with  their  palaces, 
towers,  churches,  and  statues,  may  be  likened  to  a  huge  museum.  Brunelleschi's 
Duomo  ;  Giotto's  Campanilla,  which  was  to  "  surpass  in  beauty  all  imagination  can 
conceive  ;  "  the  Baptistery,  with  its  incomparable  doors  of  brass  ;  the  Piazza  della 
Signoria ;  the  monastery  of  San  Marco,  now  a  museum  ;  the  gloomy  palace  of  the 
Strozzi ;  and  numerous  other  buildings  of  superior  merit  make  Florence  the 
delightful  place  it  is.     Its  charms  are  enhanced  by  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding 


252 


ITALY. 


country,  and  the  traveller  will  always  recall  witli  pleasure  the  walks  along  the 
Arno,  the  hills  of  S.in  Miniato  and  Belle  Sguardo,  and  the  picturesque  spur  upon 
whicli  lie  the  villas  and  ruins  of  Etruscan  Fiesole.  Unfortunately  the  climate  of 
Florence  leaves  much  to  be  desired ;  the  wind  changes  abruptlj',  and  the  heat  in 
summer  is  overpowering.  II  caldo  di  Firenze  has  become  proverbial  throughout 
Italy.  Narrow  .streets,  and  to  some  extent  the  disregard  of  the  laws  of  hygiene, 
cause  the  mortality  to  exceed  that  of  nearly  every  other  town  on  the  Continent. 

Ficr.  88. — Floiience  :   the  Dcoho  and  Palazzo  Vecchio. 


During  the  Middle  Ages  pestilence  was  a  frequent  visitor,  and  Boccaccio  tolls  us 
that  in  a  single  season  nearly  100,000  inhabitants,  or  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
population,  were  swept  away  by  it.  Targioni  Tozetti  contrasts  the  site  of 
Empoli,  a  small  town  to  the  west,  with  that  of  Florence,  and  regrets  that  a 
project  for  removing  Florence  thither  should  not  have  been  carried  out,  as  proposed 
in  1260. 

The  only  town  of  any  importance  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Arno  is  Arczzo, 
an  ancient  city  of  the  Etruscans,  and  at  one  time  the  capital  of  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  republics  of  the  Middle  Ages.     The  inhabitants  ascribe  to  the  "  subtile 


TUSCANY.  253 

air  they  breathe  the  subtility  of  their  spirits,"  and  indeed  the  list  of  famous  men 
connected  with  the  town  is  very  long.  The  present  Arezzo,  however,  is  a  decayed 
place,  and  lives  upon  the  memories  and  the  monuments  of  a  past  age.  Cortona, 
farther  south,  near  the  Lake  of  Trasimeno,  claims  to  be  the  most  ancient  city  of 
Italy  ;  but  all  traces  of  its  former  greatness  have  disappeared.  Siena,  which 
formerly  governed  the  whole  of  the  hilly  tract  between  the  Arno  and  Ombrone, 
has  fallen  from  her  high  estate,  not  without  the  iaxdt  of  its  own  citizens,  who  were 
continually  quarrelling  amongst  themselves.  Siena  no  longer  rivals  Florence  in 
population,  power,  or  industry,  but  may  still  compare  with  the  city  on  the  Arno 
as  regards  its  public  buildings — -many  of  them  in  the  Gothic  style — its  works  of 
art,  its  quaint  streets  and  piazzas,  and  its  magnificent  position  on  the  slopes  of 
three  hills.  Chiusa,  one  of  the  most  powerful  towns  of  ancient  Etruria,  is  of  no 
importance  now,  and  only  attracts  antiquarians  in  search  of  its  ancient  tombs. 
The  vineyards  of  Montepulciano,  on  the  same  side  of  the  vale  of  Chiani,  produce 
the  "king  of  wines."  Volterra  is  only  a  small  town  now,  interesting,  however, 
on  account  of  its  cyclopean  walls  and  a  museum  abounding  in  Etruscan  antiquities. 
The  environs  are  dreary  in  the  extreme.  Salt-works,  yielding  frohi  7,000  to  8,000 
tons  a  year,  quarries  of  alabaster,  copper  mines  at  Monte  Catini,  sulphur  springs, 
and  the  famous  lagoiii  di  Monti.  Cerbo/i  (see  p.  242),  are  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  cities  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Arno,  have 
retained  their  importance,  for  they  are  favourably  situated  for  commerce.  Prato, 
where  the  valley  of  the  Arno  is  widest,  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district. 
The  quarries  of  serpentine  in  the  neighbourhood  have  furnished  building  stones 
for  many  of  the  most  beautiful  edifices  of  Tuscany,  including  the  cathedral  of 
Prato,  celebrated  on  account  of  Donatello's  marvellously  scidptured  pulpit. 
Pistoja,  where  the  railway  descends  from  the  Apennines,  is  a  busj-  manufacturing 
town.  Other  towns  of  some  importance  are  Pescia,  Capannori,  in  the  "  garden  of 
Italy,"  and  Lucca  the  industrious,  ■«'ith  its  celebrated  pictures  by  Fra  Bartolommeo. 

The  basin  of  the  Serchio  is  of  incomparable  productiveness  since  its  marsh  lands 
have  been  brought  under  cultivation.  From  the  ramparts  of  Lucca  one  of  the 
most  charming  views  may  be  enjoved.  On  the  one  hand  we  have  the  towers  and 
cupolas  of  the  town,  on  the  other  fertile  fields  and  orchards,  with  white  houses 
peeping  through  the  verdure,  and  distant  hills  siirniounted  by  old  towers.  The 
impression  made  bv  this  view  is  one  of  perfect  peace.  In  a  coimtry  so  fertile  and 
beautiful,  it  would  seem,  the  people  ought  to  be  happy,  and,  if  enthusiastic  writers 
can  be  believed,  such  is  really  the  case,  and  the  peasants  of  Lucca  and  of  Lower 
Tuscany  in  general  enjoy  advantages  denied  to  their  class  elsewhere  in  Italy. 
They  are  farmers  for  the  most  part,  but  hold  their  land  by  long  leases,  and  their 
share  of  its  produce  is  regulated  by  ancient  custom.  The  land,  however,  does  not 
suffice  for  their  wants,  and  they  emigrate  in  thousands  in  search  of  work.  Many 
of  these  emigrants  work  as  grinders. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Upper  Serchio  valley,  known  as  the  Garfagnana,  are  as 
industrious  as  those  near  Lucca,  which  is  the  natural  outlet  for  its  produce.  The 
slopes  and  spurs  descending  from  the  Apennines  and  Apuanic  Alps  are  cultivated 


251  1T.VLY. 

in  terraces.  Castelnuovo,  the  chief  town  of  this  valley,  occupies  one  of  the 
most  delightful  spots  of  this  picturesque  district.  The  common  people  near  it  are 
said  to  speak  the  best  Italian,  superior  even  to  that  of  the  Sienese. 

The  valley  of  the  Magra  is  far  more  frequented  than  that  of  Garfagnana,  for 
the  high-road  from  Parma  to  the  Gulf  of  Spezia  leads  through  it.  In  its  upper 
portion,  in  the  heart  of  the  Apennines,  stands  the  small  town  of  Pontremoli.  Its 
inferior  portion,  known  as  the  Lunigiana,  from  the  ancient  city  of  Luni,  is  as 
beautiful  as  the  parallel  valley  of  the  Serchio.  At  Sazana  it  opens  upon  the 
sea,  and  to  the  south  of  that  charming  towTi,  where  the  Apuanic  Alps  approach 
close  to  the  sea,  leaving  only  a  narrow  passage  of  some  note  in  history,  are  situated 
the  towns  of  Carrara  and  Massa.  Carrara,  the  "  Quarry,"  has  replaced  Luni  as 
the  place  from  whence  the  white  marbles  so  highly  esteemed  by  sculptors  are 
exported,  and  choice  blocks  of  which  sometimes  fetch  £80  a  cubic  yard.  No  less 
than  7:20  quarries  perforate  the  neighbouring  hills,  and  about  300  of  these  are 
being  worked  now.  The  town  may  be  likened  to  an  agglomeration  of  sculptors' 
studios,  and  its  Academy  has  trained  artists  of  high  reputation.  Massa  enjoys 
abetter  climate' than  Carrara,  but  its  marbles  are  less  highly  esteemed.  As  to 
the  marbles  of  Serravezzu,  which  are  quarried  in  the  Altissimo  and  other  moun- 
tains of  the  Apuanic  Alps  near  the  town  of  Pietra  Santa,  they  are  in  many 
instances  as  beautiful  as  those  of  Carrara.  Michael  Augelo  highly  appreciated 
them,  and  had  a  road  constructed  to  facilitate  access  to  them.  The  quarries  and 
mines  in  the  neighbourhood  also  yield  slates,  iron,  lead,  and  silver.* 

These  towns  at  the  foot  of  the  Apuanic  Alps  were  bound  to  prosper  in  pro- 
portion as  the  coimtry  increased  in  wealth,  whilst  Pisa,  the  great  commercial 
republic  of  mediajval  Tuscany,  was  doomed  to  decay,  owing  to  the  silting  up  of 
its  harbour.  This  Porto  Pisano  was  situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  south  of 
what  was  then  the  mouth  of  the  Arno.  In  1442  its  dejjth  had  been  reduced  to 
five  feet,  a  century  later  onlj'  rowing  boats  could  enter  it,  and  soon  after  it  was 
abandoned  definitely.  There  are  no  traces  of  it  now,  and  its  very  site  is 
disputed.  But  though  Pisa  is  dead — Pisa  morfa — the  city  still  possesses  admi- 
rable monuments  of  its  past  grandeur.  It  has  a  wonderful  cathedral ;  an  elegant 
baptistery  ;  its  Campo  Santa,  with  the  famous  frescoes  of  Orgagna  and  Gozzoli ; 
and  a  leaning  tower  commanding  a  view  of  the  Pisan  hills  and  the  alluvial  plains 
of  the  Arno  and  Serchio.  Its  commerce  has  dwindled  away,  but  it  is  still  the 
capital  of  a  rich  agricultural  distric,  and  its  university  is  one  of  the  best  in 
Ital}'.  It  possesses,  moreover,  that  which  no  change  in  the  commercial  high- 
ways can  deprive  it  of,  a  mild  climate,  and  during  winter  attracts  numerous 
visitors  from  the  north. 

Leghorn,  or  Livorno,  has  inherited  the  commerce  of  Pisa.  It  is  the  natural 
outlet  of  the  fertile  districts  of  Tuscany,  and  its  commerce  is  far  more  important 
than  might  be  supposed  from  the  unfavourable  configuration  of  the  coast,  and 
is  surpassed  only  by  that  of  Genoa  and    Naples.t      Thousands  of  Spanish  and 

•  134,000  toD9  of  marble  were  quarried  in  1873,  valued  at  nearly  i.oOO,000  sterling, 
f  In  1ST3  5,466  vessels  of  920,626  tons  eniei-ed  :    5,314  vessels  of  901,533  tons  cleared,  inclusive  of 
coasting  vessels. 


TUSCANY. 


255 


Portuguese  Jews  who  found  a  refus-e  here  have  contributed  in  no  small  measure 
to  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  town.  From  an  architectural  point  of 
view,  Leghorn  is  one  of  the  least  interesting  cities  of  Italy,  but  as  the  outcome  of 
human  labour  it  is  one  of  the  most  curious.  Before  the  city  could  be  built,  the 
swamps  which  occupied  its  site  had  to  be  drained,  and  an  artificial  harbour  had 
to  be  excavated  for  the  protection  of  vessels.  Numerous  canals  intersect  the 
north-western  portion  of  the  town,  which  is  known  as  New  Venice.  A  huge 
breakwater  marks  the  entrance  to  the  harbour,  and  on  a  sand-bank  in  the  offing 
rises  the  tower  of  Meloria,  which  recalls  the  naval  engagement  in  which  the  fleet 
of  the  Pisans  was  destroyed  by  the  Genoese. 


Fig.  89. — The  Harbour  of  Leghorn. 
Scale  1  :  112,000. 


/    \. 


I  :. 


\ 


■'/l    ''^._0^? 


Tomer  MeUrut 


r-../ 


''{^}^^^y 


V 


itfllo 


Insular  Tuscany  consists  of  Elba  and  several  smaller  islands,  which  mark  the 
site  of  an  isthmus  that  formerly  joined  the  mainland  to  Corsica,  and  contribute 
greatly  towards  the  beauty  of  the  Tuscan  littoral. 

Elba,  once  the  miniature  kingdom  of  Napoleon,  is  larger  than  all  the  other 
islands  together.*  An  ancient  dependency  of  the  Etruscan  city  of  Populonia, 
Elba  rises  above  the  blue  waters  of  the  Tyrrhenian  a  picturesque  group  of 
mountains.  A  narrow  and  dangerous  strait  separates  its  steep  coasts  from  the 
promcntor)^  of  Piombino,  where  passing  vessels  were  formerly  obliged  to  pay  toll. 

The  granitic  heights  of  Monte  Capanne,  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  island, 


•  Area,  85  square  miles;  population,  21,722  souls. 


25G  ITAIA'. 

attain  an  elevation  of  3,303  feet ;  the  dome-shaped  hills  of  serpentine  at  the  other 
extremity  are  l.GOO  feet  in  height,  and  the  centre  of  the  island  is  occupied  by 
hills  of  various  formations,  covered  with  brushwood.  The  variety  of  rocks  is  very 
great,  taking  into  account  the  small  extent  of  the  island.  Associated  with  the 
f  ranites  and  serpentine,  we  meet  with  beds  of  kaolin,  and  with  marble  similar 
to  that  of  Carrara.  Remarkable  crystals  and  precious  stones  abound  to  such 
an  extent,  that  Elba  has  been  likened  to  a  "  miueralogical  cabinet "  on  a 
vast  scale. 

Formerly,  when  the  sea  was  infested  by  pirates,  the  inhabitants  retreated 
to  the  recesses  of  the  interior,  or  to  the  summits  of  steep  promontories,  where  the 
picturesque  ruins  of  ancient  fortifications  may  still  be  seen.  Several  of  the  old 
inland  villages  continue  to  be  inhabited ;  amongst  others,  that  of  Capoliberi,  the 
"  Mountain  of  the  Free,"  which  is  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  acropolis.  After 
the  suppression  of  piracy  the  islanders  came  down  to  the  marina,  or  coast, 
and  established  themselves  in  the  towns  of  Porto  Ferrajo,  Porto  Longone, 
Marciana,  and  Rio.  Tlie  resources  of  the  island  are  considerable,  and  afford 
plenty  of  occupation  to  fishermen,  salt-makers,  wine-growers,  and  gardeners.  The 
inhabitants  arc  hospitable,  and,  though  neighbours  of  the  fierce  Corsicans,  they 
possess  all  the  gentleness  of  Tuscans. 

Elba  is  not,  however,  so  much  noted  on  account  of  its  fisheries,  vineyards,  salt- 
works, or  commerce,  as  because  of  its  rich  deposits  of  iron  ore.  The  russet- 
coloured  cliffs  of  ironstone  are  visible  from  the  mainland.  The  huge  excavations 
made  by  the  miners,  many  of  whom  are  convicts,  resemble  the  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  and  the  reddish  brown,  violet,  or  blackish  colour  of  the  rocks  helps 
the  illusion.  Of  the  quantity  of  ore  carried  away  from  here  in  the  course  of 
twenty-five  or  thirty  centuries  we  can  hardly  form  a  conception.  The  ironstone 
is  bedded  in  layers,  differing  in  colour  according  to  the  nature  of  the  earthy 
ingredients,  and  rising  into  hills  600  and  more  feet  in  height,  the  slopes  of 
which  are  covered  with  brushwood  {macchie).  Shovels  and  spades  are  the  only 
mining  tools  required  in  clearing  away  these  heaps  of  ore,  of  which  at  least 
100,000,000  tons  remain.  By  regular  mining  operations  500,000  tons  might 
be  obtained  annually  during  twenty  centuries.  The  annual  pioduce  at  present 
hardly  exceeds  100,000  tons.  The  ore  is  more  particularly  suited  to  the  manu- 
facture of  steel.  Loadstones  abound  near  Capo  Calamita.  The  mariners  of 
the  Mediterranean  formerly  made  use  of  them  in  the  construction  of  a  primitive 
ship's  compass,  by  placing  them  in  a  piece  of  cork,  which  they  allowed  to  float 
in  a  basin  of  water. 

The  smaller  islands  of  the  Tuscan  archipelago  are — Giglio,  with  quarries 
of  granite;  Monte  Cristo,  a  pyramidal  rock  rising  2,130  feet  above  the  sea-level; 
Pianosa,  with  an  agricultural  penal  settlement ;  Capraja,  with  a  small  town 
built  within  an  amphitheatre  of  pink-coloured  granite  ;  and  Gorgona  (987  feet).* 

•  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Tuscany  (in  1871)  : — Florence  (Firenze),  167,093;  Leghorn 
(Livorno),  89,462;  Pisa,  41,796;  Siena,  22,96.5;  Lucca,  21,286;  Prato,  15,924;  Carrara,  10,848;  Pistoja, 
12,966;  Aiezzo,  11,151;  Viareggio,  9,983  ;  Pontedera,  7,991  ;   San  Cafciano,  6,862 ;  Fojano  del  a  Chiana, 


THE    APENNINES,  TIBER,  MAEOHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS.  257 


V. — The  Roman  Apennines,   the  Valley  of  the  Tiber,  the   Marches,  and 

THE  Abruzzos. 

That  portion  ol'  the  Italian  peninsula  which  has  Rome  for  its  centre  may  be 
likened  to  the  trunk  of  the  body,  for  it  is  there  the  Apennines  attain  their  greatest 
height,  and  nowhere  else  to  the  south  of  the  Po  are  rivers  of  equal  magnitude  met 
with.* 

The  main  rampart  of  the  Apennines  runs  parallel  to  the  coast  of  the  ^Vdriatic. 
To  the  mariner,  who  sees  these  mountains  rise  above  the  verdure  of  the  littoral 
region,  they  have  an  appearance  of  the  greatest  regularity.  Summit  rises  beyond 
summit,  one  lateral  chain  succeeds  to  the  other,  and  every  one  of  the  numerous 
valleys  descends  perpendicularly  to  the  coast.  The  slope  throughout  is  steep,  and 
the  geological  strata,  whether  of  Jurassic,  cretaceous,  or  tertiary  age,  succeed  each 
other  regularly  from  the  snow-clad  summits  down  to  the  j^romontories  of  the 
coast.  The  only  irregularity  consists  in  a  detached  group  of  hills  (1,880  feet)  to 
the  south  of  Ancona,  above  which  the  axis  of  the  Apennines  changes  its  direction. 
This  region  of  Italy  is  the  natural  counterpart  of  Liguria.  The  position  of 
Ancona  corresponds  with  that  of  Genoa,  and  the  coast,  which  extends  on  the  one 
hand  to  Emilia,  and  on  the  other  towards  the  peninsula  of  Monte  Gargano,  may 
fairly  be  likened  to  the  "  Rivieras  "  of  Genoa,  with  this  exception,  that  its  direction 
is  inverse.  The  territory  between  the  mountains  and  the  coast  is  narrow,  the 
littoral  road  frequently  winds  round  promontories,  and  the  towns  extend  up  the 
hill-sides.  Still  this  portion  of  Italy  is  not  as  strongly  protected  by  nature  as 
Liguria.  Towards  the  north  it  expands  upon  the  plain  of  the  Po,  whilst  the 
terraces  at  the  foot  of  the  main  range  of  the  Apennines  afford  easy  access  from 
the  west.  During  the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  to  our  own  days 
neighbouring  states  have  fought  for  the  possession  of  this  territory,  which  has 
become  known,  from  this  circumstance,  as  the  "  Marches ;  "  that  is,  the  disputed 
frontier  districts,  where  every  town  is  a  fortress  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill. 

The  Apennines  forming  the  boundary  between  the  Marches  and  Latium,  or 
Rome,  like  those  of  Etruria,  are  grouped  in  separate  mountain  masses.  The  first 
of  these  commands  the  valley  of  the  Tiber  in  the  east ;  it  extends  in  the  north  to 
Monte  Comoro  (3,828  feet)  and  the  Fumajolo,  or  head-stream  of  the  Tiber,  and  in 
the  south  to  Monte  Verone  (5,006  feet).  Though  inferior  in  height  to  other  parts 
of  the  Apennines,  these  mountains  are  known  as  the  Alpe  della  Luna.      A  gap, 

C,127;  Empoli,  5,949  ;  Volterra,  5,796  ;  MaseaMaritiuia,  5,766  ;  Porto  Ferrajo,  5,779  ;  FuceccMo,  5,755 ; 
Figline  Valdamo,  5,673;  Montalcino,  5,186;  Pontassieve,  5,141;  Pontelungo,  5,039;  Buti,  5,029; 
Massa,  4,786;  Oibetello,  4,674;  Pontremoli,  4,473. 

Density. 

Rome 4,552  836,700  184 

ITmLiia         ....  3,720  549,600  148 

Marches        ....  3,751  915,420  214 

Abruzzos      .         .  4,898  918.770  188 

190 


Area.  Square 
Miles. 

Population 

tlS71). 

4,552 

836,700 

3,720 

549,600 

3,751 

915,420 

4,898 

918.770 

16,921 

3,220,490 

258  1T.VLY. 

throu'^h  which  passes  the  road  from  Perugia  to  Fano,  separates  them  from  Monte 
Catria  (5,")85  feet).  At  that  point  the  Apennines  bifurcate,  and  two  parallel 
rano-es  can  be  traced  thence  for  a  distance  of  120  miles,  as  far  as  the  transverse 
range  of  the  Majella  (9,158  feet),  which  reunites  them,  and  from  which  radiate 
the  mountains  of  Southern  Italy.  These  parallel  chains  belong  to  the  Jurassic  and 
cretaceous  formations,  and  neither  of  them  forms  a  water-parting,  for  whilst  the 
Nera  and  other  rivers  tributary  to  the  Tiber  force  themselves  a  passage  through 
the  western  one,  that  on  the  east  is  broken  by  numerous  gorges,  through  which 
rivers  and  torrents  find  their  way  into  the  Adriatic.  The  most  considerable 
of  these  rivers  is  the  Pcscara,  which  rises  on  the  plateau  of  the  Abruzzos,  where  it 
is  known  as  the  Aterno,  and  traverses  the  eastern  range  where  it  is  highest.  The 
gorge  excavated  by  this  river  is  sufficiently  wide  to  afford  space  for  a  railway 
joining  the  Adriatic  to  the  basin  of  the  Tiber. 

The  plateau  of  the  Abruzzos,  enclosed  by  these  parallel  ranges,  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  natural  citadel  of  Central  Italy.  On  its  western  side  rise  the  double 
pyramids  of  Monte  Velino  (8,157  feet) ;  in  the  north  Monte  Vettore  (8,131  feet) 
forms  the  termination  of  the  range  of  the  Sibillini ;  in  the  east  rises  the  culminat- 
ing point  of  the  Apennines,  a  mountain  covered  witli  snow  the  greater  part  of  the 
year,  and  appropriately  called  the  "  Great  Rock  of  Italy  " — "  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia  " 
(9,518  feet).  The  fact  tl  at  this  magnificent  mountain  is  the  highest  in  all  Italy 
has  been  known  from  times  immemorial.  The  Romans  conceived  they  had  dis- 
covered the  "  umbilic  of  Italy  "  in  a  small  lake  near  it,  upon  which  floated  an  island 
formed  of  rank  vegetation.  The  Marsi  and  their  allies,  when  they  took  up  arms 
against  their  Roman  oppressors,  chose  Corfinium,  in  its  neighbourhood,  for  the  seat 
of  their  empire,  and  surnamed  it  Italica ;  and  there,  too,  the  first  movements 
which  led  to  the  resurrection  of  modern  Italy  took  place.  The  Gran  Sasso,  as 
seen  from  the  Adriatic,  affords  a  magnificent  spectacle.  Its  calcareous  masses 
cannot  boast  of  much  beauty  of  profile,  but  this  is  compensated  for  by  the  fine 
Alpine  region  extending  beneath  its  summit,  which  remains  the  haunt  of  bears  and 
chamois,  and  where  rare  plants  in  the  meadows  remind  us  of  Switzerland.  Forests 
of  beeches  and  pines  are  still  met  with  in  a  few  places,  and  are  all  the  more 
appreciated  as  forests  no  longer  exist  in  the  lowland  regions.  This  universal 
destruction  of  the  forests  is  one  of  the  great  misfortunes  of  Italy.  In  many  parts 
of  the  Roman  Apennines  even  the  soil  has  been  washed  away,  and  only  in  a  few 
crevasses  do  we  meet  with  brooms  and  briers. 

The  valleys  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines  arc  enclosed  between 
calcareous  spurs  of  the  main  range,  some  of  which  attain  a  considerable  elevation. 
The  Tiber  itself  thus  passes  between  two  lofty  mountains,  rising  at  the  lower 
extremity  of  two  of  these  Sub-Apennine  spurs,  and  forming  a  kind  of  triumphal 
gateway.  These  are  the  Soracte  (2,270  feet)  and  Gennaro  (4,162  feet).  These 
fine  mountains,  with  the  Sabine  Hills  and  the  volcanic  groups  near  them,  form 
the  horizon  of  the  Roman  Campagna,  and  their  natural  beauties  are  enhanced  by 
the  memories  of  art  and  history  which  attach  to  them. 

Several  ranges  of  hills  and  detached  mountain  groups  of  calcareous  formation, 


PEASANTS  OF  THE  ABEUZZ09. 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MARCHES,  AND  ABRUZZOS.  259 

like  the  Sub-Apennines,  border  upon  the  shore  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  and  the 
marshes  which  extend  along  it.  Such  are  the  hills,  rich  in  alum,  which  are 
grouped  around  the  ancient  trachj'tic  cone  of  the  Tolfa.  Such,  too,  are  the  Monte 
Lepini  (4,845  feet),  the  naked  crest  of  which  has  been  likened  to  an  ass's  back — 
schiena  d'asino — and  which  bound  the  Pontine  Marshes  on  the  east.  In  some 
of  the  recesses  of  these  hills  there  still  exist  forests  of  chestnut-trees  and  beeches, 
where  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Volsci  may  pasture  their  hogs  ;  but  almost 
everywhere  else  the  hill-sides  are  bare  of  vegetation,  and  the  scorching  rays  of 
the  sun  have  split  the  rocks  into  innumerable  angular  fragments.  To  the  east  of 
the  marshes  rises  a  summit  vnih.  ten  pinnacles,  covered  with  dense  shrub  on  the 
land  side,  but  barren  towards  the  sea,  a  few  stunted  palms  excepted,  which  grow 
in  the  fissures  of  the  rock.  This  isolated  hill,  a  counterpart  of  the  Argentaro  of 
Tuscany,  is  the  Circello  (1,729  feet),  famous  as  the  residence  of  the  enchantress 
Circe.  The  grotto  where  she  changed  human  beings  into  animals  is  still  pointed 
out  there  to  the  curious,  and  the  remains  of  cyclopean  walls  recall  the  m3'thical 
age  of  the  Odyssey.  The  ancient  Greeks,  who  were  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  Italy,  looked  upon  this  dreaded  promontory  of  Circe  as  one  of  the  most 
important  islands  of  the  Western  Cj'clades. 

During  the  glacial  period  the  sea,  in  which  have  been  deposited  the  chalk  and 
other  rocks  composing  the  Sub- Apennines,  was  the  scene  of  volcanic  action  on  a 
grand  scale.  The  matter  ejected  was  heaped  up  in  a  line  of  volcanic  cones, 
running  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  Apennines  and  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean.  These  cones  are  joined  to  each  other  by  thick  layers  of  tufa, 
which  cover  the  whole  of  the  plain  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  calcareous  mountains, 
and  extend  for  a  distance  of  nearly  120  miles,  from  Monte  Amiata,  in  Tuscany,  to 
the  mountains  of  Albano,  being  interrupted  only  by  the  alluvial  valley  of  the 
Tiber.  Ponzi  and  other  geologists  are  of  opinion  that  this  tufa  was  ejected  from 
submarine  volcanoes,  carried  away  by  the  currents,  and  equally  distributed  over 
the  depressions  of  the  sea-bottom.  No  fossils  have  been  discovered  in  it  hitherto, 
which  is  accoimted  for  by  the  presence  of  icebergs,  which  prevented  a  development 
of  animal  life. 

This  volcanic  region  is  remarkable  on  account  of  its  numerous  lakes.  The 
largest  of  these,  that  of  Bolsena,  was  formerly  looked  upon  as  an  ancient  crater. 
This  crater  would  have  exceeded  by  ftir  the  largest  volcanic  vents  met  with  in 
the  Andes  or  in  Java,  for  it  has  a  circumference  of  twenty-five  miles,  and  covers 
an  area  of  forty-four  square  miles.  Modern  geologists,  however,  look  upon  this 
crateriform  lake  as  a  basin  of  erosion,  and  though  it  occupies  the  centre  of  a 
plateau  formed  of  ashes,  scoria?,  and  lava,  these  do  not  form  a  steep  edge  towards 
the  lake,  as  in  the  case  of  veritable  craters  in  the  same  district.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  latter  is  that  of  Latera,  to  the  west  of  the  lake,  in  the  centre 
of  which  rises  a  cone  of  eruption,  the  Monte  Spignano,  which  has  a  diameter 
of  nearly  five  miles. 

The  district  of  the  Bolsena  is  likewise  remarkable  on  account  of  its  vertical 
precipices  of  tufa  and  lava.     Its  picturesque  towns  and  villages  are  perched  upon 


•2UU 


IT^U.Y. 


bold  promontories  looking  down  on  the  vallej-s.  The  old  town  of  Bagnorea 
occupies  the  extremity  of  an  immense  mole,  and  is  joined  to  the  new  town  by  a 
giddy  path,  bounded  by  steep  precipices,  which  timid  travellers  do  not  care  to 
venture  upon.  Orvieto  stands  on  an  isolated  rock  resembling  a  fortress.  Pittigliano 
is  surrounded  by  jjrccipices  :  by  cutting  away  a  few  yards  of  the  narrow  isthmus 
which  joins  it  to  the  rest  of  the  plateau,  access  to  it  would  be  impossible  to  all  but 
birds.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  when  nobles  and  towns  were  continually  at  war,  the 
capture  of  one  of  these  eyries  was  looked  upon  as  a  grand  achievement. 

Lake  Bolsena  discharges  its  surplus  waters  through  the  Marta  into  the 
Mediterranean.  The  fine  Lake  of  Bracciano,  to  the  south  of  it,  gives  rise  to 
the  Arrone.  It,  too,  appears  to  be  a  basin  formed  by  a  subsidence  of  the  ground 
or   erosion,   and  not  a  crater.     The   Lake  of  Vice,   on  the   other  hand,   clearly 

Fig.  90.— The  Lake  of  Bolsexa. 

Scale  I  :  457,000. 


r>  JIile». 


occupies  an  ancient  volcano,  though  its  rampart  has  been  gutted  towards  the  east. 
Close  to  the  lake,  and  within  the  encircling  rampart,  rises  Monte  Venerc,  a  perfect 
cone,  the  gentle  slopes  of  which  are  luxuriantly  wooded.  Formerly  the  lake 
surrounded  this  cone,  but  the  breach  through  which  its  emissary  escapes  to  the 
Tiber  having  gradually  been  deepened,  the  waters  of  the  lake  subsided.  Tradition 
says  that  an  ancient  city  lies  at  its  bottom. 

On  crossing  the  Tiber  we  reach  the  beautiful  volcanic  group  of  Albano, 
within  the  great  crater  of  which  may  still  be  traced  the  remains  of  several 
secondary  craters,  some  of  them  occupied  by  lakes.  The  principal  one  of  these, 
Monte  Cavo  (2,790  feet),  rises  in  the  very  centre  of  the  exterior  rampart. 
Tradition  points  it  out  as  one  of  Hannibal's  camps.  The  exterior  slopes  of  the 
moimtain  consist  of  pozzuolana,  small  stones,  and  ashes,  through  which  the 
torrents  have  dug  out  furrows  in  divergent  directions.     The  diversity  of  these 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MAECHES,  AND  ABRUZZOS. 


261 


volcanic  products  enables  us  to  trace  the  phases  of  activity  of  this  Roman 
Vesuvius,  which  was  active  at  a  much  more  recent  epoch  than  the  volcanoes 
farther  north,  and  sent  its  streams  of  lava  to  the  very  gates  of  Rome. 

The  Lake  of  Albano  discharges  its  surplus  waters  through  a  tunnel  7,665  feet 
in  length,  which  has  been  ia  existence  for  more  than  twenty-two  centuries.     The 

Fig.  91. — ToLCAXOES  OF  Laticxl 
From  the  Aastrian  Staff  Map. 
Scale  1  :  294,000. 


lake  is  famous  on  account  of  a  small  crab,  large  numbers  of  which  are  forwarded 
to  Rome  during  Lent.  It  is  the  only  species  of  this  animal  hitherto  discovered  in 
fresh  water,  and  zoologists  conclude  from  this  that  the  crater  now  occupied  by  the 
lake  formerlv  communicated  with  the  sea,  but  was  separated  from  it  by  slow 
upheavals  and  the  ejection  of  volcanic  products.  Flint  implements  and  vases  of 
baked  clay,  discovered  in  the  thick  layers  of  volcanic  peperino,  prove  that  at  the 
19 


2C2  ITALY. 

period  of  the  earliest  eruptions  the  country  was  already  inhabited  by  a  civilised 
population.  Some  of  the  vases  referred  to  are  doubly  precious,  for  they  present 
us  witli  delineations  of  the  houses  of  that  prehistoric  epoch.  Roman  coins  and 
clasps  of  bronze,  discovered  in  the  upper  layers  of  lava,  prove  that  these  are 
comparatively  recent.  In  fact,  the  most  diverse  developments  of  civilisation  have 
left  their  traces  in  these  ancient  craters.  Alba  Longa  and  other  towns  of  the  Latins 
have  been  replaced  by  Roman  cities ;  then  came  the  castles  of  the  popes,  and  of 
other  high  dignitaries  of  the  Church  ;  and  at  present  these  hills  are  one  of  the 
chief  resorts  of  the  crowds  of  strangers  who  flock  to  Rome  from  every  quarter  of 
the  world.  On  the  culminating  point  of  Monte  Cavo  stood  the  famous  temple  of 
Jupiter  Latialis,  where  the  Latins  celebrated  their  federal  Feriu,'.  The  last 
remains  of  this  temple  were  swept  away  in  178-3,  to  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  church.  From  its  site  the  eye  embraces  a  view  extending  to  the  hills  of 
Sardinia. 

The  Lake  of  Neml  no  longer  reflects  in  its  bluish  waters  the  foliage  of 
luxuriant  trees,  or  the  walls  of  that  dreaded  temple  of  Diana  whose  priest  was 
onl\'  allowed  to  assume  office  after  he  had  killed  his  predecessor  in  a  duel.  It,  too, 
has  its  subterranean  emis-sary,  like  the  Lake  of  Albano.  As  to  the  Regillus, 
famed  for  the  defeat  of  the  Latins  by  the  Romans,  it  has  dried  up,  whilst  the 
incrustuting  Lake  of  Tartari  and  that  of  the  Solfatara,  with  its  floating  islands, 
are  more  shallow  ponds,  wliich  owe  their  fame  almost  exclusively  to  the  vicinity 
of  Tivoli. 

All  these  volcanic  lakes  arc  of  considerable  depths,  whilst  the  lakes  in  the 
calcareous  regions  are  shallow.*  One  amongst  them,  that  of  Fueino,  has  been 
drained  recently,  and  the  same  fate  is  in  store  for  that  of  Trasimeno.  Lake 
Fueino  originally  occupied  an  area  of  104  square  miles,  and  its  surplus  waters 
discharged  themselves  towards  the  north-west  into  the  Salto,  a  tributary  of  the 
Tiber.  At  an  epoch  not  known  to  us  the  dimensions  of  the  lake  became  less.  It 
no  longer  discharged  an  effluent,  but  its  waters  rose  and  fell  according  to  whether 
the  seasons  were  wet  or  dry.  Occasionally  they  rose  as  much  as  50  feet,  and  two 
cities,  Marruvium  and  Pinna,  are  said  to  have  been  swallowed  up  during  one  of 
these  floods.  At  other  times  it  was  reduced  to  a  swamp.  The  ancient  Romans, 
desirous  of  suppressing  a  hotbed  of  fever,  and  of  gaining  fertile  soil  for  agriculture, 
attempted  to  drain  this  lake.  Claudius  emj)loyed  30,000  slaves  for  eleven  years 
in  cutting  a  passage  through  the  mountains  from  it  to  the  Liri.  This  great  work 
was  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  greedy  Narcissus,  but  it  turned  out  a 
failure,  for  after  a  short  time  the  tunnel  became  choked.  In  the  thirteenth 
ceutur}'  an  attempt  was  made  to  reopen  this  tunnel,  but  the  drainage  of  the  lake 
has  only  been  achieved  quite  recently,  in  accordance  with  plans  designed  by 
M.  de  ilontrichcr,  and  carried  out  at  the  expense  of  Prince  Torlouia.     Between 

•  Volcanic  Lakes: — Bohena:  area,  42sq. m.  ;  height, 99j  ft.;  dt]pth,  400  ft.  Bracciaiio:  area,  22  8q.m. ; 
height,  495  ft.;  (lc|ith,  820  ft.  Alliaiio:  area,  23  sq.  m.;  hci^lit,  1,000  11.;  deplh,  466  ft.  Nemi:  area, 
0'8  sq.  m. ;  height,  1,108  ft.;  depth,  164  ft.  Shallow  Lakes: — Trnsiweiio  :  area,  40  tq.  in.  ;  height, 
843  ft. ;  dnplh,  21  ft.     Fueino  (in  1860) :  area,  61  sq.  m. ;  height,  2,300  ft. ;  depth,  92  ft. 


THE  APEXXIXES,  TIBER,  MAECHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


263 


1855  and  1869  a  new  tunnel  -was  excavated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  one,  and 
nearly  150,000,000  cubic  yards  of  water  were  conveyed  through  it  into  the  Liri, 
and  thence  to  the  sea.  The  whole  of  the  ancient  lake  bed  has  been  converted  into 
smilins  fields,  traversed  in  all  directions  bv  carriage  roads :  houses  have  been 
erected  on  spots  formerly  covered  with  water ;  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  have 
been  planted  ;  and  the  salubrity  of  the  country  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired 
now.  Some  idea  of  the  progress  made  in  the  art  of  engineering  since  the  time 
of  the  Romans  may  be  formed  by  comparing  this  new  tunnel  with  the  old  one. 
The  latter  was  18,500  feet  in  length,  had  an  average  section  of  12  square  yards, 
and  cost  (according  to  M.  Rotrou)  £9,840,000.  The  new  tunnel  has  a  length  of 
20,680  feet,  a  section  of  21  square  yards,  and  cost  £1,200,000. 


Fig.  92.— The  Axciext  Lake  of  Fucrxo. 
Scale  1  :  412,000. 


J 2i. 


3S'  M'  ■■to- 


oMUes. 


The  Lake  of  Perugia,  better  known  as  the  Lake  of  Trasimeno,  on  account  of 

the  terrible  memories  which  attach  to  it,  still  retains  nearly  the  dimensions  which 

it  had  at  the  dawn  of  history.     If  this  lake  were  to  rise  only  a  few  feet,   its 

surplus  waters  would  find  their  way  into  the  Tresa,  a  tributary  of  the  Tiber  ;  but 

its  basin  is  shallow,  and  evaporation  sufiices  for  carrying  off  the  water  conveyed 

into  it  by  its  tributary  rivulets.     Amongst  these  is  the  famous  Sanguinetto,  on 

the  banks  of  which  the  armies  of  Hannibal  and  Flaminius  were  engaged  in  battle, 

when, 

"  beneath  the  fray. 
An  earthquake  reeled  unhcededly  away." 


The  lake,  with  its  islands  and  charming  contours,  is  beautiful  to  look  upon, 
but  the  low  hills  surrounding  it  are  .sterile,  the  climate  is  insalubrious,  its  waters 
harbour  but  few  fish,  and  the  inhabitants  on  its  shores  look  impatiently  forward 


264 


ITALY. 


to  the  time  when  the  engineers  will  fulfil  their  promise  of  winning  for  agriculture 
30,000  acres  of  fertile  land  now  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  lake. 

I5ut  far  more  urgent,  on  sanitary  and  economical  grounds,  are  the  claims  of 
the  Koman  Carapagna ;  that  is,  of  the  region  lying  between  the  Tolfa  of  Civita 
Vecchia,  Monte  Soracte,  the  Sabine  Hills,  and  the  volcanoes  of  Latium.  Slavery 
and  maladministration  have  converted  a  fertile  region  into  a  desert  extending  to 
the  very  gates  of  Rome.  Painters  are  enraptured  with  this  Koman  Campagna  ; 
they  admire  its  melancholy  aspect,  its  picturesque  ruins  hidden  beneath  brambles. 


Fig.  93. — Lake  of  Tiusi.mkno. 

From  the  Austrian  Staff  Mip. 

.Scale  1 : 2.')0,nno. 


-2  MUcs. 


its  solitary  pines,  its  pools  reflecting  the  purple  clouds,  and  visited  by  thirsty 
buffaloes.  True, this  region,  bounded  by  hills  of  bold  contours,  is  full  of  grandeur 
and  sadness ;  but  the  air  that  hangs  over  it  is  deadly,  the  soil  and  climate  of 
this  Agro  Romano  have  deteriorated,  and  fever  now  reigns  there  supreme. 

Two  thousand  j-ears  ago  the  Roman  Campagna,  which  covers  an  area  of 
600,000  acres  to  the  north  of  the  Tiber,  and  extends  from  the  sea  to  the  moun- 
tains, was  a  fertile  and  carefully  cultivated  country.  Then  its  inhabitants  were 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  serfs,  the  Roman  patricians  appropriated  the  land,  and 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MARCHES,  AND  ABRUZZOS. 


2G5 


covered  it  with  villas  and  parks.  When  these  magnificent  residences  were  given 
up  to  23ill-ge  and  to  flames,  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  dispersed,  and  the  country 
immediately  became  a  desert.  Since  that  epoch  most  of  the  Agro  is  held  in 
mortmain  hy  ecclesiastical  corporations  or  princely  families,  and  whilst  all  the 
rest  of  Europe  has  been  making  progress,  the  Campagna  has  become  even  more 
sterile  and  insalubrious.  iSwamps  continually  invade  the  lowlands,  and  an  atmo- 
sphere charged  with  miasmata  hangs  even  above  the  hills.  Malaria  has  already 
knocked  at  the  gates  of  Rome,  and  the  fevers  produced  by  it  decimate  the  popula- 
tion of  its  suburbs. 

Fisr.  94. — The  Roman  Campagna. 


Not  a  village,  not  even  a  hamlet,  is  met  with  throughout  this  afflicted  region. 
The  only  buildings  are  the  wretched  storehouses  of  the  proprietors,  whose  wide 
domains  are  roamed  over  by  herds  of  half-wild  grey  cattle,  said  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Iluns,  and  distinguished  by  immense  horns,  fre- 
quentlj"-  suspended  in  the  huts  of  the  peasantry,  who  fancy  that  they  keep  off  the 
"  evil  ej'e."  The  soil  of  these  neglected  pastures  consists  of  alluvium  mixed  with 
volcanic  debris  and  marls,  but  only  a  few  patches  are  cultivated.  The  farmers  and 
labourers  who  engage  in  this  labour  carry  their  lives  in  their  hands,  and  are 
frequently  struck   down   by  fever  before  they  are  able  to  regain  their  villages  in 


200  IT^VLY. 

flic  liills.  "\Vh:it  can  be  done  to  restore  to  this  rcfjion  its  fertility,  salubrity,  and 
populutioii  ?  Jso  doubt  it  will  be  nece.ssury  to  drain  the  marshes,  and  to  plant 
trees  capable,  like  the  Eucalyptus,  of  absorbing  the  poisonous  miasmata ;  and  this 
has  been  done,  with  a  considerable  amount  of  success,  since  1870,  near  the  abbey 
of  Tre  Fontane.  But,  above  all,  it  will  be  necessarj'  to  interest  tlie  cultivator 
of  the  soil  in  its  productiveness.  Even  in  the  most  salubrious  districts  of  the 
ancient  Papal  dominions  the  population  is  bein^  dcciinatcd  by  misery  and  llio 
maladies  following  in  its  train.  In  the  valley  of  Sacco,  to  the  south-east  of  Kmiic, 
which  abounds  in  cereals,  vines,  and  fruit  trees,  the  cultivator  of  the  soil  is 
restricted  to  a  diet  of  maize,  for  projJrictors  and  money-lenders  eat  up  the  rest  of 
his  produce. 

An  uncultivated  and  insalubrious  region  extends,  likewise,  along  the  sea  to  the 
south  of  the  Tiber.  Poisonous  vapours  arise  from  the  stagnant  waters  separated 
by  dunes  from  the  sea,  and  in  order  to  escajie  them  it  is  necessarj'  to  seek  a  refugp 
in  the  hills  of  the  interior,  or  even  on  jetties  built  out  into  the  sea,  as  at  Porto 
d'Anzio.  The  palaces  which  formerly  lined  the  shore  from  Ostia  to  Nettuno,  and 
from  the  ruins  of  which  have  been  recovered  some  of  our  most  highly  valued 
art  treasures,  such  as  the  Gladiator  and  Apollo  Belvedere,  have  been  buried 
long  ago  beneath  the  dunes  or  in  tlic  swamps.  The  most  dreaded  of  these 
malarial  districts  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Monti  Lepini,  and  extends  from  Porto 
d'Anzio  to  Terracina.  It  is  known  as  the  Pontine  Marshes,  from  Ponietia,  a  city 
said  to  have  perished  before  historical  times.  No  less  than  twenty-three  cities 
formerly  flourished  in  what  is  now  a  deserted  and  deadly  country,  but  which  was 
the  most  prosperous  of  the  districts  held  by  the  confederation  of  the  Volsci.  The 
Roman  conquerors  created  "  peace  and  solitude  "  at  the  same  time.  Four 
hundred  and  forty  years  after  the  building  of  Home,  when  Appius  constructed 
his  famous  road  to  Terracina,  the  country  was  only  a  swamp.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  since  to  reclaim  this  region,  but  it  still  remains  the  haunt  of 
boars,  deer,  and  semi-savage  buffaloes,  w-hose  ancestors  were  imported  from  Africa 
in  the  seventh  century.  The  canals  dug  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  appear  to 
have  been  of  little  use ;  the  works  undertaken  by  Theodoric  the  Goth  were  more 
efficacious;  but  stagnant  waters  and  malaria  in  the  end  regained  the  mastery.  The 
engineers  employed  by  Pius  VI.  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
failed  likewise,  and  this  district  of  2!)0  square  miles  remains  a  wilderness  to  the 
present  day.  If  a  brigand  seeks  refuge  in  it,  pursuit  is  stopped,  and  he  is  allowed 
to  die  in  peace. 

In  order  to  drain  these  marshes  an  accumulation  of  difficulties  will  have  to  be 
surmounted.  A  range  of  wooded  dunes  bounds  the  marshes  on  the  west.  Having 
crossed  these,  we  enter  a  second  zone  of  marshes,  which  are  separated  from  the  sea 
by  a  second  range  of  dunes,  extending  northward  from  the  Monte  Cireello,  and  like- 
wise densely  wooded.  These  two  formidable  barriers  would  have  to  be  surmounted 
in  order  to  drain  the  marshes  towards  the  west.  Nor  are  the  prospects  more  pro- 
mising in  the  direction  of  Terracina,  for  there,  too,  every  outlet  is  stopped  by  dunes. 
The  streams  and  canals  crossing  the  marshes  are,  moreover,  choked  \ip  with  a  dense 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MARCHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


2G7 


growth  of  aquatic  plants,  which  impedes  the  circulation  of  the  water,  feeble  though 
it  be.  Herds  of  buffaloes  are  sometimes  driven  into  these  streams  to  trample  do>\'n 
the  vegetation,  but  neither  this  barbarous  procedure  nor  the  more  regular  process 
of  mowing  has  availed  against  its  rapid  and  luxuriant   growth,   and  the  water 


Fig.  95. — The  Poxtixe  M.MtsnES. 
Scale  1  :  280,000. 


mMm^iz^ 


"F-^ 


remains  stagnant.  Eains  are  not  only  heavy  in  this  portion  of  Italy,  but  the 
superabundant  waters  of  neighbouring  river  basins  actually  find  their  way  through 
subterranean  cliannels  into  the  depression  occupied  by  the  I'outine  Marshes. 
This  happens  after  heavy  rains  in  the  case  of  the  Sacco,  a  tributary  of  the 
Garigliano,  and  of  the  Teverone,  a  tributary  of  the  Tiber,  and  to  this  circumstance 


268  ITALY. 

must  be  ascribed  the  curious  fact  first  ascertained  by  M.  de  Prony,  viz.  that  the 
volume  of  water  annually  discharged  by  the  Badino,  which  drains  the  mar.shcs, 
exceeds  by  one-half  tlie  whole  of  the  rain  which  annually  descends  upon  them. 
When  this  happens  the  whole  of  the  country  is  under  water.  Another  danger 
arises  during  dry  weather.  It  happens  then  occasionally  tliat  the  parched 
vegetation  is  ignited  through  the  carelessness  of  herdsmen  ;  the  lire  communicates 
itself  to  the  turfy  soil,  and  the  latter  smoulders  until  the  subsoil  water  is  reached. 
In  this  manner  tracts  of  land  which  were  looked  upon  as  secure  against  every 
inundation  are  converted  into  marsh.  During  the  greater  portion  of  the  year 
the  Pontine  Marshes  present  the  appearance  of  a  plain  covered  with  herbage  and 
flowers,  and  it  is  matter  for  surprise  that  a  country  so  fertile  should  be  without 
inhabitants.  The  town  of  Ninfa,  which  was  built  in  the  eleventh  century,  near 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  plain,  has  since  been  abandoned,  its  walls,  houses, 
and  palaces  still  remaining,  covered  with  ivy  and  other  creeping  plants. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  our  engineers  would  be  able  to  reclaim  this  desolate 
region.  The  system  adopted  in  the  case  of  the  valley  of  the  Chiana  may  not 
be  practicable,  but  other,  if  more  costly,  means  may  be  devised.  Whatever  the 
outlay,  it  is  sure  to  be  productive,  for  even  now  the  marshes  yield  rich  harvests  of 
wheat  and  maize. 

The  Tiber,  or  Tevere,  the  great  river  of  the  Romans,  has  defied  all  attempts 
at  correction  down  to  our  own  days,  and  its  sudden  floods  are  said  to  be  even  more 
formidable  now  than  they  were  in  the  days  of  the  Republic.  Ever  since  the  time 
of  Ancus  Martins  there  has  been  going  on  a  struggle  against  the  alluvium  brought 
down  by  the  river,  and  it  will  need  all  the  skill  of  the  Italian  engineers  to  master 
this  difficult  problem. 

The  Tiber  is  by  far  the  most  important  river  of  the  jicninsular  portion  of  Italy, 
and  its  basin  is  the  most  extensive.*  It  is,  too,  the  only  river  that  is  navigable 
in  its  lower  course,  from  Ostia  to  Fidcnae.  The  Tiber  rises  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Alpe  della  Luna,  in  the  latitude  of  Florence.  The  valley  through  which 
it  flows,  whilst  in  the  heart  of  the  Apennines,  is  of  .surpassing  beauty  ;  at  one  time 
it  expands  into  broad  and  fertile  basins,  at  others  it  is  hemmed  in  by  precipitous 
rocks.  Below  the  charming  basin  of  Perugia  the  Tiber  receives  the  Topino, 
formed  bj'  the  confluence  of  several  streams  in  the  old  lacustrine  basin  of  Foligno, 
one  of  the  most  delightful  districts  of  all  Italy,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Great 
Apennines  and  of  the  Col  Fieri  to,  which  leads  across  them.  The  Clituno  (Cli- 
tumnus)  debouches  upon  this  plain,  famous  on  account  of  its  pellucid  waters : — 

"  The  most  livini,'  crystal  that  was  e'er 
The  haunt  of  the  tiver  nymph,  to  gaze  and  lave 
Her  limbs." 

The  ruins  of  u  beautiful  temple  still  remain  near  the  source  of  this  river,  but  the 
miraculous  power  of  the  latter  of  changing  into  a  brilliant  white  the  wool  of  the 
sheep  grazing  upon  its  sacred  banks  has  gone  for  ever. 

•  BiUiin,  6,47s  square  miles ;  length,  260  miles,  of  which  60  are  navigable. 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBEE,  MAPwCHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


2G9 


The  Nera  is  the  most  important  tributary  of  the  Tiber ;  "  it  gives  it  to  drink," 
as  the  Italian  proverb  says,  and  rivals  it  in  volume.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  several  streams  descending  from  the  Sibylline  Mountains,  Monte  Yelino,  and 
the  Sabine  Hills.  About  two  thousand  j'ears  ago,  it  is  said,  most  of  these  rivulets 
did  not  reach  the  Tiber ;  they  were  intercepted  in  the  plain  of  Rieti,  where  they 


Fig.  9G. — AxciENT  Lacustrixe  Basins  of  the  Tiber  and  Topixo. 
Scale  1  :  294,000. 


j  Miles. 


formed  the  Lacus  Yelinus,  represented  at  the  present  daj'  by  a  few  jjouds  and 
marshes  scattered  over  the  fertile  fields  of  the  "  Garden  of  Roses."  A  breach 
effected  in  the  calcareous  rocks,  and  several  times  enlarged  since,  allowed  the 
pent-up  waters  of  the  Velino  to  escape  to  the  Jfera,  and  in  doing  so  they  formed 
those  beautiful  cascades  of  Marmora,  above  Terni,  whose  charms  have  been 
celebrated  by  poets  and  painters.     The  river  falls  down  a  perpendicular  height  of 


270  ITALY. 

•542  feet  in  a  single  sheet,  and  then  rushes  down,  over  heaped-up  hloclcs  of  roclv, 

Fig.  87. — The  Cascades  of  Tkiim. 


until  it  joins  the  more  placid  waters  of  the  Nera.     Far  less  grand,  but  perhaps 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MAECHES,  AND  ^VBRUZZOS. 


271 


more  charming,  are  the  numerous  cascatellas  of  the  Anio,  or  Teverone,  the  last 
affluent  of  any  importance  which  the  Tiber  receives  above  Rome.  Standing  on  the 
verdant  hill  upon  which  is  built  the  picturesque  town  of  Tivoli,  silvei  y  cascades 
may  be  seen  to  escape  in  every  direction.  Some  of  them  glide  down  the  polished 
rocks ;  others  shoot  forth  from  gloomy  arches,  remain  suspended  an  instant  in  the 
air,  and  then  disappear  again  beneath  the  foliage;  but  everv  one  of  them,  whether 


Fig.  98. — The  Delta  of  the  Tikek. 
According  to  Daiondeau  (1861)  and  Desjardins. 


11^  iX    £  af  Ct. 


r^S^^i^^^'-^ 


^^^'.*^i  'a'-^H^i^^^- 


W-  ; 


a  powerful  jet  or  a  mere  thread  of  water,  possesses  some  charm  of  its  own,  and, 
as  a  whole,  they  form  one  of  the  most  delightful  spectacles  to  be  witnessed  in 
Italy.  It  is  these  cascades  which  have  rendered  Tivoli  famous  throughout  the 
world  ;  and  in  spite  of  the  popular  rhyme — 


"  Tivoli  di  mal  conforto, 
O  piove,  o  lira  vento,  o  »uon^  u  morto ! ' 


272 


ITALY. 


modem  residences  have  taken  the  place  of  the  villas  of   the  ancient  Romans, 
Fig.  !)9. — Peasants  op  thb  Komax  Campaova. 


amongst  which  that  of  Hadrian  was  the  most  sumptuous.     Its  ruins,  to  the  west 
of  Tivoli,  cover  an  area  of  three  square  miles.      Ileccully  it  has  been  proposed  to 


THE  APEXNIXES,  TIBER,  MAECHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS.  273 

utilise  the  great  water  power  of  the  Anio  far  more  extensively  than  has 
been  done  hitherto.  The  ancients  contented  themselves  with  quarrving  the 
concretionary  limestone,  or  travertin,  deposited  by  the  calcareous  waters  of 
the  river,  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet.  They  made  use  of  this 
stone  for  the  construction  of  their  public  buildings.  Travertin,  when  first 
quarried,  is  white  ;  after  a  certain  time  it  turns  yellow,  and  subsequentl}'  assumes 
a  beautiful  roseate  hue,  which  imparts  a  character  of  majesty  to  the  edifices 
constructed  of  it. 

Below  their  confluence  with  the  Anio,  the  yellow  waters  of  the  Tiber, 
discoloured  by  the  clay  brought  down  from  the  plains  of  Umbria,  rush  beneath 
the  bridges  of  Rome.  Soon  afterwards  the  river  winds  round  the  last  hills, 
which  formerly  bounded  an  ancient  gulf  of  the  sea,  now  silted  up.  The  influence 
of  the  tides  makes  itself  felt.  At  the  head  of  the  Sacred  Island,  formerly 
dedicated  to  Yenus,  and  famous  for  its  roses,  but  now  a  dreary  swamp,  covered 
with  reeds  and  asphodels,  it  bifurcates.  The  principal  branch,  the  old  Tiber, 
passes  to  the  south  of  this  island.  Ostia,  which  was  the  port  of  the  river  during 
the  early  days  of  Rome,  is  buried  now  beneath  fields  of  cereals  and  thistles,  at 
a  distance  of  five  miles  from,  the  sea.  Excavations  made  there  since  1855  have 
laid  bare  several  temples,  tombs,  and  warehouses.  The  merchants  of  Rome  were 
compelled  to  abandon  that  city  two  thousand  years  ago,  on  account  of  a  bar  formed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  Roman  emperors,  anxious  to  have  an  outlet  into  the  sea,  ordered  a  ship 
canal  to  be  excavated  to  the  north  of  Ostia.  This  is  the  Fiumicino,  which  the 
erosive  action  of  the  Tiber  has  converted  into  a  small  river.  Claudius  had  huge 
docks  excavated  to  the  north  of  this  canal,  and  a  new  Ostia  arose  near  them. 
Trajan  opened  another  port  to  the  south-east  of  it,  which  remained  for  several 
centuries  the  port  of  Rome.  But  it,  too,  has  been  silted  up  for  about  a  thousand 
years,  and  the  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  Tiber  is  continually  encroaching 
upon  the  sea,  the  rate  of  progress  being  about  three  feet  annually  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Fiumicino,  and  ten  feet  at  that  of  the  old  Tiber.  Extensive  ruins  of 
palaces,  baths,  and  storehouses  exist  near  the  ancient  port  of  Trajan,  and  several 
works  of  art  have  recently  been  excavated  there. 

The  mouth  of  the  Tiber  is  thus  closed  by  a  bar,  like  that  of  all  other  rivers  which 
flow  into  the  Iifediterranean ;  and  the  Romans,  instead  of  being  able  to  make  use 
of  their  river  for  communicating  with  the  sea,  are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  more 
distant  harbours.  In  former  times  they  kept  up  this  communication  with  Sicily, 
Greece,  and  the  Orient  through  Antium,  Anxur  (Terracina),  and  even  Puteoli ; 
but  since  the  countries  of  the  Xorth  have  risen  into  political  and  commercial 
importance,  Civita  Yecchia  has  become  the  great  maritime  entrepot  of  the  valley 
of  the  Tiber.  It  is  well  known  that  Garibaldi  has  conceived  the  stupendous 
project  of  converting  Rome  into  a  great  maritime  city.  The  stagnant  waters  of 
the  Campagna  are  to  be  carried  ofi"  by  means  of  a  huge  sanitary  canal,  the  bed  of 
the  Tiber  is  to  be  deepened,  and  an  artificial  harbour  capable  of  receiving  the 
largest  vessels  is  to  be  constructed  far  out  in  the  Mediterranean. 


274  TTAT-Y. 

The  execution  of  this  vast  scheme  is  no  doubt  attended  with  immense  difB- 
cultii's,  not  the  least  amongst  which  are  the  annual  floods  of  the  Tiber.  Ancient 
writers  toll  us  that  these  inundations  were  dreaded  not  only  because  of  the  danuige 
done  directly,  but  also  because  of  the  great  quantities  of  animal  and  vegetable 
deposits  which  remained  in  the  fields  after  the  subsidence  of  the  waters.  The  nature 
of  these  floods  has  continued  the  same  down  to  the  present  time.  At  Kome,  though 
its  distance  from  the  sea  is  only  twenty-two  miles,  the  river  frequently  rises  forty  or 
fifty  feet,  and  in  December,  1598,  it  rose  sixty-five  feet !  IIow  is  this  huge  volume 
of  water  to  be  disposed  of  after  it  has  passed  beneath  the  bridges  of  Rome  ?  If 
the  destruction  of  the  forests  in  the  Apennines  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
these  Hoods,  will  it  be  sufficient,  to  replant  them  ?  Or  would  it  be  preferable 
to  restore  some  of  those  ancient  lakes  into  which  numerous  rivers  discharged 
themselves,  which  now  take  their  course  to  the  sea  ?  The  diflBcultics  are  great 
indeed,  for  the  western  slope  of  the  Apennines  is  exposed  to  the  rain-bearing 
westerly  and  south-westerly  winds,  and  the  floods  of  every  one  of  the  numerous 
tributaries  of  the  Tiber  take  place  simultaneously,  and  combine  to  form  one  vast 
inundation. 

It  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  account  for  the  great  floods  of  the  Tiber  which 
take  place  in  winter,  but  the  condition  of  the  river  during  summer  has  for  a  long 
time  bafHed  inquiry.  The  level  of  the  river  during  the  dry  season  is  far  higher 
thiin  could  possibly  be  accounted  for  by  the  small  quantity  of  rain  which  falls 
within  its  basin.  Its  volume  in  summer  is  never  less  than  half  its  average 
volume,  a  phenomenon  not  hitherto  observed  in  the  case  of  any  other  river.  Tho 
Seine  has  a  basin  five  times  larger  than  that  of  the  Tiber,  and  its  average  volume 
is  almost  double ;  yet,  after  a  continuance  of  dry  weather,  its  volume  is  only  a 
tliird  or  fourth  of  the  Italian  river.  This  perennity  of  the  Tiber  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  assuming  that  it  is  fed,  during  the  dry  season,  from  subterranean 
reservoirs,  in  which  the  water  is  stored  up  during  winter.  These  reservoirs  must 
be  very  numerous,  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the  numerous  "  sinks,"  or  "  swallows," 
met  with  on  the  calcareous  plateaux  of  the  Apennines.  One  of  these  sinks, 
known  as  the  "  Fountain  of  Italy,"  near  Alatri,  close  to  the  Xenpolitan  frontier, 
has  the  appearance  of  a  huge  pit,  160  feet  in  depth  and  300  feet  across.  Its 
bottom  is  occupied  by  a  forest,  and  numerous  springs  give  rise  to  luxuriant 
herbage,  upon  which  sheep  lowered  by  means  of  ropes  feed  with  avidity.  It  is 
from  sinks  like  this  that  the  rivers  of  the  countrj',  the  Tiber  and  the  Sacco,  are 
fed.  It  has  been  computed  by  Venturoli  and  Lombardini,  the  engineers,  that 
about  three- fourths  of  the  liquid  mass  of  the  Tiber  during  winter  are  derived  from 
subterranean  lakes  hidden  in  the  depths  of  the  Apennines.  The  volume  of  water 
annually  supplied  from  this  source  to  the  Tiber  would  fill  a  basin  having  an  area 
of  100  square  miles  to  a  depth  of  80  feet  I  * 

Primitive  Rome  is  to  a  large  extent  indebted  for  her  power  to  the  Tiber,  not 

•  Annual  rainfall  at  Rome,  307  inches;  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  43-3  in.  ;  on  (he  summits, 
94  .5  in.  Volume  of  the  Tiber:  average  10,180  cubic  ft. ;  mii.\imum,  00,400  cubic  ft. ;  minimum,  4,6.iO 
cubic  ft.,  a  secoud. 


THE  APEXXIXES,  TIBER,  MARCHES,  AXD  ABRUZifOS.  275 

because  that  river  is  navigable,  but  because  it  traverses  the  centre  of  a  vast  basin, 
of  which  Eome  is  the  natural  capital.  Rome,  moreover,  occupied  a  central 
position  with  regard  to  the  whole  of  Italy  and  the  world  of  the  ancients ;  but,  as 
has  already  been  pointed  out,  Rome  no  longer  lies  upon  any  of  the  great  high- 
roads of  nations.  That  city  certainly  occupies  not  only  the  centre  of  Italy, 
but  of  all  the  countries  surrounding  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  ;  and  its  climate  would 
leave  little  to  be  desired,  if  it  were  not  for  the  insalubrity  of  the  Campagna.  Still 
Rome,  though  the  residence  of  two  sovereigns,  the  King  of  Italy  and  the  Pope,  is 
not  even  the  principal  city  of  the  peninsula,  and  still  less  the  capital  of  the 
Latin  race.  It  is  said  that  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when  tlie  popes  resided 
at  Avignon,  the  population  of  Rome  was  reduced  to  17,000  souls.  Gregorovius, 
than  whom  no  one  is  better  acquainted  with  that  epoch  in  the  history  of  Rome, 
doubts  this ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  after  the  sack  ordered  bj'  the  Con- 
stable of  Bourbon  its  population  was  reduced  to  30,000  souls.  More  recently 
Rome  has  increased  rapidly,  but  it  is  still  very  inferior  to  Xaples,  and  even  to 
Milan. 

From  the  very  first  the  Romans  were  a  mixed  race.  The  myth  of  Romulus 
and  Remus,  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women,  and  incessant  internal  conflicts  bear 
evidence  to  this  fact.  The  remains  of  ancient  cities,  Cyclopean  wails,  burial- 
grounds,  urns,  vases,  and  ornaments  prove  that  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber 
the  Etrurians  were  at  least  as  strong  as  the  Italians.  Elsewhere  the  Gauls 
predominated,  and  from  an  intermixture  of  all  these  various  peoples  sprang  the 
primitive  Roman. 

TThen  Rome  had  reached  the  zenith  of  her  power  things  wore  a  different 
aspect,  and  thousands  of  foreigners  became  amalgamated  with  the  Latins,  Gauls, 
Iberians,  Mauritanians,  Greeks,  Syrians,  and  Orientals  of  every  race  and  climate  ; 
slaves,  freemen,  and  citizens  flocked  towards  the  capital  of  the  world,  and 
modified  the  character  of  its  inhabitants.  Towards  the  close  of  the  Empire  there 
were  more  strangers  within  the  walls  of  Rome  than  Romans,  and  when  the  empire 
of  the  "West  broke  to  pieces,  and  the  empress-city  was  pillaged  repeatedly  by 
barbarian  hordes,  the  Italians  had  already  become  mixed  with  the  most  diverse 
elements.  This  endless  mixture  between  different  races,  victors  and  vanquished, 
masters  and  slaves,  accounts,  perhaps,  more  satisfactorily  for  the  great  changes 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  course  of  two  thousand  years  in  the  character  and 
spirit  of  the  Romans.  Still  the  Romans  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  the 
so  called  Trasteverini,  have  preserved  the  old  Roman  type,  as  transmitted  to  us 
in  statues  and  on  medals. 

Rome  is  great  because  of  its  past,  and  its  ruins  are  more  attractive  than  its 
modern  buildings ;  it  is  a  tomb  rather  than  a  living  city.  These  monuments, 
raised  by  the  former  masters  of  the  world,  strongly  impress  the  imagination.  The 
sight  of  the  Coliseum  arouses  an  admiration  akin  to  terror,  unless  we  look  upon 
this  formidable  edifice  as  a  mere  heap  of  stones.  The  thought  that  this  vast  arena 
was  crowded  with  men  who  sought  to  kill  each  other,  that  the  steps  surrounding 
it  were  occupied  by  80,000  human  beings  who   delighted   in    this  butchery  and 


276 


ITALY. 


encouraged  it  by  their  shouts,  calls  up  an  amount  of  baseness,  ferocity,  and 
frenzy,  whose  existence  could  not  fail  to  sap  the  founflatioiis  of  Roman  civilisation, 
and  make  it  an  easy  prey  to  the  barbarian.  Tiie  Forum  awakens  memories  of 
quite  a  different  nature.  Abominations  were  practised  there,  too,  but  its  liistory 
as  a  whole  exhibits  it  as  the  true  centre  of  the  Roman  world.  It  was  from  this 
spot  that  the  first  impetus  was  jjivcn  to  the  nations  of  the  West ;  it  was  here  that 

Fig.  lOO.-KoME. 


the  ideas  imported  from  every  quarter  of  the  world  bore  fruit.  The  walls, 
columns,  temples,  and  churches  which  surround  the  Forum  relate  in  mute  lan- 
guage the  principal  events  in  the  history  of  Rome ;  and  if  wc  search  beneath 
existing  edifices  we  meet  with  structure-s  more  ancient,  which  take  us  back  to  a 
period  still  more  remote,  for  edifice  has  succeeded  edifice  on  this  spot,  where 
pulsated  the  life  of  the  Roman  people.  And  thus  it  is  throughout  Rome.  Every 
ancient  monument,  arcade,  or  broken  column,  every  stone,  bears  witness  to  some 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MAECHES,  AND  ACEUZZOS.  277 

historical  event,  and  though  it  may  be  difficult  sometimes  to  interpret  these 
witnesses  of  the  past,  the  truth  is  elicited  by  degrees. 

In  spite  of  pillage  and  ■wholesale  destruction,  there  still  exist  numerous 
ancient  monuments,  of  which  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa  is  one  of  the  most 
marvellous.  The  Vandals,  who  are  usually  charged  with  the  work  of  destruction, 
pillaged  the  city,  it  is  true,  but  they  demolished  nothing.  The  systematical 
destruction  had  begun  long  before  their  time,  when  the  materials  for  building  the 
first  church  of  St.  Peter  were  taken  from  the  Circus  of  Caligula,  and  from  other 
monuments  near  it.  The  same  plan  was  pursued  in  the  construction  of  innume- 
rable other  churches  and  buildings  of  every  kind.  Statues  were  broken  to  pieces 
and  used  for  making  lime,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  there  only 
remained  six  of  them  in  all  Rome,  five  of  marble  and  one  of  bronze.  The  invasion 
of  the  Normans  in  1084,  and  the  numerous  wars  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  were 
frequently  attended  by  pillage  and  conflagrations,  wrought  further  havoc,  but  so 
large  had  been  the  number  of  public  buildings  and  monuments,  that  on  the  revival 
of  art  in  the  sixteenth  century  many  still  remained  for  study  and  imitation.  Since 
that  time  the  architectural  collection  enclosed  by  the  walls  of  Rome  has  been 
guarded  with  the  utmost  care,  and  still  further  enriched  by  the  masterpieces  of 
Michael  Angclo,  Bramante,  and  others. 

On  the  Palatine  HiU  the  most  curious  remains  of  ancient  Rome,  including  the 
foundations  of  the  palaces  of  the  Caesars  and  of  the  walls  of  Roma  Quadrata,  have 
recently  been  laid  open.  It  was  on  this  hill,  so  rich  in  precious  relics,  that  the 
first  Romans  built  their  city,  in  order  to  afford  it  the  protection  of  steep  escarp- 
ments, and  of  the  marshes  on  the  Tiber  and  Velabro.  When  Rome  grew  more 
populous  it  became  necessary  to  descend  from  this  hill.  The  town  spread  over 
the  valley  of  the  Velabro,  which  had  been  drained  by  Tarquin  the  Etruscan,  and 
then  climbed  up  the  surrounding  hills.  A  small  island  in  the  Tiber  occupied  its 
centre.  This  the  Romans  looked  upon  as  a  sacred  spot.  They  enclosed  it  by  a 
masonry  embankment,  shaped  like  a  ship,  erected  an  obelisk  in  its  centre  to 
represent  a  mast,  and  a  temple  of  ^Esculapius  upon  the  poop.  This  island  was 
likened  to  a  vessel  bearing  the  fortunes  of  Rome. 

There  is  still  another  Rome,  the  subterranean  one,  which  is  well  worth  study, 
for  we  learn  more  from  it  about  early  Christianity  than  from  all  the  books  that 
have  been  written.  The  crypts  of  the  Christian  burying-places  occupy  a  zone 
around  the  city  a  couple  of  miles  in  width,  and  embrace  about  fifty  distinct 
catacombs.  Signer  Rossi  estimates  the  length  of  the  subterranean  passages  at 
3G0  miles.  They  are  excavated  in  the  tufa,  and  are,  on  an  average,  a  yard  in  width, 
but  they  include  chambers  which  served  as  oratories,  and  numerous  tiers  of  niches  for 
the  bodies.  The  inscriptions,  bas-reliefs,  and  paintings  of  these  cities  of  the  dead 
were  at  aU  times  respected  by  the  pagans,  and  fortunately  the  entrances  to  them 
were  closed  up  at  the  time  the  Barbarians  invaded  Rome.  This  saved  their 
contents  from  destruction,  and  everything  was  found  intact  when  they  were  first 
reopened  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  These  tombs  prove  that  the 
popular  belief  of  the  Christians  of  that  time  was  very  different  from  what  it  is 
20 


278 


ITALY. 


represented  to  have  been  by  contomponineous  writers,  who  belonged  to  u  different 
class  of  society  from  tliut  of  the  majority  of  the  faithful.  A  serene  gaiety  reigns 
throughout,  and  lugubrious  einblenis  tiud  no  place  there.  We  neither  meet  with 
representations  of  martyrdoms  nor  with  skeletons  or  images  of  Death ;  even  the  cross, 
which  at  a  later  epoch  became  the  great  symbol  of  Christianity,  is  not  seen  there. 
The  most  common  symbols  met  with  are  those  of  the  Good  Sheplicrd  carrj'ing  a 
luiiil)    upon    his    shoulders,  and    the   vine    decked    with    leaves.       In    the    oldest 

Fig.  101. — The  IIili.s  or  Komk. 


catacombs,  which  date  back  to  tlie  second  and  third  centuries,  the  figures  are 
Greek  in  character,  and  abound  in  heathen  subjects.  fJne  represents  the  Good 
Shepherd  surrounded  by  the  Three  Graces.  There  are  two  Jewish  catacombs, 
likewise  excavated  in  the  tufa,  and  they  enable  us  to  compare  the  religious  notions 
which  prevailed  at  that  time  amongst  the  followers  of  the  two  religions. 

By  an  absurd  predilection  for  mystical  numbers,  Home  is  even  now  spoken  of 
C3  the  "  City  of  the  Seven  Hills,"  although  it  lost  all  claim  to  such  a  designation 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MARCHES,  AND   ABRCZZOS.  279 

after  it  had  outgrown  the  walls  built  by  Servius  Tullius.  Independently  of  Monte 
Testaceio,  which  is  merely  a  heap  of  potsherds,  there  are  at  least  nine  hills  within 
the  walls  of  actual  Rome,  viz.  the  Aventino,  to  which  the  plebeians  retired 
during  their  feeble  struggles  for  independence ;  the  Palatino,  the  ancient  seat  of 
the  Caesars;  the  Capitolino,  surmounted  by  the  temple  of  Jupiter;  Monte  Celio 
(Cijelius)  ;  the  Esquilino  ;  Yiminale  ;  Quirinale ;  Citorio  ;  and  the  Fincio,  with  its 
public  gardens.  Besides  these,  there  are  two  hills  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  viz.  Monte  Gianicolo  (Janiculum),  the  highest  of  all,  and  the  Vatican, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  Latin  word  rates,  a  soothsayer,  it  having  once  been 
the  seat  of  Etruscan  divination. 

Faithful  to  its  traditions,  the  last  hill  has  ever  since  remained  the  place  of 
vaticinations.  When  the  Christian  priests  left  the  obscurity  of  the  catacombs  they 
established  themselves  upon  it,  and  thence  they  governed  Rome  and  the  Western 
world.  The  Papal  palace,  abounding  in  treasures  of  art,  was  built  iipon  it,  and  close 
to  i't  stands  the  resplendent  basdica  of  St.  Peter,  the  centre  of  Catholic  Christen- 
dom. A  long  arcade  connects  the  palace  with  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  the 
ancient  mausoleum  of  Hadrian.  The  guns  of  this  fortress  no  longer  defend  the 
Vatican,  for  the  temporal  power  of  the  pontiffs  is  a  thing  of  the  past ;  but  their 
sumptuous  church  of  St.  Peter,  with  its  dome  rising  high  into  the  air,  and  visible 
even  from  the  sea,  its  statues,  marbles,  and  mosaics,  bears  witness  to  the  fact  that 
the  riches  of  all  Christendom  formerly  found  their  way  to  Rome.  St.  Peter's  alone 
cost  nearly  £20,000,000  sterling,  and  is  only  one  out  of  the  365  churches 
of  the  city  of  the  popes.  At  the  same  time,  the  admiration  which  their 
sumptuous  edifice  arouses  is  not  without  its  alloy.  A  multiplicity  of  ornaments 
dwarfs  the  proportions  of  this  colossal  building,  and,  more  serious  still,  instead  of 
its  being  the  embodiment  of  an  entire  epoch  of  its  faith  and  ideas,  it  is  repre- 
sentative only  of  a  transitory  phase  in  the  local  history  of  Catholicism,  of  an  age  of 
contradictions,  when  the  paganism  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Christianity  of  the 
Middle  Ages  allied  themselves  in  order  to  give  birth  to  a  pompous  and  sensuous 
neo-Catholicism  suited  to  the  tastes  and  caprices  of  the  century.  How  different  is 
the  impression  we  derive  from  this  building  from  that  which  the  sombre  nave  of 
a  Gothic  cathedral  makes  upon  us !  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  quarter 
of  Rome  in  which  the  church  of  St.  Peter  is  built  is  the  only  portion 
of  the  city  which  was  laid  waste  by  the  Mussxdmans  in  846,  who  are  thus 
able  to  boast  of  having  sacked  Papal  Rome  and  taken  possession  of 
Jerusalem,  whilst  the  tomb  of  Mohammed  has  ever  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
faithful.  As  to  the  Jews,  they  did  not  come  to  Rome  as  conquerors.,  Shut  up  in 
their  filthy  Ghetto  near  the  swampy  banks  of  the  Tiber,  and  not  far  from  that 
arch  of  Titus  which  reminded  them  of  the  destruction  of  their  temple,  they  have 
been  the  objects  of  hatred  and  persecution  during  nineteen  centuries.  They  have 
survived,  thanks  to  the  power  of  their  gold,  and  since  their  liberation  from  bondage 
they  contribute  even  more  to  the  embellishment  of  the  Italian  capital  than  do 
their  Christian  fellow-citizens. 

Our  nineteenth  century  is  not  favourable  to  the  creation  of  edifices  fit  to  rival 


280  ITALY. 

tlic  Coliseum  or  St.  Peter's,  but  there  arc  works  of  another  nature,  not  less 
deserving  of  attention,  which  may  disting^uish  this  third  era  in  the  history  of 
Rome.  Above  all,  it  will  be  necessary  to  protect  the  cit}-  against  the  floods 
of  the  Tiber,  and  to  improve  its  sanitary  condition.  The  bed  of  the  river  will 
have  to  be  deepened,  cmliaiiknu'nts  constructed,  and  a  .--ystiiii  of  driiinage 
established. 

It  is  wi;ll  known  that  the  quantity  of  water  supplied  to  the  Itome  of  the 
ancients  was  prodigious.  In  the  time  of  Trajan  nine  grand  aqueducts,  having  a 
total  length  of  262  miles,  supplied  about  4,400  gallons  of  water  per  second,  and 
this  quantitj'  was  augmented  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth  by  canals  subsequently 
constructed.  Even  now,  although  most  of  these  ancient  aqueducts  are  in 
ruins,  the  water  supply  of  the  capital  of  Italy  is  superior  to  that  of  most  other 
cities.*  But  if  the  time  should  ever  come  when  Rome  will  occupy  the  whole  of 
the  space  enclosed  within  its  walls,  if  ever  the  Forum  should  again  befomo  the 
centre  of  the  city,  then  the  want  of  water  will  be  felt  there  as  much  as  in  most  of 
the  other  great  towns  of  Kuropo. 

Irrespective  of  the  insalubritj-  of  the  environs,  there  is  another  reason  wliy 
modern  Rome  cannot  compare  witli  the  ancient  citj%  Its  streets  no  longer 
radiate  from  a  centre  towards  all  tlie  points  of  the  compass,  as  the)-  did  of 
yore.  The  Appian  Road,  which  on  first  leaving  the  city  passes  through  a  curious 
avenue  of  tombs,  is  typical  of  the  old  roads,  constructed  in  straight  lines,  and 
sliortening  distances.  It  is  true  that  these  ancient  highways  have  been  super- 
seded by  railways,  but  they  are  still  few  in  number,  and  Rome  is  not  situated 
on  a  trunk  line.  Elsewhere  railways  were  built  from  the  capital  of  the  country 
towards  its  periphery ;  in  Italy,  on  the  contrary,  it  was  Florence,  Bologna,  and 
Naples  which  constructed  lines  converging  upon  Rome. 

Rome  is  one  of  those  large  cities  which  are  least  able  to  exist  upon  their  own 
resources,  and  having  no  port,  and  its  immediate  vicinity  being  rendered  unin- 
habitable l)y  miasmata,  it  has  attached  to  it  outlying  places,  and  occupies  a  jiosi- 
tion  similar  to  that  of  a  spider  in  the  centre  of  its  web.  Its  gardens,  rural  retreats, 
and  industrial  establishments  are  all  in  the  hill  towns  of  Tivoli,  Frascati  (near 
■which  on  a  ridge  are  the  ruins  of  Tusculum),  Marino  (near  which  the  confederated 
nations  of  Latiuni  held  their  meetings),  Albano  (joined  by  a  magnificent  viaduct 
to  Ariccia),  Velletri  (the  old  city  of  the  \'olsci),  and  Palestriua  (more  ancient  tlian 
either  Alba  Longa  or  Rome,  and  occupying  the  site  of  a  famous  temple  of  For- 
tune, the  pride  of  ancient  Praeneste).  Its  watering-places  are  Palo,  Fiumicino,  and 
Porto  d'Anzio,  which  adjoins  the  little  town  of  Nettuno,so  famous  because  of  the 


Per  Second. 

Per  Day. 

Per  Inhiibltailt. 

Rome  (1869) 

481 

41,580,000 

208 

Paris  (1875) 

904 

78,100,000 

44 

London  (1874)      . 

.       1,262 

110,000,000 

27-6 

Glasgow  (1874)     . 

373 

32,482,500 

52 

Washington  ('.870) 

741 

66,000,(100 

COO 

THE  APENNINES,  TIBEE,  MAECHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


281 


haughty  beauty  of  its  women.  Its  only  seaport  is  Civita  Vecchia,  a  dreary  town 
on  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  with  a  magnificent  harbour.*  The  ancient  harbours  to  the 
south  of  the  Tiber  are  very  little  resorted  to  in  our  day.  Terracina,  hidden  amidst 
verdure  at  the  foot  of  white  cliffs,  is  only  used  by  Rome-bound  travellers  coming  by 
the  coast  road  from  the  south,  t  Nearly  every  other  town  of  Latium  is  built  on 
one  or  other  of  the  two  great  roads,  of  which  one  leads  northward  to  Florence,  whilst 
the  other  penetrates  the  valley  of  the  Sacco  towards  the  south-east,  and  finally  issues 
upon  the  campagna  of  Naples.  Yiterbo,  the  "  city  of  nice  fountains  and  pretty 
girls,"  is  the  principal  town  in  the  north.     Alatri,  on  the  slope  of  the  Garigliano, 

Fig.  10'2. — Civit\  Vecchia. 
Scale  1 :  8.8S8. 


and  commanded  by  a  superb  necropolis  enclosed  by  cyclopean  walls,  occupies  a 
similar  position  in  the  south.  In  the  east,  in  one  of  the  most  charming  vallej's  of 
Sabina,  traversed  by  the  ever-cool  waters  of  the  Anio,  lies  Subiaco,  the  ancient 
Sublaqueum,  thus  named  after  the  three  reservoirs  constructed  by  Nero,  who  used 
to  fish  trout  in  them  with  a  golden  net.  It  was  in  a  holy  cave  (sacro  spent)  near 
Subiaco  that  St.  Benedict  established  his  famous  monastery,  which  preceded  the 
still  more  famous  monastery  of  Monte  Casino,  and  conjointly  with  that  of  Lerins, 
in  Provence,  became  the  cradle  of  monachism  in  the  West,  j^ 

*  Value  of  exports  and  imports,  1863,  £1,348,000;  1868,  £999,660. 

f  Tonnage  of  vessels  which  entered  and  cleared  at  the  ports  of  Latium  in  1873  : — Civita  Vecchia, 
520,000  (1875,  600,351);  Fiumicino,  63,000  ;  Porto  d'.\nzio,  30,900;  Terracina,  335,000  tons. 

J  Towns  of  Latium  (1871) :— Rome,  229,356  (1876,  264,280) ;  Viterbo,  16,326  ;  Velletri,  14,798 ;  Civiti 
Vecchia,  10,484;  Ferentino,  8,360;  Tivoli,  7,730;  Frosinone,  7,714;  Subiaco,  6,990;  Sezze,  6,659;  Alatri, 
6,393  inhabitants. 


282  TTAT,Y. 

Perugia,  the  capital  of  Umbria,  on  the  road  from  Rome  to  Ancona,  is  one  of  the 
ancient  cities  of  the  Etruscans,  and  excavations  carried  on  in  its  vicinity  have 
revealed  tombs  of  the  highest  interest.  After  every  war  and  disaster  this  city 
has  arisen  from  its  ruins,  for  its  position  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  plain,  and  at  the 
point  of  junction  of  several  natural  high-roads,  is  most  favourable.  It  is  both  a 
Roman  and  a  Tuscan  city,  and  at  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  it  gave  birth  to 
one  of  the  great  schools  of  painting.  There  still  remain  numerous  monuments  at 
Perugia  which  date  back  to  that  famous  epoch,  and  although  no  longer  one  of  the 
artistic  head-quarters  of  Italy,  it  is  still  the  seat  of  a  university ;  its  trade,  espe- 
cially in  raw  silk,  is  active ;  and  its  clean  houses  and  streets,  its  pure  atmospliere, 
and  charming  inhabitants  annually  attract  to  it  a  large  number  of  the  foreigners 
who  spend  the  winter  at  Rome.  Perugia  has  by  far  outstripped  its  rival,  Foligno, 
which  was  formerly  the  great  commercial  mart  of  Central  Italy,  and  still  carries 
on  a  few  branches  of  industry  ;  amongst  others,  the  tunning  of  leather.  As  to 
Assisi,  it  is  justly  famous  because  of  its  temple  of  Minerva,  and  its  gorgeous 
monasteries  decorated  witli  the  frescoes  of  Cimabue  and  his  successor,  Giotto, 
the  last  of  the  Greek  and  the  first  of  the  Italian  painters.  Assisi  is  only  a  small 
place  now,  but  its  environs  are  fertile  and  densely  inhabited.  It  gave  birth  to 
Francesco  d'Assisi,  the  founder  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis. 

Other  towns  of  Umbria,  though  not  now  of  much  importance,  may  boast  of 
having  once  played  a  great  part  in  history,  or  of  possessing  beautiful  monuments. 
Spoleto,  the  gates  of  which  Hannibal  sought  in  vain  to  force,  has  a  superb  basilica, 
a  Roman  viaduct  carried  across  a  deep  ravine,  and  mountains  clad  with  pines  and 
chestnuts.  Terni  is  proud  of  its  famous  cascade  (see  p.  270).  Orvieto,  to  the 
north  of  the  Tiber,  near  the  frontier  of  Tuscany,  is  haughty  and  dirty,  but  justly 
famous  on  account  of  its  marvellous  cathedral,  one  of  the  most  costly  and  tasteful 
buildings  in  the  world.  Cittii  di  Castello,  on  the  Uppsr  Tiber,  and  Gubbio,  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  mountains,  arc  the  two  principal  towns  in  the  Umbrian  Apen- 
nines. Both  are  delightfully  situated,  and  possess  efficacious  mineral  springs. 
At  Gubbio  are  shown  the  famous  "  Engubian  Tables,"  seven  plates  of  bronze 
covered  with  Umbrian  characters,  and  the  only  relics  of  that  kind  known  to  exist. 
The  little  town  of  Fratta,  now  known  as  IJmbertidc,  half-way  between  Perugia 
and  Citti  di  Castello,  is  only  of  local  importance.* 

Ancona  is  the  Adriatic  port  of  the  Roman  countries.  It  is  an  ancient  city  of 
the  Dorians,  which  still  retains  the  name  given  it  by  its  founders,  on  account  of  its 
being  situated  at  the  "angle"  formed  by  the  coast  between  the  Gulf  of  Venice 
and  the  Southern  Adriatic.  A  fine  triumphal  arch  near  the  mole  attests  the 
importance  which  Trajan  attached  to  the  possession  of  this  port.  Thanks  to  its 
favourable  position  and  t'jc  labour  bestowed  upon  the  improvement  of  its  harbour, 
Ancona  is  one  of  the  three  great  places  of  commerce  on  the  Adriatic ;  it  ranks  next 
to  Venice,  and  is  almost  the  equal  of  Brindisi,  though  not  one  of  the  stages  on  the 
road  to  India.     Its  commerce  is  fed  by  Rome,  the  Marches,  and  Lombardy ;    and 

•  Populationof  thepiimipsl  tONvrnof  Umbria  (1871)  :— Pnnigia,  1C,708  ;  Ricli,  1-2.905;  IVrni,  12,119; 
Foligno,  8,471 ;  Spolclo,  7,4>0;  Oivieto,  7,423  ;  Citli  Ji  CisleUo,  6,588;  Assisi,  6,225  ;  Gubbio,  5,343. 


THE  APEXXIXES,  TIBER,  MARCHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


28C 


amongst  its  exports  are  fruits,  oil,  asphalt  from  the  Abruzzos,  sulphur  from  the 
Apennines,  and  silk,  "  the  verv  best  in  the  world,"  if  the  native  estimate  of  its  quality 
can  be  accepted.*  The  other  ports  along  this  coast  offer  but  little  shelter,  and 
their  commerce  is  small.  Pesaro,  the  native  town  of  Rossini,  is  only  visited  by 
vessels  of  twenty  or  thirty  tons.  Fane  merely  admits  barges.  The  small  river  port 
of  Sinigaglia  (Senigallia)  was  formerly  much  frequented  during  the  fair,  at  which 
commodities  valued  at  £1,000,000  sterling  used  to  change  hands,  but  since  its 
abolition  in  1870  it  has  been  deserted. 

With   the    exception  of  Fabbriano,  which    occupies   a    smiling  valley   of  the 

Fig.  103. — Valleys  of  Erosion"  on  the  Westers  .Slope  of  the  Apexxixes. 

Scale  1  :  403,000. 


13°ijj'F.  of- 


.  5  ALles. 


Apennines,  and  of  Ascoli-Piceno,  on  the  river  Tronto,  the  inland  towns  of  the 
Marches  are  built  upon  the  summit  of  hills,  but  extend  through  their  suburbs  to 
the  cultivable  plains.  The  principal  amongst  them  are  Urbino,  whose  greatest 
glory  consists  in  having  been  the  birthplace  of  Kaphael,  and  which,  like  its  neighbour 
Pesaro,  formerly  produced  a  kind  of  faience  much  valued  by  connoisseurs  ;  Jesi ; 
Osimo  ;  Maxerata  ;  Recanati,  the  native  place  of  Leopardi ;  and  Fermo.  One  of  the 
most  famous  of  these  hill  towns  is  Loreto,  formerly  the  mo&t-frequented  place  of 
pilgrimage  in  the  Christian  world.     Before  the  Reformation,  and  at  a  time  when 

•  Tonnage  of  veBS«!ls  which  entered  and  cleared  from  .Yncona  in  the  coast  and  foriegn  trade;  258,292 
tons  in  1858,  37^,877  Ions  in  1867,  751,689  Ions  in  1875. 


284  ITALY. 

travelling  was  far  more  difficult  tlian  now,  as  many  as  200,000  devotees  visited 
the  shrines  of  Lorcto  every  year.  They  were  shown  there  the  veritable  house  in 
which  the  Virgin  Mary  was  bom,  and  which  was  carried  by  angels  to  the  spot 
it  now  occupies,  where  it  is  sheltered  by  a  niagniticently  decorated  (loiiie.  At 
Castelfidurdo,  close  by,  was  fought  the  battle  which  cost  the  Pope  the  greater  part 
of  the  "  patrimony  of  St.  Peter." 

There  are  only  a  few  towns  in  the  uplands  of  the  Abruzzos.  The  principal  of 
these  is  Aquila,  founded  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
The  other  towns  are  difficult  of  access,  and,  far  from  attracting  inhabitants  from 
beyond,  they  send  their  vigorous  sous  to  the  lowlands,  where  they  are  known  as 
Aquilani,  and  highly  appreciated  as  terrace  gardeners.  The  most  populous  places 
are  met  with  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Aterno,  or  command  the  road  leading  to 
the  coast  and  the  fertile  fields  of  the  Adriatic  slope.  Solmona  is  embedded  in  a 
huge  garden,  anciently  a  lake,  and  overlooked  in  the  south  bj-  the  steep  scarps  of 
Monte  Majella.  Popoli,  at  the  mouth  of  a  defile,  where  the  Aterno  assumes  the 
name  of  Pescara,  is  one  of  the  busiest  places  between  the  sea  and  the  uplands. 
Chieti,  lower  down  on  the  same  river,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  town  in  the  old 
Neapolitan  province  to  introduce  steam  into  its  spinning-mills  and  other  factories, 
Teramo  and  Lanciano  are  likewise  places  of  some  importance,  but  the  only  ports 
along  the  coast,  Ortona  and  Vasto,  are  merely  frequented  by  small  coasting  vessels.* 

A  small  district  in  the  Marches,  joined  to  the  coast  b_v  a  single  road,  has 
maintained  its  independence  through  ages.  Monte  Titano,  which  rises  in  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  parts  of  the  Apennines,  and  the  base  of  which  has  been  used  as 
a  quarry  since  time  immemorial,  bears  upon  its  summit  the  old  and  famous  city 
of  San  Marino.  From  its  turreted  walls  the  citizens  can  see  the  sun  rise  above 
the  Illyrian  Alps.  San  Marino,  with  some  neighbouring  hamlets,  constitutes  a 
"most  illustrious "  republic,  and  is  now  the  only  independent  municipality  of 
Italy.  Named  after  a  Dalmatian  mason  who  lived  as  a  hermit  on  Monte  Titano, 
San  Marino  has  existed  as  a  sovereign  state  from  the  fourth  century,  its  citizens 
having  at  all  times  known  how  to  turn  to  advantage  the  jealousies  of  their  neigh- 
bours. The  constitution  of  this  republic,  however,  is  anything  but  democratic. 
The  citizens,  even  though  they  be  landed  proprietors,  have  no  votes,  and  are  at 
most  permitted  to  remonstrate.  The  supreme  power  is  vested  in  a  Council  of  si.xty 
members,  composed  of  nobles,  citizens,  and  landowners.  The  title  of  councillor  is 
hereditary  in  the  family,  and  when  a  family  becomes  extinct  the  remaining  fifty- 
nine  choose  another.  The  Council  appoints  the  various  officials,  including  a  captain 
for  the  town  and  one  for  the  country.  San  Marino  has  its  little  army,  its  budget, 
and  its  monopolies.  A  portion  of  its  income  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  titles  and 
of  decorations,  and  on  the  payment  of  £1,400  it  has  even  created  dukes,  who  take 
rank  with  the  highest  nobility  of  the  kingdom.  Taxation  is  vi,luntary.  When 
the  public  chest  is  empty  a  drummer  is  sent  round  the  town  to  invite  contribu- 

♦  Towns  of  the  Marches  having  over  10,000  inliaLitant9:—Aneona,  35,111 ;  Jesi,  13,472;  Sinigagliii, 
11,173;  Ascoli-Piceno,  11,373;  Fcrmo,  1.5,862;  Slaceiuta,  11,194;  Pesaro,  12,  i75;  Urbino,  10,194. 

^ir«;ro».-—Laneiano,  15,432;  Chieti,  14,321  ;  Aquila,  13,513;  Campobusso,  13,345  ;  Solmona,  12,583; 
Vnsta,  10.093. 


THE  APENNINES,  TIBER,  MARCHES,  AND  ABEUZZOS. 


285 


tions.  Though  perfectly  independent,  this  republic  accepts  a  subsidy  from  Italy, 
and  claims  the  special  protection  of  the  King.  Its  criminals  are  shut  up  in  au 
Italian  prison,  its  public  documents  are  printed  in  Italy,  and  an  Italian  judge 
occupies  the  bench  of  the  republican  prtctorium.     There  is  no  printing-office  in  the 


Fijf.  101. — Rimini  and  San  Making. 
Scale  1  :  250.00O. 


r  /'•>^-.>^'-i 


»u 


..^a5S-.ifiri».t~-> 


■  5  Miles. 


little   state,  for  the  Council  is  afraid  that  book.s  objectionable  to  tlie  surrounding 
kins'dom  mig-ht  be  issued  from  it.* 


*  Aiea  of  San  Marliin.  24  square  iiiilus;  pojiulation  (1874),  ",S1C. 


•21 


286  ITALY. 

VI. — SuiTHEiiN  Italy,  Naples. 

Amoxost  the  various  states  which  have  been  wehled  into  the  modern  kiui;dom  of 
Italy,  Najjles,  though  second  to  others  in  popuhition  and  industry,  occupies  tlio 
largest  area.*  It  embraces  the  whole  southern  half  of  the  peninsula,  and  its  coast 
has  a  development  of  995  miles.  Formerly  the  country  was  better  known  than 
any  other  portion  of  Italy  us  Magna  Gra-cia,  but  now  many  pa.ts  of  it  are 
scarcely  known  at  all. 

The  Apennines  of  Naples  can  hardly  be  described  as  a  mountain  chain.  They 
consist  rather  of  distinct  mountain  groups  joined  by  transverse  ranges,  or  by 
elevated  saddles.  In  the  first  of  these  groups  the  serrated  crest  of  the  Mcta 
(7,304  feet)  rises  above  the  zone  of  trees,  and  is  separated  from  the  Abruzzos  by 
the  deep  vaUey  of  the  Sangro,  which  flows  to  the  Adriatic.  Farther  to  the  south, 
beyond  the  valley  of  Isernia,  which  gives  birth  to  the  Volturno,  rise  the  mountains  of 
the  ilateso,  culminating  in  the  Miletto  (0,717  feet),  the  last  bulwark  of  the  Samnitos. 
Other  summits,  less  elevated,  but  equally  steep  and  imposing,  rise  near  Henevento 
and  Avellino.  They  abound  in  savage  defiles,  in  which  many  a  bloody  battle  has 
been  fought.  The  valley  of  the  "  Furcaj  Caudina;,"  where  the  Romans  humbled 
themselves  before  the  Saninites,  and  made  promises  which  they  never  meant  to 
keep,  may  still  be  recognised  on  the  road  from  Naples  to  Benevento.  The  memory 
of  this  event  lives  in  the  Caudarola  Road,  and  the  village  of  Forchia  d'Arpaia.  This 
mountain  region,  which  might  fitly  be  called  after  its  ancient  inhabitants,  is  con- 
nected in  the  south  with  a  transversal  chain,  running  cast  and  west,  and  termi- 
nating in  Cape  Campanello,  to  the  south  of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  The  beautiful 
island  of  Capri,  with  its  white  cliffs  and  caverns  flooded  by  the  azure  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean,  lies  ofl"  this  cape. 

The  eastern  slope  of  the  cretaceous  mountains  of  Naples  is  gentle,  and  gradually 
merges  in  argillaceous  tavolicri,  or  tal)le-land.s,  deposited  during  the  riiocene 
epoch.  The  tavoliere  de  la  Puijlia  is,  perhaps,  the  most  sterile  and  dreary 
portion  of  Italy.  It  is  cut  up  into  terraces  by  deep  ravines,  through  which 
insignificant  streams  find  their  way  to  the  Adriatic,  and  the  centres  of  population 
must  be  looked  for  at  the  mouths  of  vallej's  or  along  the  high-roads.  The  country 
itself  is  a  vast  solitude,  deserted  by  all  except  nomad  herdsmen.  There  are  no 
shrubs,  and  a  kind  of  fennel,  which  forms  the  hedges  separating  the  pasturing 
grounds,  is  the  largest  plant  to  be  seen.  Hovels,  resembling  tombs  or  heaps  of 
stone,  rise  here  and  there  in  the  midst  of  these  plains.  Fortunately  the  old  feudal 
customs  which  prevented  the  cultivation  of  these  plains,  and  compelled  the  moun- 
taineers to  keep  open  wide  paths,  or  tratturi,  through  thtir  fields  for  the  passage 
of  sheep,  have  been  abolished,  and  the  aspect  of  the  tavoliere  improves  from  year 
to  year. 

These  tavolieri  completely  separate  the  mountains  of  the  peninsula  of  Gargano 
— the  "  spur  "  of  the  Italian  "  boot  " — from  the  system  of  the  Apennines.  The 
northern  slopes  of   these  rugged  mountains  are  still  clad  with  forests  of  beeches 

•  Area,  e.\clujive  of  the  Abruzzos,  28,002  squ.ire  milts;  population,  0,2.51,750. 


SOUTHEKN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


287 


and  pines,  ^^^hich  suppl}'  the  best  pitch  of  Italy,  and  by  thickets  of  carob-trees  and 
other  plants,  whose  flowers  are  transfoimed  by  the  bees  into  delicious  honey  ;  but 
the  very  name  of  the  most  elevated  summit — Monte  Calvo  (5,150  feet),  or  "  bald 
mountain  " — proves  that  the  deplorable  destruction  of  forests  has  been  going  on 
here  as  in  the  rest  of  the  peninsula.  In  former  times  the  recesses  of  Monte 
Garguno  were  held  by  Saracen  pirates,  and  they  defied  the  Christians  there  for  a 
long  time,  in  spite  of  the  many  sanctuaries  which  had  been  substituted  for  the 
ancient  heathen  temjdes.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  the  church  on  Monte 
Sant'  Angelo,  at  the  back  of  Manfredonia,  which  was  frequently  resorted  to  by  the 
navigator  about  to  leave  the  shelter  of  the  bay  for  the  dangerous  coasts  of  Dalmntia 
or  the  open  sea. 

Fig.  103. — Monte  Gakgano. 
Scab  1 :  950,000. 


V>°\3oTc..otOF. 


IjOSo 


The  Neapolitan  Apennines  terminate  in  the  south  with  the  ancient  volcano  of 
Monte  Vullur  (4,35G  feet).  Farther  south  the  country  gradually  sinks  down 
into  a  table-land  intersected  by  deep  ravines,  which  discharge  their  waters  in  three 
directions — towards  the  Bay  of  Salerno,  the  Bay  of  Taranto,  and  the  Adriatic. 
The  Apennines,  far  from  bifurcating,  as  shown  on  old  maps,  are  cut  in  two  by 
the  low  saddle  of  Potenza,  and  on  the  peninsula  forming  the  "  heel "  of  Italy  only 
low  ridges  and  terraces  are  met  with. 

The  peninsula  of  Calabria,  however,  is  rugged  and  moimtainous.  The  Apen- 
nines, near  Lagonegro,  again  rise  above  the  zone  of  forests.  Monte  Polino 
(7,G56  feet)  is  the  highest  summit  in  Naples.     The  gr  up  of  which  it  forms  the 


283  ITALY. 

centre  occupies  the  entire  width  of  the  peninsula,  and  along  its  western  coast  it 
forms  a  wall  of  cliffs  even  less  accessible  than  those  of  Ijiguria.  Towards 
the  south  it  opens  out  into  wooded  valleys,  where  the  inhabitants  collect  manna, 
an  esteemed  medicinal  drug.  The  deep  valley  of  the  Crati  separates  these 
mountains  from  the  Sila  (5,803  feet),  which  is  composed  of  granites  and  schists, 
and  still  retains  its  ancient  forests,  haunted  by  brigands.  The  shepherds  who 
pasture  their  flocks  in  the  clearings  of  these  woods  are  said  to  be  the  descendants 
of  the  Saracens,  who  formerly  occupied  this  "  Country  of  Rosin,"  by  which  name 
it  was  known  to  the  Greeks. 

To  the  south  of  the  isolated  Sila  the  peninsula  narrows  to  a  neck  of  small 
elevation,  where  raised  beaches  attest  the  successive  retreats  of  the  sea.  A 
third  mountain  mass,  of  crystalline  formation,  rises  to  the  south  of  this  depres- 
sion, its  furrowed  slopes  clad  in  forests.  This  is  the  Aspromonte  (6,263  feet;,  or 
"  rugged  mountain."  One  of  its  spurs  forms  the  p  ilm-clad  promontory  of  Spurti- 
vcnto,  or  "  parting  of  the  winds." 

Naples,  like  Latium,  has  its  volcanic  mountains,  which  form  two  irregular  ranges, 
one  on  the  continent,  the  other  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  and  are,  perhap-s,  connected 
beneath  the  sea  with  the  volcanic  mountains  of  the  Liparic  Islands  and  Mount 
Etna.  One  of  these  is  !XIount  Vesuvius,  the  most  famous  volcano  of  the  world,  not 
because  of  its  height  or  the  terror  of  its  eruptions,  but  because  its  history  is  that 
of  an  entire  population  who  have  made  its  lavas  their  home. 

Scarcely  have  we  left  the  defile  of  Gacta  and  entered  upon  the  par..disiac,il 
Terra  di  Lavoro  than  we  come  upon  the  first  volcano,  the  Rocca  Monfina  (3,300 
feet),  which  rises  between  two  calcareous  mountains,  one  of  which  is  the  Massico, 
whose  wines  have  been  sung  by 'Horace.  No  eruption  of  this  volcano  is  on 
record,  and  a  village  now  occupies  its  sliattcred  crater.  To  judge  from  the 
streams  of  lava  which  surrouud  its  tracbytic  cone,  its  eruptions  must  have 
been  formidable.  Tha  entire  Campania  is  covered  to  an  unascertained  depth 
with  ashes  ejected  from  it,  and  the  marine  shells  found  in  them  prove  that  the 
whole  of  this  region  must  have  been  upheaved  at  a  comparatively  recent 
epoch. 

The  hills  which  rise  to  the  south  of  the  Campania  cannot  boast  of  the  grandeur 
of  the  Rocca  Monfina,  but  they  have  been  looked  upon  from  the  most  remote 
times  as  one  of  the  great  curiosities  of  our  earth.  Standing  upon  the  com- 
manding height  of  the  Camaldoli  (518  feet),  the  Phlegra-an  Fields  lie  at  our 
fast.  Acquainted  as  we  now  are  with  the  far  more  formidable  volcai  oes  of  Java 
and  the  Andes,  this  verdant  sea-bound  country  may  not  strike  us  as  a  region  of 
horrors.  But  our  Gra>co-Roman  predecessors  looked  upon  it  with  very  different 
eyes,  and  being  unable  to  account  for  the  phenomena  they  witnessed,  they 
ascribed  them  to.  the  gods.  The  quaking  soil,  the  flames  bursting  forth  from 
hidden  furnaces,  the  gaping  funnels  communicating  with  unexplored  caverns,  lakes 
which  disappeared  at  irregular  intervals,  and  others  exhaling  deadly  gases — all 
these  tilings  left  their  impress  upon  ancient  mythology  and  poetry.  At  the  time 
of  Strabo  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Baiae  had  become  the  favourite  resort  of 


• 


THE     BAY     OF    NAPL£S. 


1 


Eng.   LvFrh. 


r 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


289 


voluptuaries,  and  sumptuous  villas  rose  upon  every  promontory  ;  but  the  terrors 
inspired  by  hidden  flumes  and  mysterious  caverns  had  not  yet  departed.  A 
dreaded  oracle  Vv'as  said  to  have  its  seat  there,  guarded  by  Cimmerians,  to  whom 
strangers  desirous  of  consulting  the  gods  had  to  applj'.  These  troglodytae  were 
doomed  never  to  behold  the  sun,  and  only  quitted  their  caverns  during  the  nighl. 

Fig.   106. — The  Ashes  of  the  C.\mp.\xia. 
Accoi-ding  to  Carl  Vogt.    Scale  1  :  83.^,400. 


reoenl  i^vo^ 


10  Miles. 


The  Phlegrsean Fields  were  likewise  supposed  to  have  been  the  battle-ground  of 
giants  struggling  for  the  possession  of  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Campania.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  Pozzuoli  was  looked  upon  as  the  spot  from  which  Christ  descended 
into  hell. 

The  number  of  craters  stiU  distinguishable  is  twenty.      If  we  were  to  suppose 


'21)0  ITALY. 

the  country  to  be  deprived  of  its  vrgetation,  its  aspect  would  rescmlilc  tliat  of  the 
surface  of  the  moon.  Even  the  city  of  Naples  occupies  an  ancient  crater,  the 
contours  of  which  have  become  almost  obliterated.  To  the  west  of  it  several  old 
craters  can  still  be  traced,  one  of  them  occupying  a  promontory  of  tufa,  suriiiouiited 
by  what  is  called  the  tomb  of  Virgil.  Passing  through  the  famous  giutto  of 
rosilippo,  we  find  ourselves  in  the  Phlcgranin  Fiells.  On  our  left  rises  the  .small 
conical  island  of  Nisita,  its  ancient  crater  invaded  by  the  sea.  Farther  on  we 
reach  the  crater  known  as  the  Solfatara,  the  Forum  Vulcaiii  of  tlie  ancients.  Its 
last  eruption  took  place  in  11 9S,  but  it  still  exhales  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The 
Park  of  Astroni  lies  to  the  north.  The  interior  slope  of  its  enclosing  wall  is  exceed- 
ingly steep,  so  as  to  render  impossible  the  escape  of  the  deer  and  boars  which 
are  kept  within.  The  only  access  is  through  an  artificial  breach.  Another  crater, 
less  regular  in  shape,  is  now  filled  with  the  bubbling  waters  of  the  Lake  of 
Agnano.  Near  it  is  the  fixmous  Grotto  of  Dogs,  wiih  its  spring  of  carbonic  acid. 
Other  springs  of  gas  and  sulphurous  water  rise  in  the  neiglibourhood,  and  to 
them  Pozzuoli  is  indebted  for  its  name,  which  is  said  to  mean  the  "  town  of 
stinks."  The  town,  in  turn,  has  given  its  name  to  the  earth  known  as  pozzuolana, 
which  supplies  an  excellent  material  for  the  manufacture  of  cement. 

Tlie  coast  of  the  bay  of  Pozzuoli  lias  niulergune  repeated  changes  of  level,  in 
proof  of  which  the  three  coluuins  of  the  tL'ni])le  of  Serapis  are  usually  referred  to. 
At  a  time  anterior  to  the  Komans  this  temple,  together  with  the  beach  upon  which 
it  .stands,  sank  beneath  the  waters  of  the  sea,  and  its  columns  must  have  been  exjjosed 
to  tlicir  action  for  many  years,  parhaps  centuries,  for  up  to  a  heiglit  of  twenty 
feet  they  are  covered  with  tubes  of  serpulae,  and  perforated  by  innumerable  holes 
bored  by  pholadidte.  In  the  course  of  time  it  rose  again  slowly  above  the  waters. 
This  huj)pcncd,  perhaps,  in  lo-"jS,  when  the  Monte  Nuovo  sprang  into  existence.  In 
the  short  period  of  four  days  this  now  volcano,  490  feet  in  height,  rose  above  the 
surrounding  plain,  and  buried  the  village  of  Tripergola  beneath  its  ashes.  A  beach 
now  known  as  La  Starza  was  formed  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  and  two  sheets  of 
water  to  the  west  of  Monte  Nuovo  were  cut  off  from  the  sea.  One  of  tlie.se,  the  Lago 
Lucrino,  is  famous  for  its  oysters  ;  the  other  is  the  Lago  d'Averno,  which  A'irgil,  in 
conformity  with  antique  legends,  described  as  the  entrance  to  the  infernal  regions. 
It  occupies  an  ancient  crater,  and  its  pellucid  waters  abound  in  fish.  There  are  no 
exhalations  of  poisonous  gases  now,  and  birds  fly  over  the  lake  with  impuin'ty.  Still 
its  vicinity  is  haunted  by  the  memories  of  the  old  pagan  mythology.  Lake  Fusaro 
is  referred  to  by  the  ciceroni  as  the  Acheron  ;  close  to  it  they  point  out  the  den  of 
Cerberus  ;  the  sluggish  stream  of  Acqua  Morta  has  been  identified  with  the  Cocy  tus  ; 
Lake  Lucrino,  or  rather  a  spring  near  it,  with  the  Styx  ;  and  the  remains  of  a  sub- 
terranean passage  which  connected  the  Avcrno  with  the  sea  are  pointed  out  as  the 
whilom  grotto  of  the  Sibyl.  The  inhabitants  of  Cumac,  which  was  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Chalcis,  and  the  ruins  of  which  still  exist  on  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
to  the  cast  of  Pozzuoli,  brought  with  them  the  myths  of  Ilcllas,  and  Grecian  poetry, 
which  took  possession  of  them,  has  kept  their  memory  alive. 

It  is  quite  proper  that  this  region  of  Tartarus  should  have  its  contrast  in  Elysian 


SOUTHERX  ITALY,  NAPLES.  201 

Fields,  and  this  name  has  actually  been  bestowed  upon  a  portion  of  the  peninsula 
of  Baisc,  which  formed  the  chief  attraction  of  the  voluptuous  Romans,  and  where 
Marius,  Pompey,  Cajsar,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Claudius,  Agrijjpina,  Nero,  and 
others  had  their  palaces.  Many  a  fearful  tragedy  has  been  enacted  in  these 
sumptuous  buildings.  But  hardly  a  trace  of  them  exists  now  ;  nature  has 
resumed  possession  of  the  country,  and  the  hills  of  tufa  and  volcanoes  are  the 
only  curiosities  of  the  peninsula.  Cape  Miseno  is  one  of  these  old  volcanoes,  and 
from  its  summit  may  be  enjoyed  one  of  the  most  delightful  prospects  in  the  world. 
The  whole  of  the  Bay  of  Naples — "a  bit  of  heaven  fallen  upon  our  earth" — lies 
spread  out  beneath  us,  and  Ischia  the  joyous,  formidable  Capri,  the  promontory  of 
Sorrento,  Mount  Vesuvius,  and  the  houses  and  villas  of  Naples  fiU  up  the  space 
bounded  by  the  sea  and  the  distant  Apennines. 

The  island  of  Procida  joins  the  Phlegraean  Fields  to  the  chain  of  island  volcanoes 
lying  off  the  Ba}'  of  Gaeta.  Ischia  is  the  most  important  of  these,  and  its  volcano, 
the  Epomeo  (2, .520  feet),  almost  rivals  Mount  Vesuvius  in  height.  One  of  its 
most  formidable  eruptions  occurred  in  1302,  at  a  time  when  Mount  Vesuvius 
was  quiescent,  but  after  the  latter  resumed  its  activity  Ischia  remained  in 
repose.  Similarly,  when  the  Monte  Nuovo  was  ejected  from  the  earth,  the  huge 
volcano  went  to  sleep  for  no  less  a  period  than  one  hundred  and  thirty  j'ears. 
Ischia  has  known  no  eruption  for  five  centuries  and  a  half,  and  the  gases  escaping 
from  its  thirty  or  forty  hot  springs  are  now  the  only  signs  of  volcanic  activity. 

Ischia  has  certainly  been  upheaved  during  a  comparatively  recent  epoch,  for 
its  trachytic  lavas  rest  in  many  places  upon  clays  and  marls  containing  marine 
shells  of  living  Mediterranean  species.  Some  of  these  have  been  found  at  a  height 
of  nearly  2,000  feet.  At  the  present  time  the  tufa  rocks  of  Ischia,  and  of  the  other 
volcanic  islands  to  the  west  of  it,  are  being  washed  away  by  the  sea.  Ventotene, 
the  ancient  Pandataria,  to  which  the  Poman  princesses  were  exiled,  is  hardly 
more  now  than  a  heap  of  scoriae.  Ponza,  likewise  a  place  of  exile  of  the  Romans, 
has  been  separated  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  sea  into  a  number  of  smaller 
islands.  Its  lavas  overlie  Jurassic  rocks,  similar  in  all  respects  to  those  of  Monte 
Circello  on  the  coast  nearest  to  it. 

Mount  Vesuvius  (4,100  feet),  the  pride  and  dread  of  the  Neapolitans,  was  like- 
wise an  island  during  prehistoric  times.  The  marine  shells  found  in  the  tufa  of 
Monte  Somma  prove  this,  and  on  the  east  the  volcano  is  still  surrounded  by  plains 
but  little  elevated  above  the  sea.  Formerly  the  mountain  was  covered  with 
verdure  to  its  very  summit,  but  the  explosion  of  a.  d.  79  shattered  its  cone,  and 
the  ashes  thrown  up  into  the  air  shrouded  tlie  whole  of  the  country  in  darkness. 
Even  at  Home  the  sun  was  hidden,  and  an  age  of  darkness  w;us  believed  to  have 
set  in.  When  at  length  the  light  reappeared,  the  face  of  the  country  was  found 
to  have  undergone  a  marvellous  change.  The  mountain  had  lost  its  shape,  the 
fertile  fields  were  hidden  by  masses  of  dt5bris,  and  entire  towns  had  been  buried 
beneath  ashes. 

Since  that  terrible  event  Mount  Vesuvius  has  vomited  lavas  and  ashes  on  mseny 
occasions.     No  periodicity  has  been  traced  in  these  outbursts,  and  the  intervals 


202 


ITALY. 


of  repose  were  generally  of  sufficient  duration  to  enable  vegetation  to  resume  its 
Gwav.  But  these  eruptions  have  become  more  frequent  since  the  seventecntli 
century,  and  hardly  a  decade  passes  by  without  one  or  more  of  them.  Each  of  them 
modifies  the  contours  of  the  mountain,  whose  great  central  vent  has  undergone 
numv  changes.  The  crescent-shaped  mass  of  debris  which  surrounds  the  old 
crater,  known  as  the  Atrio  del  Cavallo,  was  undoubtedly  of  loftier  height 
previously  to  the  great  outburst  of  79  than  it  is  now.  The  vicinity  of  Naples  has 
facilitated  a  study  of  tlie  plieuomcna  attending  volc-auic  crujitioiis,  and  an 
observatory,  permanently  occupied,  has  been  built  close  to  the  cone  of  eruiition. 

Tlio  neighbourhood  of  Blount  Vesuvius,  like  that  of  all  other  volcanoes,  idxiunds 
in  hot  and  gas  springs,  but  there  are  no  subsidiary  craters.      The  nearest  volcano 


Fig.  107. — EaiTTiox  of  Moi-nt  VEsfvivs,  AruiL  20nr,  t"."? 


is  ilonte  Vultur  (4,3oG  feet),  a  regular  cone  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  peninsula. 
Its  dimensions  are  larger  than  those  of  Vesuvius,  but  no  eruptions  are  on  record, 
though  a  slight  escape  of  carbonic  acid  is  still  going  on  from  the  two  lakes  which 
occupy  the  bottom  of  its  vast  crater.  On  a  line  connecting  Ischia,  Vesuvius,  and 
Monte  "Wiltur,  and  about  half-way  between  the  two  latter,  we  meet  with  the  most 
abundant  carbonic  acid  spring  of  Italy.  The  gas  escapes  with  a  hissing  noise 
from  the  pond  of  Ansanto,  and  the  ground  around  the  spring  is  covered  with  the 
remains  of  insects,  killed  in  myriads  on  coming  within  the  influence  of  the 
poisonous  air.  Xear  it  the  Romans  erected  a  temple  in  honour  of  Juno  the 
Mephitic. 

The  disasters  resulting  from  volcanic  eruptions  are  great,  no  doubt,  but  they 


SOUTHERN  ITAI.T,  XAPLES.  293 

are  exceeded  by  those  caused  by  earthquakes.  Some  of  these  are  unquestion- 
ably caused  by  a  subterranean  disphicement  of  lava,  and  thus,  when  Yesuvius 
begins  to  stir,  Torre  del  Greco  and  other  towns  at  its  foot  incur  the  risk 
of  being  buried  beneath  ashes  or  destroj'ed  by  earthquakes.  But  the  Basili- 
cata  and  Calabria — that  is  to  say,  the  two  provinces  lying  between  the  vol- 
canic foci  of  Vesuvius  and  Etna — have  many  times  been  shaken  by  earthquakes 
whose  origin  cannot  be  traced  to  volcanic  agencies.  Out  of  a  thousand  earth- 
quakes recorded  in  Southern  Italy  during  the  last  three  centuries,  nearly  all 
occurred  in  the  provinces  named,  and  they  were  occasionally  attended  by  the  most 
disastrous  results.  The  earthquake  of  1S57  cost  the  lives  of  10,000  persons  at 
I'otenza  and  its  vicinity,  but  the  most  disastrous  of  these  events  happened  in  ITSf) 
in  Southern  Calabria.  The  first  shock,  which  proceeded  from  a  focus  beneath  the 
town  of  Oppido,  in  the  Asproraonte  Mountains,  only  lasted  a  hundred  seconds,  but 
within  that  short  space  of  time  109  towns  and  villages  were  overthrown,  and 
32,000  of  their  inhabitants  buried  beneath  their  ruins.  Crevasses  opened  in  the 
ground ;  rivers  were  swallowed  up,  to  reappear  again  lower  down  as  lakes  ;  liquid 
clay  flowed  down  the  hill-slopes  like  lava, -con verting  fertile  fields  into  unproductive 
wastes.  The  commotion  of  the  sea  added  to  these  horrors.  Many  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  Scilla,  afraid  to  remain  on  the  quaking  land,  fled  to  their  boats,  when  an 
enormous  mass  of  rock  detached  itself  from  a  neighbouring  mountain,  and, 
tumbling  into  the  sea,  produced  a  wave  which  upset  the  boats  and  cast  their 
fragments  upon  the  shore.  Want  of  food  brought  on  famine,  and  tyi^hus,  as 
usual,  came  in  its  train. 

We  are  not  yet  able  to  predict  earthquakes,  and  can  only  provide  against  them 
by  a  suitable  construction  of  our  dwellings.  There  exists,  however,  another  cause 
of  misery  and  depopulation  which  the  Neapolitans  might  successfullj'  combat, 
as  was  done  by  their  ancestors.  In  the  time  of  the  Greeks  the  swamps  along 
the  coast  were  certainly  less  extensive  than  they  are  now.  War,  and  a  return 
towards  barbarism,  have  caused  the  rivers  to  be  neglected,  and  to  produce  a 
deterioration  in  the  climate.  Baia,  a  place  once  famous  on  account  of  its  healthi- 
ness, has  become  the  home  of  malaria.  Sybaris,  the  town  of  luxury  and  pleasure, 
has  been  supplanted  by  a  fever-plain  "  which  eats  more  men  than  it  is  able  to 
nourish."  These  paludial  miasmata,  poverty,  and  ignorance  decimate  the  popu- 
lation of  La  Puglia,  Basilicata,  and  Calabria.  Even  certain  Asiatic  diseases,  such 
as  elephantiasis  and  leprosy,  ravage  the  country,  which,  from  its  rare  fertility 
and  fine  climate,  ought  to  be  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  greatest  prosperity. 

Continental  Sicily  is  indeed  a  favoured  region,  and  its  eastern  slopes  more 
especially  might  be  converted  into  one  huge  garden,  for  the  rainfall  there  is 
abundant.  Naples  enjoys  a  .semi-tropical  climate,  and  its  winter  temperature  is 
hardly  inferior  to  the  annual  mean  of  London.  Snow  verj'  rarely  falls,  and  only 
remains  on  the  tops  of  the  hills  for  a  few  weeks.*  The  vegetation  along  the  coatt 
is  of  tropical  luxuriance.  Oranges  and  lemons  bear  excellent  fruit ;  date-palms 
uplift  their  fan-shaped  leaves,  and  sometimes    bear   fruit;   the  American  agave 

*  Mean  annual  teinperatuie  of  Naples,  62'  F. ;  extremes,  23°  and  104° ;  rainfull,  37  inclies. 


21)4  ITALY. 

stretches  forth  its  candelabra-like  brunches ;  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  other  industrial 
plants,  which  elsewhere  in  Europe  are  scarcely  ever  met  with  outside  hothouses, 
jjrow  in  the  fields  In  the  forests  of  Calabria  the  olive-tree  affords  as  niucli  sliade 
as  does  the  beech  with  us.  Even  the  bare  rocks  on  the  coast  yield  excellent 
grapes  and  garden  fruits.  Naples,  Sicil}',  Andalusia,  and  certain  districts  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  realise  our  beau  ideal  of  the  sub-tropical  zone,  and  only 
the  heaths  on  the  Adriatic  slope  and  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Apennines  remind 
us  that  we  are  still  in  Central  Europs. 

This  delightful  country  is  inhabited  by  a  people  having  the  most  diverse 
origin.  It  is  now  2,300  years  since  the  Samnitcs  occupied  the  whole  of  it 
from  sea  to  sea.  They  were  more  numerous  than  the  Romans,  and  might  have 
conquered  the  whole  of  Italy  had  there  been  more  cohesion  amongst  them,  and 
some  of  that  talent  for  organization  which  constituted  the  strength  of  their 
adversaries.  But  they  were  split  into  five  tribes,  each  speaking  a  different 
dialect;  and  whilst  the  Saniuites  of  the  hills  (piarrelled  with  their  kinsmen  in  the 
plains,  the  latter  were  at  enmity  with  the  Ilellenized  Samnitcs  who  lived  near 
the  Greek  towns  on  the  coast. 

The  whole  of  the  coast  of  Southern  Italy,  from  Cumno — founded  more  than  a 
thousand  years  before  our  era — to  Sipuntum,  of  wliich  some  ruins  remain  near  the 
modern  Manfredonia,  was  dotted  with  Greek  colonics.  In  these  districts  of 
Southern  Italy  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  of  very  different  origin  from  that 
of  other  parts  of  the  peninsula.  To  the  north  of  Monte  Gargano,  Celtic, 
Etruscan,  and  Latin  elements  preponderate,  whilst  Hellenes,  Pelasgians,  and 
kindred  races  dominate  in  the  south.  Not  only  did  civilised  Greeks  found  their 
colonies  there,  but  the  aboriginal  population,  the  lapygians,  spoke  a  dialect  akin 
to  the  Hellenic,  and  Mommsen  may  be  right  when  he  conjectures  that  these 
lapygians  were  of  the  same  origin  as  the  modern  Albanians. 

At  a  subsequent  date  these  southern  Italians  had  to  bow  down  before  the 
Romans,  who  founded  military  colonies  amongst  them,  but  never  succeeded  in 
completely  Latinising  them.  "When  the  Roman  Empire  fell  to  pieces  the  Gcsars 
of  Byzantium  still  maintained  themselves  for  a  long  time  in  Southern  Italy,  and  the 
Greek  language  again  preponderated,  but  gradually  Romance  dialects  gained  the 
upper  hand.  The  inhabitants  returned  to  a  state  of  barbarism,  but  they  retained 
to  a  great  extent  their  language  and  customs,  and  even  now  there  are  districts  in 
the  south  which  are  Italian  in  appearance  rather  than  in  reality,  and  in  eight 
villages  of  the  Terra  d'Otranto  the  Hellenic  dialect  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  still 
spoken.  Towns  like  Naples,  Nicastro,  Taranto,  Gallipoli,  Jlonopoli,  and  others, 
whilst  preserving  their  sonorous  Greek  names,  have  also  retained  many  features 
which  recall  the  times  of  Magna  GrsEcia. 

Reggio — that  is,  the  "  city  of  the  strait  " — appears  to  have  retained  the  use  of 
Greek  much  longer  than  any  other  town,  and  its  patricians,  who  boasted  of  being 
pure  lonians,  still  spoke  the  language  of  their  ancestors  towards  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  In  several  remote  towns  of  the  interior  Greek  was  formerly 
in  common  use.     The  old  popular  songs  of  Bova,  a  small  town  near  the  southern 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES.  295 

extremity  of  Italy,  are  in  an  Ionian  dialect  more  like  the  language  of  Xenopbon 
than  is  modern  Greek.  Down  to  a  verj'  recent  date  the  peasants  near  Iloccaforte  del 
Greco,  Condofuri,  and  Cardeto  spoke  Greek,  and  when  they  appeared  before  a  magis- 
trate they  required  an  interpreter.  At  the  present  day  all  young  people  speak 
Italian ;  the  old  language  has  been  forgotten,  but  the  Greek  type  remains.  The 
men  and  women  of  Cardeto  are  famous  for  their  beauty,  more  especially  the  latter. 
"  They  are  Minervas,"  we  are  told  by  a  local  historian.  Their  jjrincipal  livelihood 
consists  in  acting  as  wet  nurses  to  the  children  of  the  citizens  of  Eeggio.  The 
women  of  Bagnara,  between  Scilla  and  Palmi,  are  likewise  of  wondrous  beauty, 
but  their  features  are  stern,  betraying  Arab  blood,  and  they  are  destitute  of  the 
noble  placidity  of  the  Greek. 

It  is  said  that  the  women  of  the  Hellenic  villages  of  Calabria  are  stiU  in  the 
habit  of  executing  a  sacred  dance,  which  lasts  for  hours,  and  resembles  the  repre- 
sentations we  meet  with  on  ancient  vases,  only  they  dance  before  the  church 
instead  of  the  temple,  and  their  ceremonies  are  blessed  by  Christian  priests. 
Funerals  are  accompanied  by  weeping  women,  who  collect  their  tears  in  lachry- 
matories. Elsewhere,  as  in  the  environs  of  Tarento,  the  children  consecrate  the 
hair  of  their  head  to  the  manes  of  their  ancestors.  Old  morals,  no  less  than  old 
customs,  have  been  preserved.  Woman  is  still  looked  upon  as  an  inferior  being, 
and  even  at  Reggio  the  wives  of  citizens  or  noblemen  who  respect  ancient 
tradition  confine  themselves  to  the  gynaeceum.  They  do  not  visit  the  theatre,  go 
out  but  rarely,  and  when  they  walk  abroad  are  attended  by  barefooted  servants, 
and  not  by  their  husbands. 

In  addition  to  Samnites,  lapygians,  and  Greeks,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the 
population  of  Southern  Italy,  we  meet  with  Etruscans  in  the  Campania  ;  Saracens 
in  the  peninsula  of  Gargano,  in  the  Campania,  the  marina  of  Reggio,  Bagnara, 
and  other  coast  towns  ;  Lombards  in  Benevento,  who  retained  their  language  down 
to  the  eleventh  century  ;  Normans,  from  whom  the  shepherds  on  the  hills  are 
supposed  to  be  descended ;  and  Spaniards  in  several  coast  towns,  especially  at 
Barletta,  in  Apulia.  The  Albanians  have  probably  furnished  the  largest  contingent 
of  all  the  strangers  now  domiciled  in  Southern  Italy.  They  are  numerous  on  the 
whole  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  peninsula,  from  the  promontory  of  Gargano  to 
the  southernmost  point  of  Calabria.  One  of  their  clans  came  to  Italy  in  1440, 
but  the  bulk  of  them  only  arrived  during  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
after  the  heroic  resistance  made  by  Scanderbeg  had  been  overcome  by  the  Turks. 
The  conquered  Skipetars  were  then  compelled  to  expatriate  themselves  in  order  to 
escape  the  yoke  of  the  Turks,  and  they  were  received  with  open  arms  by  the  Kings 
of  Xaples,  who  granted  them  several  deserted  villages,  which  are  now  amongst 
the  most  flourishing  of  Southern  Italy.  The  descendants  of  these  Skipetars,  who 
are  principally  domiciled  in  the  Basilicata  and  Calabria,  rank  among  the  most 
useful  citizens  of  the  country.  They  take  the  lead  in  the  intellectual  regenera- 
tion of  the  old  kingdom  of  Xaples,  and  were  the  first  to  join  the  liberating  army 
of  Garibaldi.  Many  have  become  Italianised,  but  there  are  still  over  80,000  who 
have  neither  forgotten  their  origin  nor  their  language. 


21)0  ITALY. 

Tlie  Xoapolitans.are  undoubtedly  one  of  tho  finest  races  of  Europe.  The 
Ciilubriaus,  the  mouutaiueers  of  Molisc,  and  the  peasants  of  tho  liasilicata  are  so 
well  proportioned,  erect,  supple  of  limb,  and  agile,  tliat  their  low  stature,  as  com- 
pared with  the  races  of  the  North,  can  hardly  be  a  subject  of  reproach  ;  and  the 
nobility  and  expression  of  the  faces  of  Neapolitan  women  fully  compensate  for 
tho  irregularity  we  frequently  meet  with.  The  faces  of  the  children,  with  their 
large  black  eyes  and  well-formed  lips,  beam  with  intelligence,  but  the  wretched 
existence  to  which  too  many  of  them  are  condemned  soon  degrades  their  physiog- 
nomy- Supremely  ignorant,  the  Neapolitan  is,  nevertheless,  most  admirably  gifted 
by  nature.  The  country  which  has  produced  so  many  great  men  since  the  days 
of  Pythagoras  is  in  nowise  inferior  to  any  other  ;  its  philosophers,  historians,  and 
lawyers  have  exercised  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  niarcli  of  Iiuitkih  tliought ; 
and  the  number  of  great  musicians  which  it  has  produced  is  proportionately  large. 

iStill,  in  many  respects,  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Italy  hold  the  lowest 
rank  amongst  the  nations  of  Europe.  Ever  since  the  annihilation  of  the  Greek 
republican  cities  the  country  has  been  subjected  to  foreign  masters,  who  have  either 
devastated  it  or  systematically  oppressed  its  inhabitants.  With  the  exception  of 
Amalfi,  no  other  town  was  granted  the  privilege  of  governing  itself  for  any 
length  of  time.  The  very  position  of  the  country  exposed  it  to  dangers.  Placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  Mediterranean,  it  was  on  the  high-road  of  every  pirate  or 
invader,  whether  Saracen  or  Norman,  Spaniard  or  Frenchman,  and  the  absence 
of  any  natural  cohesion  between  its  various  districts  prevented  its  population  from 
organizing  a  united  resistance  against  the  attacks  of  foreign  invaders.  Southern 
Italy  has  not  the  river  basins  of  Lombardy,  Tuscany,  Umbria,  or  Rome  ;  there 
exists  no  centre  of  gravity,  so  to  say,  and  the  country  is  split  up  into  separate 
sections  having  nothing  in  common. 

Tho  government  under  which  tho  Neapolitans  lived  until  (juite  recentl)'  was 
most  humiliating.  "  I  do  not  require  my  people  to  think,"  said  King  Ferdi- 
nand II.  of  Naples.  Ideas  which  did  not  commend  themselves  to  the  authorities 
were  punished  as  crimes,  and  only  mendicity  and  moral  depravity  were  allowed 
to  flourish.  Science  was  compelled  to  live  in  retirement ;  history  to  seek  a  refuge 
in  the  catacombs  of  archaeology;  and  literature  was  corrupt  or  frivolous.  Of  tho 
Neapolitans  who  did  not  expatriate  themselves  only  a  very  small  number  became 
eminent.  Schools  were  hardly  known  outside  the  large  towns,  and  where  they  did 
exist  they  were  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  joolice.  ilen  able  to  read  and 
write  were  looked  at  askance,  and,  to  esctipe  being  accused  of  belonging  to  some  secret 
societ}-,  they  were  compelled  to  turn  hypocrites.  Old  superstitions  exist  in  full  force, 
and  the  heathen  hallucinations  of  Greeks  and  lapygians  still  survive.  Tlie  idola- 
trous Neapolitan  casts  himself  down  before  the  statue  of  St.  Januarius,  but  heaps 
imprecations  upon  the  head  of  his  saint  if  his  miraculous  blood  does  not  quickly 
liquefy.  Similar  superstitions  exist  in  nearly  every  town  of  Naples.  Every  one 
of  them  has  its  patron  saint  or  deity,  who,  if  he  should  fail  to  protect  his  pr^ople, 
is  treated  as  a  common  enemy.  As  recently  as  IS.JS  the  villagers  of  Calabria, 
irritated  by    a  drought,  p\it   their  venerated    saints   into    prison;    and  Barletta, 


SOUTHEEN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


297 


about  the  same  period,  Lad  the  melancholy  honour  of  being  the  last  town  in 
Europe  in  which  Protestants  were  burned  alive.  Such  is  the  fanaticism  still  met 
with  in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  !  * 

Fig.  108. — Ei)UCATiox.\L  Map  of  Italy. 


3g.5op^. 


70.00  p,c 


Fmtzeilund.     Ain,  Tsei  e.  Corsica.  Tjit^.  Ish-ia. 

Poiibs,  Basses  and  Hantps  Alpes  Mnritime«.        Croatia,  Emilia, 

Jmu.  Alpes,  Haute  Piivoie.      Lipiiria,  Loiiibuidy,  Venetia,  llaicl;es, 

Var,  Stpia,  Carintliia,  Tuscany,  Campania, 

Bungarj',  Piemont.         L'mbria.  Saidinia. 


80.  go  p.c. 


00.10  0  p£, 


Dnima'ia.  Cnrpiola,       Bosnia, 

A brrzzos,  Apulia,         Afiic, 
Calabii  ,  Ba>ilicata. 

Sicily. 
Laliiim. 


*  In  1868  en  per  cent,  nf  the  men  and  88  per  renf.  of  the  woiren  mariicd  in  the  Campan'a,  the  most 
educated  province  of  Naples,  weie  not  able  to  sign  Iheir  names.  In  the  Hasiliia;a  the  proportions  were 
80  and  9C  per  cent. ! 


2'J8  ITALY. 

One  of  tlio  great  superstitions  of  the  Noiipolltans  rjfers  to  the  "  evil  eye." 
The  unfortunate  being  who  happens  to  have  a  nose  like  a  battle-axe  and  large 
round  eyes  is  looked  upon  as  aj'effatore,  and  is  avoided  as  a  fatal  being.  If  by 
any  evil  chance  his  glance  happens  to  fall  upon  any  unfortunate  person,  it  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  counteract  it  by  the  influence  of  an  amulet  resembling  t]u\ 
/a-sciiiiim  of  the  ancients,  or  by  some  other  means  no  less  potent.  Coral  amulets 
are  looked  upon  as  most  efficient,  and  many  who  pretend  not  to  believe  in 
tlu'ir  virtues  are  the  first  to  make  use  of  them.  The  peasants  of  Calabria  wear 
an  imago  of  their  patron  saint  upon  the  chest,  and  shield  their  cattle  and  houses  by 
means  of  the  images  of  saints  or  household  gods.  At  lleggio  a  cactus  may  be 
seen  near  the  door  or  on  the  balcony  of  every  house,  which  lias  been  placed 
there  to  keep  off  evil  influences,  and  is  universally  known  as  I'd/bero  del  mn/'  occliio 
(the  tree  of  the  evil  eye). 

Next  to  superstition,  the  great  scourge  of  Soutlicrn  Italj'  is  brigandage.  The 
very  name  of  Calabria  conjures  up  in  our  imagination  picturesque  brigands  armed 
with  carbines.  Unfortunately  this  Calabrian  brigand  is  no  myth,  invented  to  serve 
the  purposes  of  the  stage.  lie  really  exists,  and  neither  the  severity  of  tlie  laws 
put  in  motion  against  him  nor  jjolitical  changes  have  brought  about  his  exter- 
mination. On  many  occasions,  after  a  successful  hunt  for  brigands  had  been 
carried  on,  the  authorities  felicitated  themselves  upon  having  rid  the  country  of 
this  scourge,  but  it  regularlj'  revived. 

In  Sardinia  and  Corsica  the  peasant  takes  up  arms  from  a  desire  for  vengeance, 
but  in  Calabria  from  poverty.  Feudalism,  though  abolished  in  name,  still 
flourishes  in  that  country.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  soil  belongs  to  a  few  great  land- 
owners, and  the  peasant,  or  cafore,  is  condemned  to  a  life  of  ill-remunerated  toil. 
In  j'ears  of  j^Ienty,  when  the  rye,  chestnuts,  and  wine  suffice  for  the  wants  of  his 
family,  he  works  without  grumbling,  but  in  years  of  dearth  brigandage  flourishes. 
The  brigand,  or  gualano,  looks  upon  the  feudal  lord  as  the  common  enemy,  steals  his 
cattle,  sets  fire  to  his  house,  and  even  takes  him  prisoner,  releasing  him  only  on 
payment  of  a  heavy  ransom.  Some  of  these  bandits  become  veritable  wild  beasts, 
thirsting  after  blood ;  but,  as  long  as  they  confine  themselves  to  avenging  wrongs, 
they  may  count  upon  the  complicity  of  all  other  peasants.  The  herdsmen  of  the 
mountains  supplv  them  with  milk  and  food,  furnish  them  with  information,  and 
mislead  the  carabiniers  sent  in  pursuit  of  them.  All  the  poor  are  leagued  in 
their  favour,  and  refuse  to  bear  witness  against  them.  Moreover,  most  of  these 
Neapolitan  bandits,  conscientious  in  their  own  way,  are  extremely  pious.  They 
swear  by  the  Virgin  or  some  patron  saint,  to  whom  they  promise  a  portion  of  their 
booty,  and  religiously  place  the  share  jiromised  upon  the  altar.  Not  content  with 
wearing  amulets  all  over  the  body  to  turn  aside  bullets,  they  are  said  sometimes 
to  place  a  consecrated  wafer  in  an  incision  they  make  in  their  hand,  in  the  belief 
that  this  will  render  deadly  their  own  bullets. 

The  fearful  poverty  of  the  South  Italian  peasantry  has  led  to  another  practice, 
even  worse  than  brigandage.  Foreign  speculators,  Christians  as  well  as  Jews,  travel 
the  country,  and  particularly  the  Basilicata,  in  order  to  purchase  children,  whom 


SOUTHEEN  ITALY,  NAPLES.  299 

their  poverty-stricken  parents  are  ready  to  part  with  for  a  trifle.  The  more  intel- 
ligent and  prettier  the  child,  the  greater  the  likelihood  of  its  passing  into  the 
hand.s  of  these  dealers  in  human  flesh.  The  latter  are  threatened  with  the 
penalties  of  the  law,  but  custom  and  ignoble  accomplices  enable  them  to  evade 
them,  and  to  carrj'  their  living  merchandise  to  France,  England,  Germany,  and 
even  America,  where  the  children  are  converted  into  acrobats,  street  musicians, 
or  simple  mendicants.  The  chances  of  this  shameful  commerce  have  been  carefully 
calculated,  and  the  losses  arising  from  deaths  and  the  cost  of  travelling  are  more 
than  covered  by  the  earnings  of  the  children.  Yiggiano,  a  small  town  of  the 
Basilicata,  is  more  especially  haunted  by  these  traffickers,  for  its  inhabitants 
possess  a  natural  gift  for  music. 

Voluntary  emigration  is  on  the  increase,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  obstructions 
placed  in  the  way  of  young  men  liable  to  the  conscription,  certain  districts  would 
become  rapidly  depopulated  in  favour  of  South  America.  Only  the  poorest  peasants 
remain  behind.  This  emigration  influences  in  a  large  measure  the  customs  of  the 
countrj',  and,  conjointly  with  railways  and  factories,  will  no  doubt  bring  about  an 
assimilation  of  Southern  Italy  to  the  rest  of  the  peninsula.  Brigandage  and  the 
traffic  in  children  will  doubtless  disappear,  but  the  proletarianism  of  manufacturing 
towns  is  likely  to  be  substituted  for  them. 

For  the  present  Naples  is  almost  exclusively  an  agricultural  country.  The 
tavolieri  of  Puglia,  and  tiie  hills  which  command  them,  remain  for  the  most  part 
a  pastoral  country,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the  productive  area  of  Naples  is 
under  cultivation.  As  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  cereals,  with  oil  and  wine, 
form  the  principal  produce  ;  but,  in  addition  to  these,  tobacco,  cotton,  madder,  and 
several  other  plants  used  in  manufactures,  are  grown.  With  some  care  these  pro- 
ducts might  attain  a  rare  degree  of  excellence.  Even  now  the  oil  of  the  Puglia 
competes  successfully  with  that  of  Nice,  and  the  wines  grown  on  the  scoriae  of  Mount 
Vesuvius  enjoy  their  ancient  celebrity,  the  Falernian  of  Horace,  grown  in  the 
Phlegrsean  Fields,  disputing  the  pre-eminence  with  the  Lachrj'mae  Christi  of 
Vesuvius  and  the  white  wine  of  Capri. 

The  agricultural  products  of  Naples  are  almost  exclusively  derived  from  the  coast 
region,  and  commerce  is  principally  carried  on  in  coasting  vessels.  The  interior  is 
sterile  to  a  great  extent,  and  there  are  no  metalliferous  veins  to  attract  population. 

Southern  Italy  has  no  natural  centre,  and,  as  its  life  has  at  all  times  been 
eccentric  and  maritime,  it  is  but  natural  that  all  the  large  towns  should  have 
sprung  up  on  the  coast.  Two  thousand  years  ago,  when  Greece  was  a  civilised 
country  and  Western  Europe  sunk  in  barbarism,  the  most  important  towns  lay 
on  the  Ionian  Sea  facing  the  east.  But,  when  Rome  became  the  mistress  of  the 
world,  Magna  Grsecia  was  forced  to  face  about,  and  Naples  became  the  successor 
of  Sybaris  and  Tarentum.  This  position  of  vantage  it  has  retained  even  to  the 
present  day,  when  Western  Europe  has  become  the  focus  of  civilisation.  The 
wave  of  history  has  passed  over  Tarentum  and  Sybaris,  and  whilst  the  fine  port 
of  the  former  is  now  deserted,  the  latter,  at  one  time  the  largest  city  of  all  Italy, 
has  entirely  disappeared. 


\ 


nao  iTAiA'. 

Naples,  the  "new  town"  of  the  Cuinscaiis, lias  for  centuries  been  the  most 
populous  town  of  Italy,  and  even  now  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  double 
that  of  Pkonic.  In  the  days  of  Strabo  Naples  was  a  large  town.  Greeks  wlio 
had  made  monej'  by  teaching  or  otherwise,  and  who  desired  to  end  their  days  in 
peaceful  repose,  used  to  retire  to  that  beautiful  town,  where  Greek  manners  pro- 
dominated,  and  the  climate  resembled  that  of  their  native  country.  Many  Romans 
followed  their  example,  and  Naj)les,  together  with  the  numerous  smaller  towns 
dotting  the  shores  of  its  magnificent  bay,  thus  became  a  ])lace  of  repose  and 
pleasure.  At  the  present  day  it  attracts  men  of  leisure  from  every  part  of  the 
world,  who  revel  in  its  beauties  and  enjoy  the  noisy  gaiety  of  its  inhabitants — 
"  masters  in  the  art  of  shouting,"  as  Alfieri  called  them.  The  prospect  from  the 
heights  of  Capodimonte  and  the  other  hills  surrounding  the  immense  city  is  full 
of  beauty  :  promontories  jut  out  into  the  blue  waters,  islands  of  the  most  varied 
colours  are  scattered  over  the  bay,  shining  towns  stretch  along  the  foot  of  ver- 
dant hills,  and  vessels  ride  upon  the  waves.  Looking  inland,  wo  behold  the 
grey  summit  of  Vesuvius,  which,  lurid  at  night,  and  always  threatening,  imparts  a 
modicum  of  danger  to  the  voluptuous  picture. 

The  Neapolitans  are  indeed  a  happy  people,  if  such  a  term  may  be  applied  to  any 
fraction  of  mankind.  They  know  how  to  enjoy  the  gifts  of  nature,  and  are  content, 
if  need  be,  with  very  little.  Naturally  intelligent,  they  are  equal  to  any  enter- 
prise ;  but,  as  they  hate  work,  they  soon  give  up  what  they  have  begun,  and  make 
sj)ort  of  their  want  of  success.  Travellers  were  formerly  fond  of  describing  that 
curious  type,  the  lazzarone,  the  idle  man  of  pleasure,  who,  enveloped  in  a  rag,  slept 
on  the  beach  or  in  the  porch  of  a  church,  and  disdained  to  work  after  he  liad 
earned  the  pittance  sufficing  for  his  simple  wants.  There  still  remain  a  few  repre- 
sentatives of  this  type,  but  the  material  exigencies  of  our  time  have  absorbed  the 
majority  of  these  idle  tatterdemalions,  and  converted  them  into  labourers.  Others 
have  succumbed  to  disease,  for  they  knew  nothing  of  sanitary  laws,  and  dwelt  in 
damp  cellars,  or  hassi,  beneath  the  palaces  of  the  wealthy.  Naples  contributes  her 
fair  .share  towards  the  industrial  products  of  the  peninsula.  The  principal  articles 
manufactured  are  macaroni  and  other  farinaceous  pastes,  cloth,  silks  known  as 
groH  de  Naples,  glass,  china,  musical  instruments,  artificial  flowers,  ornaments, 
and  everything  entering  into  the  daily  consumption  of  a  large  city.  Its  workers 
in  coral  are  famous  for  their  skill ;  and  Sorrento,  near  Naples,  supplies  the  much- 
prized  workboxes,  jewel  cases,  and  other  articles  carved  in  palm-wood.  Tlie  ship- 
yards of  Castellamare  di  Stabia  are  more  busy  than  any  others  in  Italy,  those  of 
Genoa  and  Spezia  alone  excepted.  The  sailors  of  the  bay  are  equal  to  the  Ligurians 
in  seamanship,  and  surpass  them  as  fishermen.  TL  inhabitants  of  Torre  del  Greco, 
wjio  engage  in  coral-fishing,  are  well  acquainted  with  the  submarine  topography 
of  the  coasts  of  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  Barbary,  and  the  least  movement  of  the  air 
or  water  reveals  phenomena  to  them  which  remain  hidden  to  all  other  eyes.  They 
own  about  400  fishing-boats,  which  depart  in  a  body,  and  their  return  after  a  suc- 
cessful season  presents  a  spectacle  which  even  Italy  but  rarely  affords.* 

•  In  1873  there  were  3G3  fishing-boats,  and  90,000  lbs.  of  coral,  valued  at  £92,000,  were  obtained. 


kiliiil&iillliliiiiiM^^^^ 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


301 


Naples,  with  its  magnificent  bay,  and  the  fertile  tracts  of  the  Campania  and 
the  Terra  di  Lavoro  near  it,  could  hardly  fail  to  become  a  great  commercial  city, 
and  if  it  holds  an  inferior  rank  in  that  respect  to  Genoa,  this  is  owing  to  its  not 
being  placed  upon  a  great  high-road  of  international  commerce.  The  country 
depending  upon  it  is  of  comparatively  small  extent ;  only  a  single  line  of  rails 

Fig.  109.— PoMPEi:. 
Fi-nm  the  Neapolitao  Staff  Map.    Scale  1  :  35,000. 


5  Miles. 


crosses  the  Apennines  ;  and  travellers  who  follow  the  mountain  road  to  Taranto  are 
not,  even  now,  quite  safe  from  brigands.  The  foreign  commerce  of  the  city  is 
carried  on  principally  with  England  and  France,  and  the  coasting  trade  is 
comparatively  of  great  importance.* 

The  university  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Naples.     Founded  in  the  first  half  of 

*  In  1864  10,694  vessels,  of  1,49G,.JJ0  tons  buiden,  eutered  and  cleared  the  port  of  Naples ;  in  1875 
11,288  vessels,  of  2,923,922  tons. 

22 


302  ITALY. 

the  thirteenth  centnry<  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  Italy,  but  has  had  its  periods  of 
diso-iMceful  decay.  Up  to  a  recent  period,  when  areha'ology  and  numismatics  were 
the  onlv  sciences  not  suspected  di  revolutionary  tendencies,  it  was  a  place  of  intel- 
lectual corruption,  hut  its  regeneration  has  been  brought  about  wijh  marvellous 
rapidity.  The  young  Neapolitans  now  study  science  with  a  zest  sharpened  by 
abstinence  ;  and,  if  the  rather  gushing  eloquence  of  the  South  could  bo  trusted, 
Xaples  has  become  the  greatest  seat  of  learning  in  the  world.  Thus  much  is 
certain,  that  the  2,000  students  of  the  university  will  give  a  great  impulse  to  the 
"  march  of  ideas." 

iS'aples  possesses  anaJiiiIrablL' nuisc'uniuf  antiquities,  open  tuall  the  world,  and, 
more  precious  still,  the  ruins  of  Pozzuoli,  Baise,  and  Ciinife,  and  catacombs  no  less 
interesting  than  are  those  of  Rome ;  and,  above  everything  else,  the  Roman  city  of 
Pompeii,  which  has  been  excavated  from  the  ashes  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  beneath 
which  it  la}'  buried  for  seventeen  centuries.  It  is  not  merely  a  City  of  the  Dead, 
with  its  streets  and  tombs,  temples,  markets,  and  amphitheatres,  which  these 
excavations  have  restored  to  us,  but  they  have  likewise  given  us  an  insiglit  into 
the  life  of  a  provincial  Roman  city.  AVhcn  we  gaze  upon  inscriptions  on  walls 
and  waxed  tablets,  at  work  interrupted,  at  mummitied  corpses  in  the  attitude 
of  flight,  we  almost  feel  as  if  we  had  been  present  at  the  catastrophe  which 
overwhelmed  the  town.  No  other  buried  city  ever  presented  us  with  so  striking  a 
contrast  between  the  tumult  of  life  and  the  stillness  of  death.  In  spite  of  a  Inuidred 
years  of  excavation,  only  one-half  of  the  city  has  yet  been  revealed  to  us.  Hcrcu- 
laneum  is  buried  beneath  a  laj'er  of  lava  sixtj'  feet  in  thickness,  upon  which  the 
houses  of  Resina,  Portici,  and  other  suburbs  of  Naples  have  been  built,  and  but 
very  few  of  its  mysteries  have  been  revealed  to  us.  Of  Stabia?.  which  lies  hidden 
beneath  the  town  of  Castellamare,  close  to  the  beach,  we  know  hardly  anything. 

Numerous  populous  towns  cluster  around  Naples,  rivalling  it  in  beauty.  To 
the  south,  on  the  shores  of  the  bay,  are  Portici,  Resina,  Torre  del  Greco,  Torre 
deir  Annunziata,  Castellamare,  and  sweet  Sorrento,  with  its  delieioiis  climate,  its 
delightful  villas  and  olive  groves.  Off  Cape  Campanella,  facing  the  volcanic 
islands  of  Ischia  and  Procida,  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  bay,  rise  the  bold  cliffs 
of  Capri,  full  of  the  memories  of  hideous  Tiberius,  the  Timhcrio  of  the  natives. 
Another  bay  opens  to  the  south  of  that  barren  mass  of  limestone,  its  entrance 
guarded  by  the  islets  of  the  Sirens,  who  sought  in  vain  to  cast  their  spell  over 
sage  Ulysses.  This  bay  is  hardly  inferior  in  beauty  to  that  of  Naples  ;  its  shores 
are  equally  fertile,  but  neither  of  the  three  cities,  Paistum,  Amalfi,  and  Salemo, 
which  successively  gave  a  name  to  it,  has  retained  its  importance  for  any  length  of 
time.  Amalfi,  the  powerful  commercial  republic  of  the  Middle  Ages,  whose  code 
was  accepted  by  all  maritime  nations,  is  almost  deserted  now,  and  only  shelters  a 
few  fishing-smacks  within  its  rocky  creek.  In  a  delightful  valley  near  it  stunds 
the  old  Moorish  city  of  Ravello,  almost  as  rich  as  Palermo  in  architectural 
monuments.  Salerno  is  much  more  favourably  situated  than  Amalfi,  for  the  road 
of  the  Campania  debouches  upon  it.  The  town  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a 
son  of  Noah,  and  when  the  Normans  occupied  the  count ly  in  the  eleventh  century 


S5 


s 

o 


< 


SOUTHEEN  ITALY,  NAPLES.  303 

they  made  it  their  capital.    But  its  ancient  splendours  have  gone.    Its  university, 

at  one  time  the  representative  of  Arab  science,  and  the  most  famous  in  Europe  for 

its.  medical  faculty,  has  made  no  sign  for  ages,  and  Salerno  has   now  no  claim 

whatever  to  the  title  of   "  Ilippocratic  town."     It  aspires,  however,  to  rise  into 

importance  through  commerce  and  industry,  and  a  breakwater  and  piers  might 

convert  it  into  a  formidable  rival  of  Naples.    The  inhabitants  arc  fond  of  repeating 

a  local  proverb  — 

"  When  Salerno  a  port  doth  obtain 
That  of  Naples  will  be  inane." 

Paestum,  or  Posidonia,  the  ancient  mistress  of  the  bay,  stood  to  the  south-east 
of  Salerno.  It  was  founded  by  the  Sybarites  on  the  ruins  of  a  more  ancient  town 
of  the  Tyrrhenians.  The  Eoman  poets  sang  this  "  city  of  roses  "  on  account  of 
its  cool  springs,  shady  walks,  and  mild  climate.  It  v»'as  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
in  915,  and  its  ruins,  though  amongst  the  most  interesting  of  all  Italy,  dating 
as  they  do  from  a  period  anterior  to  that  of  Rome,  were  known  only  to  shepherds 
and  brigands  up  to  the  middle  of  last  century.  Its  three  temples,  the  most 
important  of  which  was  dedicated  to  Neptune,  or  Poseidon,  are  amongst  the  most 
imposing  of  continental  Italy,  their  effect  being  heightened  by  the  solitude  which 
surrounds  them  and  the  waves  which  wash  their  foundations.  The  traveller, 
however,  cannot  afford  to  remain  for  any  length  of  time  within  their  vicinity,  for 
the  site  of  the  ruins  is  surrounded  by  marshes,  the  exhalations  from  which  sadly 
interfere  with  the  excavations  going  on. 

Numerous  towns  and  villages  are  dotted  over  the  champaign  country  separating 
Mount  Vesuvius  from  the  foot-hills  of  the  Apennines.  Starting  from  Vietri,  a 
suburb  of  Salerno  on  the  banks  of  a  narrow  ravine,  we  ascend  to  Cara,  a  favourite 
summer  retreat,  abounding  in  shade-trees.  Near  it  is  a  monastery  famous 
amongst  antiquaries  on  account  of  its  ancient  parchments  and  diplomas.  On 
descending  to  the  plain  of  tlie  Sarno  we  pass  Nocera,  a  country  residence  of  the 
ancient  Romans ;  Pagani,  still  situated  within  the  region  of  woods  ;  Angri,  which 
manufactures  j'arns  from  cotton  grown  in  its  environs ;  and  Scafati,  more  indus- 
trious still.  Near  it  may  be  seen  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  the  town  of  Torre  dell' 
Annunziata,  and,  on  the  southern  slope  of  Vesuvius,  the  houses  of  Bosco  Tre  Case 
and  Bosco  Reale.  There  are  savants  who  believe  they  can  trace  in  the  veins  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Noceraand  the  neighbourhood  the  Arab  and  Berber  blood  of 
the  20,000  Saracens  who  were  settled  here  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 

The  valley  of  the  Sarno,  above  Nocera,  is  densely  peopled  as  far  as  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines,  and  another  chain  of  villages  extends  northwards  to  the  town  of 
Avellino,  the  fields  of  which  are  enclosed  by  hedges  of  lilbert-trees  {avellana  in 
Italian),  and  which  is  important  on  account  of  its  intermediarj'  position  between 
the  mountains  and  the  plain.  The  population,  however,  is  densest  in  that  portion 
of  the  Campania  known  as  the  "Happy"  (Felice),  which  extends  between 
Vesuvius  and  Monte  Vergine.  Sarno,  named  after  the  river,  though  far  away 
from  it,  abounds  in  cereals,  vines,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  and  manufactures  cotton 
stuffs  and  raw   silk.      Palma  stands   in  the  midst  of  fertile  fields  ;  Ottajano,  the 


304  ITALY. 

town  of  Octavius,  on  the  lower  slope  of  the  Somma  of  Vesuvius,  is  famous  for  its 
wines  ;  Nohi,  where  Augustus  died,  and  which  gave  birth  to  Giordano  Bruno,  lias 
fertile  fields,  but  is  better  known  through  the  fine  Greek  vases  found  in  its  ruins, 
and  on  account  of  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre  built  of  marble,  and  of  greater 
size  than  that  of  Capua. 

Famous  Capua,  the  ancient  metropolis  of  the  Campania,  at  one  time  the  rival 
of  Rome,  with  half  a  million  inhabitants  dwelling  within  its  walls,  has  been  com- 
pletely stripped  of  its  former  splendours.  Its  name  is  applied  now  to  a  sullen 
fortress  on  the  Volturno,  the  Cusiiiiiiim  of  the  Romans  ;  and  Santa  Maria,  which  is 
the  representative  of  the  veritable  Capua,  offers  no  "  delights  "  other  than  those  of  a 
laro-e  village.  In  its  environs,  however,  may  still  be  seen  the  ruins  of  a  fine  amphi- 
theatre, a  triumphal  arch,  and  other  remains  of  a  vast  city.  Caserta,  the  "  town  of 
pleasure  "  of  the  modern  Campania,  lies  farther  to  the  south.  It  boasts  of  a  largo 
palace,  shady  parks,  and  vast  gardens  ornamented  with  statues  and  fountains,  and 
was  the  Versailles  of  the  Neapolitan  Bourbons.  An  aqueduct  supplies  it  with 
water  from  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles,  and  crosses  the  valley  near  Aladdaloni 
by  means  of  a  magnificent  bridge,  built  about  the  middle  of  last  century  by  Vanvi- 
telli,  and  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  modern  architecture. 

The  great  Roman  highway  bifurcates  to  the  north  of  Capua  and  the  Volturno. 
( )nc  branch  turns  towards  the  coast ;  the  other,  along  which  a  railway  has  been 
built,  skirts  the  volcano  of  Rocca  Monfina,  follows  the  valley  of  the  Garigliano 
and  of  its  tributary  the  Sacco  as  far  as  the  eastern  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Latium, 
and  then  descends  into  the  Campaguaof  Rome.  Historically  the  coast  road  is  the 
more  famous  of  the  two.  It  first  passes  close  to  Sessa,  the  ancient  city  of  the 
Auninci,  whose  acropolis  stood  in  the  crater  of  the  Rocca  Monfina.  It  then  turns 
towards  the  coast,  and  having  crossed  the  Garigliano  near  its  mouth,  where  it 
is  bounded  by  insalubrious  marshes,  it  penetrates  the  defile  of  Mula  di  Gaeta, 
officially  called  Formia,  in  memory  of  ancient  Formiaj,  where  Cicero  lived  and 
died.  Travellers  coming  from  Rome  first  look  down  from  this  spot  upon  the 
beauties  of  the  Campania,  and  see  stretched  out  before  them  the  Bay  of  Gaeta,  with 
the  volcanic  islands  of  Ponza,  Ventotene,  and  Ischia  in  the  distance.  Gaeta,  a 
fortress  which  guards  this  gateway  to  the  Neapolitan  paradise,  is  built  on  the 
summit  of  Monte  Orlando,  occupying  a  small  peninsula  attached  to  the  mainland 
bv  an  isthmus  only  oOO  yards  in  width.  The  port  of  Gaeta  is  well  sheltered 
against  westerly  and  northerly  winds,  and  is  much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels 
and  fishing-smacks ;  but  Gaeta  itself  is  better  known  as  a  fortress.  It  was  here 
the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  surrender  of  Francis  II- 
in  1861. 

Towns  of  some  importance  are  likewise  met  with  on  following  the  eastern  road 
from  Naples  to  Rome.  The  most  considerable  amongst  them  is  San  Germane,  the 
name  of  which  has  recently  been  changed  into  Casino,  in  honour  of  the  famous 
monastery  of  that  name  occupying  a  terrace  to  the  west  of  the  town,  and  affording  a 
glorious  prospect  of  hills  and  valleys.  This  monastery  was  founded  in  the  sixth 
century  by  St.  Benedict,  or  Bennet,  and  its  rules  have  been  accepted  throughout 


f  III  III  II  I,  I 

illlllillll 

III I  llll,  ,  I .     , 

III  I  ■  ■  ' 


I   s 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


305 


the  Eastern  Church.  No  hody  of  men  has  ever  exercised  a  greater  influence  upon 
the  history  of  Catholicism  than  these  Benedictine  monks  of  Monte  Casino.  At  the 
height  of  its  power  the  order  hekl  vast  estates  throughout  Italy,  and  many  popes 
and  thousands  of  Church  dignitaries  have  been  furnished  from  its  ranks.  The 
library  of  Monte  Casino  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  Europe,  and  the  services 
formerly  rendered  to  science  b}''  the  Benedictines  have  saved  this  monasterj'  from 
disestablishment,  a  favour  likewise  extended  to  the  monastery  of  La  Cava  and  the 
Certosa  of  Pavia. 

There  are  but   few  towns  of  importance  in  the  mountain  region  of  Naples. 
Arpino,  the  ancient  Arpinum,  the  birthplace  of  Cicero  and  Marius,  with  cyclopean 

Fig.   110. — The  Marshes  of  Salpx. 
Scale  1  :  225.000. 


IS'lE     of~ 


iilli'HII     Jf^orJtt  in  pro^eM. 


3  Miles. 


walls  built  by  Saturn,  is  the  most  popidous  place  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Liri, 
to  the  south  of  the  mountains  of  Mautese.  Benevento  occupies  a  central  position 
on  the  Galore,  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Volturno,  and  several  roads  diverge 
from  it.  The  ancient  name  of  this  place  was  Malerentum,  but  in  spite  of  its  change 
of  name  the  town  has  frequently  suffered  from  sieges  and  earthquakes,  and  of  all 
the  great  edifices  of  its  past  there  now  remains  only  a  fine  triumphal  arch  erected 
in  honour  of  Trajan.  The  city  walls,  nearly  four  miles  in  circumference,  have  for 
the  most  part  been  constructed  from  the  fragments  of  ancient  monuments. 

Ariano,  to  the  east  of  Benevento,  and  also  in  the  basin  of  the  Yolturno,  is 
built  upon  three  hills  commanding  a  magnificent  prospect,  extending  from  the 


806  ITALY. 

often  snow-clad  Matese  Mountains  to  the  cone  of  the  Vultur.  It  lies  on  the  rail- 
roafl  connecting  Naples  with  Foggia  and  the  Adriatic,  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade.  Campobasso,  the  capital  of  Molise,  is  likewise  an  important  coinniorcial 
intermediary,  though  still  without  a  railway. 

The  commercial  towns  on  the  Adriatic  slope  of  the  Apcnnini's  are  of  greater 
importance  than  those  to  the  east.  Foggia,  on  the  Tavoglieri  di  I'uglia,  upon 
which  converge  four  railways  and  several  high-roads,  is  a  great  mart  for  provisions, 
and  in  importance  and  wealth,  though  not  in  po])ulatioii,  is  the  second  city  of 
Naples.  Several  smaller  towns  surround  it  like  satellites,  such  as  San  Severo, 
Cerignola,  and  Lucera,  which  became  wealthy  in  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the 
Saracens,  exiled  from  Sicily  by  Frederick  II.,  settled  here.  Foggia,  however,  and 
its  sister  cities,  in  spite  of  the  proximity  of  the  Bay  of  Manfredonia,  have  no  direct 
outlet  to  the  sea,  for  the  coast  for  a  distance  of  thirty  miles,  from  Manfredonia  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Otranto,  is  fringed  hj  insalubrious  lagoons  and  mar.shes.  Tlie 
reclamation  of  these  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  Southern  Italy  to  develop 
its  great  natural  resources.  The  largest  of  these  lagoons  or  marshes,  that  of 
Salpi,  has  been  reduced  to  the  extent  of  one-half  by  the  alluvium,  conveyed  into  it 
by  the  rivers  Carapella  and  Ofanto,  but  as  long  as  the  new  land  remains  unculti- 
vated deadly  miasmata  will  not  cease.  At  the  eastern  extremity  of  this  marsh 
stood  the  ancient  city  of  Salapia. 

At  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Gargano,  to  tlic  north  of  these  marshes, 
are  the  harbours  of  Manfredonia  and  Vieste,  very  favourably  situated  for  sailing 
vessels  compelled  by  stress  of  weather  to  put  into  port.  The  first  harbour  to  the 
south  of  the  marshes  is  Barletta,  near  which  is  the  "  Field  of  Blood,"  recalling  the 
battle  of  Cannae.  Barletta  exports  cereals,  wines,  oil,  and  fruit,  partly  grown  on 
the  old  feudal  estates  near  the  inland  towns  of  Andria,  Corata,  and  Ruvo.  The 
latter,  the  ancient  Hiibi,  has  j'ielded  a  rich  harvest  of  antiquities  of  every  kind. 
The  other  coast  towns  to  the  south-east  of  Barletta  are — Trani,  which  carried  on 
a  considerable  Levant  trade  towards  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  Bisceglia ; 
Molfetta ;  Bari,  the  most  pDpulous  town  on  the  Adriatic  slope  of  Naples  ;  and 
Monopoli,  all  of  which  are  much  frequented  b}'  coasting  vessels.  Tasano,  near 
Monopoli,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  port  of  Gnatia,  and,  like  Ilubi,  has 
well  repaid  the  search  for  archaeological  remains. 

Brindisi,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Otranto,  in  the  time 
of  the  Romans  and  during  the  Crusades,  was  one  of  the  great  stations  on  the 
route  from  Western  Europe  to  the  East,  and  is  likch'  again  to  occupy  that 
position.  It  lies  at  the  very  entrance  to  the  Adriatic.  Its  roadstead  is  excellent, 
and  its  harbour  one  of  the  best  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  entrance  is  narrow, 
and  was  formerly  choked  up  with  the  remains  of  wrecks  and  mud,  but  is  now 
practicable  for  steamers  of  the  largest  size.  The  two  arms  of  the  harbour  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  antlers  of  a  stag,  and  to  this  circumstance  the  town  is 
indebted  for  its  name,  which  is  of  Mcssajiian  origin,  and  means  "  antler-shaped." 
Brindisi  has  recently  become  the  European  terminus  of  the  overland  route  to 
India,  and  many  new  buildings  have  risen  in   honour  of   this  event,   which  it 


SOUTHERN  ITALY,  NAPLES. 


307 


v.'as  expected  would  convert  the  town  into  an  emporium  of  Eastern  trade.  These 
expectations  have  not  been  realised.  Several  thousand  hurried  travellers  pass 
that  way  every  year,  but  Marseilles,  Genoa,  and  Trieste  have  lost  none  of  their 
importance  as  commercial  ports  in  consequence.  Moreover,  when  the  Turkish 
railways  are  completed,  the  position  now  held  by  Brindisi  will  most  likely  be 
transferred  to  Saloniki  or  Constantinople.* 

Taranto,  on  the  gwlt  of  the  same  name,  is  niakino;  an  effort,  like  its  neighbour 
Brindisi,  to  revive  its  ancient  commercial  activity.  Its  harbour,  the  Piccolo  Jfare, 
or  "little  sea,"  is  deep  and  perfectly  sheltered, and  its  roadstead,  or  Mare  Grande, 
is  fairly  protected  by  two  outlying  islands  against  the  surge.     As  at  Spezia,  springs 

Fi_'.  lU.— The  Harbouh  of  Brindisi  ix  1S71. 

Scale  1  :  86,003. 


m 


1*0 


■J~ 


21^ 


ffipih.  ttriAa-  iS  fat^. 

—  i^"     ,C   'O   3o  fe<t: 


Peptk.    over  3^Jeet'. 


of  fresh  water,  known  as  Citro  and  Citrello,  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  harbour 
as  well  as  in  the  roadstead.  The  geographical  position  of  Taranto  enables  it  suc- 
cessfully to  compete  with  Bari  and  the  other  ports  of  the  Adriatic  for  the  com- 
merce of  inland  towns  like  Matera,  Gravina,  and  Altamura,  and  it  appears  to  be 
destined  to  become  the  great  emporium  for  the  Ionian  trade.  No  other  town  of 
Italy  offers  equal  facilities  for  the  construction  of  a  port,  but  the  two  channels,  one 
natural  and  the  other  artificial,  which  join  the  two  "  seas  "  have  become  choked, 
and  only  small  craft  are  now  able  to  reach  the  harbour.  Modem  Taranto  is  a  small 
town,  with  narrow  streets,  built  to  the  east  of  the  Greek  city  of  Tarentum,  on  the 

*  In  1862  1,100  vessels,  of  '?5,000  tons,  entered  and  cleared  at  BriDdisi ;  in  ISVS,  1,342  vessels,  inclusive 
of  396  steamers,  of  771,090  tons,  in  the  foreign  trade. 


308 


ITALY. 


limestone  rock  bounded  by  the  two  channels.  Its  commerce  has  been  slowly 
increasing!;  since  the  opening  of  the  railway,  its  industry  being  limited  to  fishing, 
oyster-dredging,  and  the  manufacture  of  bay-salt ;  and  the  Tarantese  enjoy  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  indolent  people  in  Italy.  The  heaps  of  shells  on  the 
beach  no  longer  supply  the  purple  for  which  the  town  was  formerly  famous  ;  but 
the  inhabitants  still  make  use  of  the  byssus  of  a  bivalve  in  the  manufacture  of 
very  strong  gloves. 

The  only  towns  of  any  importance  in  tlie  peninsula  stretching  soutlnvurds 
from  Brindisi  and  Taranto  are  Lecco  and  Gallipoli,  the  former  surrounded  by 
cotton  pUmtations,  the  latter — the  Kallipolis,  or  "  beautiful  city,"  of  the  Greeks — 
picturesquely  perched  on  an  islet  attached  by  a  bridge  to  the  mainland.  The 
surrounding  country,  owing  to  the  want  of  moisture,  is  comparatively  barren. 

Fig.  112.— The  Haebovr  of  Taranto. 

Scale  1  :  208,000. 


The  western  peninsula  of  Xaplcs  is  far  better  irrigated  than  that  of  Otranto, 
but  this  advantage  is  counterbalanced  to  a  large  extent  bj'  the  mountainous 
nature  of  the  country,  and  by  its  frequent  earthquakes.  Potenza,  a  town  at  the 
very  neck  of  this  peninsula,  half-way  between  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  and  the  Bay 
of  Salerno,  most  hajipily  situated  as  a  place  of  commerce,  has  repeatedly  been 
destroyed  by  earthquakes,  and  its  inhabitants  have  only  ventured  to  rebuild  it  in 
a  temporary  manner. 

The  famous  old  cities  of  Calabria,  such  as  Metapontum  and  lleraclea,  have 
ceased  to  exist.  Sybaris  the  powerful,  with  walls  six  miles  in  circumference,  and 
suburbs  extending  for  eight  miles  along  the  Crati,  is  now  covered  with  alluvium 
and  shrubs — "  its  very  ruins  have  perished."  The  city  of  the  Locri,  to  the  south 
of  Gerace,  which  existed  until  the  tenth  century,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens,  has  at  least  retained  ruins  of  its  walls,  temples,  and  other  buildings. 


SICILY.  309 

Tlie  only  one  of  these  old  cities  still  in  existence  is  Cotrone,  the  ancient  Cro- 
toiia,  the  "  gateway  to  the  granary  of  Calabria."  In  travelling  along  the  coasts 
of  Greater  Greece  we  feel  astonished  at  the  few  ruins  of  a  past  which  exercised  so 
powerful  an  influence  upon  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  existing  towns  of  Calabria  cannot  compare  in  importance  with  those  of  a 
past  age.  Eossano,  near  the  site  of  Sybaris,  is  the  small  cajiital  of  a  district,  and  is 
visited  only  by  coasters.  Cosenza,  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Crati,  at  the  foot 
of  the  wooded  Sila,  keeps  up  its  communications  with  Naples  and  Messina  through 
the  harbour  of  Paola.  Catanzaro  exports  its  oil,  silk,  and  fruit  either  by  way  of 
the  Bay  of  Sqaillace,  on  the  shores  of  which  Hannibal  once  pitched  his  camp, 
or  through  Pizzo,  a  small  port  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Bay  of  Santa 
Eufemia.  Reggio,  nestling  in  groves  of  lemon  and  orange  trees  at  the  foot  of  the 
Aspromonte,  is  the  most  important  town  of  Calabria.  It  stands  on  the  narrow 
strait  separating  the  mainland  from  the  island  of  Sicih',  and  could  not  fail  to 
absorb  some  of  the  commerce  passing  through  that  central  gateway  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. Messina  and  Reggio  mutually  complement  each  other,  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  one  must  result  in  that  of  the  sister  city.* 


VII.— Sicily. 

The  Trinacria  of  the  ancients,  the  island  with  the  "three  promontories,"  is 
clearly  a  dependency  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
narrow  arm  of  the  sea.  The  Strait  of  Messina,  where  narrowest,  is  not  quite  two 
miles  in  width.  It  can  be  easily  crossed  in  barges,  and,  with  the  resources  at  our 
command,  a  bridge  might  easily  be  thrown  across  it,  similar  enterprises  having 
succeeded  elsewhere.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  before  the  close  of  this 
century  either  a  tunnel  or  a  bridge  will  join  Sicily  to  the  maiidand,  and  human 
industry  will  thus  restore  in  some  way  the  isthmus  which  formerly  joined  the 
Cape  of  Faro  to  the  Italian  Aspromonte.  "We  know  nothing  about  the  period  when 
tliis  rupture  took  place,  but  to  judge  from  the  ancient  name  of  the  strait — 
Heptastadion — it  must  have  been  much  narrower  in  former  times,  t 

*  Towns  of  Naples  having  over  10,000  inhabitants  (in  1870)  :— Naples  (Napoli),  421,803;  Bari, 
49,423;  Foggia,  34,181;  Andria,  32,678;  Reggio,  29,854;  Barletta,  27,444;  Molfetta,  26,516;  Corato, 
26,018;  Trani,  24,026;  Bitonto,  23,087;  Taranto,  22,858;  Castellamare  di  Stabia,  22,037;  Cerignola, 
21,739;  Leccc,  21,081;  Salerno,  20,611;  Aversa,  19,734;  Bisceglia,  19,007;  Torre  del  Greco,  18,950; 
Catanzaro,  18,781;  Potenza,  18,513;  Gaeta,  18,385;  Avellino,  18,260;  Gerlizzi,  18,175;  Maddaloni, 
17,578;  Afragola,  17,541;  Francavilla  Fontana,  17,467;  Bcnevento,  17,370;  Altamura,  17,004;  Santa 
Maria  di  Capua  Vetere,  16,785;  San  Severe,  16,545;  Torre  dell'  Annunziata,  15,321;  Kuvo  di  Puglia, 
15,055;  Monte  Sant'  Angelo,  14,902;  Rossano,  14,818;  San  Marco  in  Lamis,  14,540;  Cosenza,  14,522; 
Caserta,  14,578;  Canosa  di  Puglia,  14,458;  Ostuni,  14,422;  Ariano  di  Puglia,  14,347;  Matera,  14,262; 
Monopoli,  13,800;  Minervino  Murge,  13,630;  Martina  Franca,  13,440;  Cimpobasso,  13,345;  Brindisi, 
13,194;  Lucera,  13,064;  Acerra,  12,858;  Ceglia  Messacapio,  12,582;  Gioja  del  Colla,  12,442;  Pagani, 
12,208;  Fasano,  12,190;  Capua,  12,174;  Cittanova,  12,137;  Palo  di  Colla,  11,887;  Mola  di  Bari,  11,775; 
Pozzuoli,  ■ll,751;Rionerain  Voltara,  11,520;  Amalfi,  11,225;  Resina,  11,132;  Sarno,  10,933;  San  Giovanni 
del  Teduccio,  10,898;  Nola,  10,771;  Giuglianc  in  Campania,  10,751;  Lauria,  10,609;  Frattamaggiorc, 
10,486;  Corigliano  Calabro,  10,481;  Nicastro,  10,418;  Cairano,  10,081;  Montecorvo,  10,020;  Couversano, 
10,(112. 

f  Minimum  width  of  the  Strait  of  Messina,  10,330  feet;  maximum  depth,  1,090  foct;  average  depth, 
246  feet. 


310 


ITAJ.T. 


From  an  historical  point  of  view  Sicily  may  still  be  looked  upon  as  a  portion 
of  the  mainland,  for  the  strait  can  be  crossed  almost  as  easily  as  a  wide  river.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  enjoys  all  the  advantages  of  a  maritime  position.     Situate  in  the 


1-ig.  113. — The  Sthait  ok  JIessina. 
Soile  1  :  isn.O  Ti. 


■»'k«     of    O. 


T  Y  RR  H  ENIviN 
SEA 


'•^^^OlKiii  faro      ^ 


SS.EfjJ'oin; 


>  Miles. 


vorj'  centre  of  the  Mediterranean,  between  the  Tyrrhenian  and  the  eastern  basin, 
it  commands  all  the  commercial  hif^h -roads  which  lead  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
East.      Its  excellent  harbours  invite  navigators  to  stay  on  its  coasts ;   its  soil  is 


SICELT.  311 

exceedingly  fertile ;  the  most  varied  natural  resources  insure  the  existence  of  its 
inhabitants ;  and  a  genial  climate  promotes  the  development  of  life.  Hardly  a 
district  of  Europe  appears  to  be  in  a  more  favourable  position  for  supporting  a 
dense  population  in  comfort.  Sicily,  indeed,  is  more  densely  populated  and 
wealthier  than  the  neighbouring  island  of  Sardinia  or  either  of  the  Neapolitan 
provinces,  the  Campania  alone  excepted,  and  rivals  in  importance  the  provinces 
of  Northern  Italy.* 

Sicily,  whenever  it  has  been  allowed  to  rejoice  in  the  possession  of  peace  and 
freedom,  has  always  recovered  with  wonderful  rapidity ;  and  it  would  certainly 
now  be  one  of  the  most  prosperous  countries  if  wars  had  not  so  frequently  devas- 
tated it,  and  the  yoke  of  foreign  oppi-essors  had  not  weighed  so  heavily  upon  it. 

The  triangular  island  of  Sicily  would  possess  great  regularity  of  structure 
if  it  were  not  for  the  bold  mass  of  Mount  Etna,  which  rises  above  the  shores  of  the 
Ionian  Sea  at  the  entrance  of  the  Strait  of  Messina.  From  its  base  to  the  summit 
of  its  crater,  that  huge  protuberance  forms  a  region  apart,  differing  from  the  rest 
of  Sicily  not  only  geologically,  but  also  with  respect  to  its  products,  cultivation, 
and  inhabitants. 

Ancient  mariners  mostly  looked  upon  the  Sicilian  volcano  as  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  world  ;   nor  did  they  err  much  as  respects  the  world  known  to 

Fig.  lU. — PiiOFiLE  OF  Mount  Etna. 


them,  for  only  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Spain  and  Svria,  do 
we  meet  with  mountains  exceeding  this  one  in  height ;  and  Mount  Etna  is  not  only 
remarkable  from  its  isolated  position,  but  likewise  by  the  beauty  of  its  contours,  the 
lurid  sheen  of  its  incandescent  lavas,  and  the  column  of  smoke  rising  from  its 
summit.  From  whatever  side  we  approach  Sicily,  its  snowy  head  is  seen  rising 
high  above  all  the  surrounding  mountains.  Its  position  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
Mediterranean  contributed  in  no  small  measure  to  secure  to  it  a  pre-eminence 
amongst  mountains.  It  was  looked  upon  as  the  "  pillar  of  the  heavens,"  and  at  a 
later  epoch  the  Arabs  only  spoke  of  it  as  el  Jebcl,  "  the  mountain,"  which  has 
been  corrupted  by  the  people  dwelling  near  it  into  "  Mongibello." 

The  mean  slopes  of  Mount  Etna,  prolonged  as  they  are  by  streams  of  lava 
extending  in  every  direction,  are  very  gentle,  and  on  looking  at  a  profile  of  this 
mountain  it  will  hardly  be  believed  that  its  aspect  is  so  majestic.  It  occupies, 
in  fact,  an  area  of  no  less  than  460  square  miles,  and  its  base  has  a  develop- 
ment of  about  80  miles.  The  whole  of  this  space  is  bounded  by  the  sea,  and  by 
the  valleys  of  the  Alcantara  and  Simeto.  A  saddle,  only  2,820  feet  in  height, 
connects  it  in  the  north-west  with  the  mountain  system  of  the  remainder  of  Italy. 
Small  cones  of  eruption  are  met  with  bej'ond  the  mass  of  the  volcano  to  the  north 
*  Area  of  Sicily,  11,290  square  miles  ;  population  in  1870,  2,565,300  souls  ;  density,  227. 


812  ITALY. 

of  the  Alcantara,  and  streams  of  lava  having  filled  up  the  ancient  valley  of  the 
Sinieto,  that  river  was  forced  to  excavate  itself  another  bed  through  rocks  of 
busult,  and  now  descends  to  the  sea  in  rapids  and  cascades. 

An  enormous  hollow,  covering  an  area  of  ten  square  miles,  and  more  than  3,000 
feet  in  depth,  occupies  a  portion  of  the  western  slope  of  the  volcano.  This  is  the 
Val  di  Bove,  a  vast  amphitheatre  of  explosion,  the  bottom  of  which  is  dotted  over 
with  subsidiary  craters,  and  which  rises  in  gigantic  steps,  over  which,  when  the 
mountain  is  in  a  state  of  eruption,  pour  fiery  cascades  of  lava.  Lyell  has  shown 
that  this  Yal  di  Bove  is  the  ancient  crater  of  Mount  Etna,  but  that,  at  some 
period  not  known  to  us,  the  existing  terminal  vent  opened  a  coujjle  of  miles  farther 
west.  The  steep  sides  of  the  Val  di  Bove  enable  us  to  gain  a  considerable  insight 
into  the  history  of  the  volcano,  for  the  various  layers  of  lava  may  be  studied  there 
at  leisure.  The  clifis  upon  which  stands  the  town  of  Aci  Rcale  afford  a  similar 
opportunity  for  embracing  at  one  glance  a  long  period  of  its  history.  These  cliffs, 
over  300  feet  in  height,  consist  of  seven  distinct  layers  of  lava,  successively  poured 
forth  from  the  bowels  of  Mount  Etna.  Each  layer  consists  nearly  throughout 
of  a  compact  mass,  affording  no  hold  for  the  roots  of  plants,  but  their  surfaces 
have  invariably  been  converted  into  tufa,  or  even  mould,  owing  to  atmospheric 
agencies  which  operated  for  centuries  after  each  eruption.  It  has  likewise  been 
proved  not  only  that  these  clifiEs  increased  in  height  in  consequence  of  successive 
eruptions,  but  that  they  were  also  repeatedly  upheaved  from  below.  Lines  of 
erosion  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  waves  can  bo  distinctly  traced  at  various 
elevations  above  the  present  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  lavas,  too,  have 
undergone  a  change  of  structure  since  they  were  poured  forth,  as  is  proved  by 
beautiful  caverns  enclosed  by  prismatic  columns  of  basalt,  and  by  the  islet  of  the 
Cyclops,  near  Aci  Trezza. 

During  the  last  two  thousand  years  Mount  Etna  has  had  more  than  a 
hundred  eruptions,  some  of  them  continuing  for  a  number  of  years.  Uitherto  it 
has  not  been  possible  to  trace  any  regularity  in  these  eruptions.  They  appear  to 
occur  at  irregular  intervals,  and  the  quantity  of  lava  poured  forth  from  the  prin- 
cipal or  any  subsidiary  cone  varies  exceedingly.  The  most  considerable  stream 
of  lava  of  which  we  have  any  record  was  that  which  overwhelmed  the  city  of 
Catania  in  1669.  It  first  converted  the  fields  of  Nicolosi  into  a  fiery  lake,  then 
enveloped  a  portion  of  the  hill  of  Moupilieri,  which  for  a  time  arrested  its  progress, 
and  finally  divided  into  three  separate  streams,  the  principal  of  which  descended 
upon  Catania.  It  swept  away  a  part  of  that  town,  filled  up  its  port,  and  formed  a 
promontorj'  in  its  stead.  The  quantity  of  lava  poured  forth  on  that  occasion  has 
been  estimated  at  3,5'32  millions  of  cubic  feet ;  and  nearly  40  square  miles  of 
fertile  land,  supporting  a  population  of  20.000  souls,  were  converted  into  a  stony 
waste.  The  double  cone  of  Monti  Rossi,  with  its  beautiful  crater  now  grown  over 
with  golden-flowered  broom,  was  formed  by  the  ashes  ejected  during  that  great 
eruption.  More  than  700  subsidiary  cones,  similar  to  the  Monti  Rossi,  are 
scattered  over  the  exterior  slopes  of  Mount  Etna,  and  bear  witness  to  as  many 
eruptions.     The  most  ancient  amongst  them  have  been  nearly  obliterated  in  the 


SICILY. 


313 


course  of  ages,  or  buried  beneatli  streams  of  lava,  but  the  others  still  retain  their 
conical  shape,  and  rise  to  a  height  of  man}'  hundred  feet.  Several  amongst  them 
are  now  covered  with  forests,  and  the  craters  of  others  have  been  converted  into 
gardens — delightful  cup  shaped  hollows,  where  villas  shine  like  gems  set  in 
verdure. 

Most  of  these  subsidiary  cones  lie  at  an  elevation  of  between  3,300  and  6,500 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  is  there  the  internal  forces  make  themselves  most  strongly 
felt.  As  a  rule  the  subterranean  activity  is  less  violent  near  the  summit,  and 
during  most  of  the  eruptions  the  great  terminal  crater  merely  serves  as  a  vent. 


Fig.  115. — The  Lava  Stkeam  of  Catania. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


■  3  Jliles. 


through  which  the  aqueous  vapours  and  gases  make  their  escape.  Fumaroles 
surrounding  it  convert  the  soil  into  a  kind  of  pap,  and  the  substances  which  escape 
from  them  streak  the  scoria;  with  brilliant  colour.s — scarlet,  yellow,  and  emerald 
green.  The  internal  heat  makes  itself  felt  on  many  parts  of  the  exterior  slopes. 
It  converts  loose  rocks  into  a  compact  mass,  far  less  difficult  to  climb  than  arc 
the  loose  cinders  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  Travellers  ascending  the  mountain  need 
fear  nothing  from  volcanic  bombs.  Showers  of  stone  are  occasionally  ejected  from 
the  principal  vent,  but  this  is  quite  an  exceptional  occurrence.  If  it  were  not  so, 
the  small  structure  above  the  precipices  of  the  Val  di  Bove,  which  dates  from  the 


8U 


ITALY. 


time  of  the  Romans,  and  is  known  us  the  "  Philosopher's  Tower,"  would  long  ago 
have  been  buried  beneath  debris.  A  meteorologieal  ob.servatory  might  therefore  be 
established  with  safety  on  the  summit  of  this  mountain,  and  no  better  stjition  could 
be  found  for  giving  warning  of  approaching  storms. 

The  summit  of  Mount  Etna,  10,800  feet  iu  height,  doe.s  not  penetrate  the  zone 
of  perennial  snow,  and  the  heat  emitted  from  the  subterranean  focus  soon  molts 
the  incipient  glaciers  which  accumulate  in  hollows.  Kevertheless  the  upper  half 
of  the  mountain  is  covered  with  a  shroud  of  white  during  a  great  part  of  the  your. 
It  might  be  imagined  that  the  snow  and  copious  rains  would  give  birth  to  numerous 
rivulets  descending  from  the  slopes  of  the  volcano  ;  but  the  small  stones  and 
cinders  which  cover  the  solid  beds  of  lava  promptly  absorb  all  moisture,  and 
springs   are  met  with   only   in    a    few   favoured  spots.     They  are   abundant    on 

Vi'T.  Ilfi. — SinsTDiARY  Conks  of  Mount  Etna. 


tlic  lower  slopes,  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea.  One  of  these  is  the 
fountain  of  Acis,  which  issues  from  the  chaos  of  rocks  which  Polyi)homus  is 
said  to  have  hurled  at  the  ships  of  sage  Ulysses.  Another  gives  birth  to  the 
river  Amenano,  which  rises  in  the  town  of  Catania,  and  hastens  in  silvery  cascades 
towards  its  port.  When  we  look  at  these  clear  springs  in  the  midst  of  black  sands 
and  burnt  rocks  we  are  able  to  comprehend  the  fancy  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  who 
regarded  them  as  divine  beings,  in  whose  honour  they  struck  medals  and  raised 
statues. 

Though  running  streams  are  scarcely  met  with  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Etna, 
its  cinders  retain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  moisture  to  siipport  a  luxuriant  vegetation. 
The  mountain  is  clad  with  verdure  except  where  the  surface  of  the  lava  is  too 
compact  to  be  penetrated  by  the  roots  of  plants.  Only  the  highest  regions,  which 
are  covered  with   snow  during  the   greater  part  of  the  year,  are  barren.     It  is 


SICILY.  315 

a  remarkable  fact  that  the  flora  of  the  Alps  should  not  be  met  with  on  Mount  Etna, 
although  the  temperature  suits  it  exactly. 

Formerly  the  volcano  was  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  forests  occupying  the  zone 
between  the  cultivated  lands  and  the  region  of  snow  and  cinders.  Such  is  the 
case  no  longer-.  On  the  southern  slope,  which  is  that  usually  ascended  by  tourists, 
there  are  no  forests  at  all,  and  only  the  trunk  of  some  ancient  oak  is  occasionally 
met  with.  On  the  other  slopes  groves  of  trees  are  more  frequent,  particularly  in 
the  north,  where  there  remain  a  few  lofty  trees,  which  impart  quite  an  alpine 
character  to  the  scenery.  But  the  wood-cutters  prosecute  their  work  of  exter- 
mination without  mercy,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  time  is  not  ver)^  distant 
when  even  the  last  vestiges  of  the  ancient  forests  will  have  disappeared.  The 
magnificent  chestnuts  on  the  western  slopes,  amongst  which  could  be  admired  until 
recently  the  "  tree  of  the  hundred  horses,"  bear  witness  to  the  astonishing  fertility 
of  the  lava.  If  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  only  desired  it,  a  few  years  would 
suffice  to  restore  to  Mount  Etna  its  ancient  covering  of  foliage. 

The  cultivated  zone  occupying  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  presents  in 
many  places  the  appearance  of  a  beautiful  garden.  There  are  groves  of  olive, 
orange,  lemon,  and  other  fruit  trees,  in  the  midst  of  which  rise  clumps  of  palms, 
and  villas,  churches,  and  monasteries  peep  out  from  this  mass  of  verdure.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  so  great  that  it  supports  a  population  three  or  four  times  more 
numerous  than  that  in  any  other  part  of  Italy.  More  than  300,000  inhabitants 
dwell  on  the  slopes  of  a  mountain  which  might  be  supposed  to  inspire  terror,  and 
which  actually  bursts  at  intervals,  burying  fertile  fields  beneath  a  fiery  deluge. 
Town  succeeds  town  along  its  base  like  pearls  in  a  necklace,  and  when  a  stream 
of  lava  effects  a  breach  in  this  chain  of  human  habitations  it  is  closed  up  again  as 
soon  as  the  lava  has  had  time  to  cool.  From  the  rim  of  the  crater  the  mountain 
climber  looks  down  with  astonishment  upon  these  human  ant-hills.  The  con- 
centric zones  of  houses  and  verdure  contrast  curiously  with  the  snows  and  ashes 
occupying  the  centre  of  the  picture,  and  with  the  barren  limestone  rocks  beyond 
the  Simeto.  And  this  is  only  a  small  portion  of  the  vast  and  marvellous  prospect, 
embracing  a  radius  of  124  miles.  Well  may  the  beholder  be  enchanted  bv  the 
unrivalled  spectacle  of  three  seas,  of  a  deeper  blue  than  the  skies,  washing  the 
shores  of  Sicily,  of  Calabria,  and  of  the  ^olian  Islands. 

Mount  Pelorus,  which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  chain  of  the  Aspromonte  of 
Calabria,  is  of  very  inferior  height  to  Slount  Etna,  but  it  had  existed  for  ages 
when  the  space  now  occupied  by  the  volcano  was  only  a  bay  of  the  sea.  It 
was  formerly  believed  that  a  crater  existed  on  the  highest  summit  of  Pelorus 
dedicated  to  Neptune,  and  now  to  the  "  Mother  of  God,"  or  Diiiiia  Mare 
(3,600  feet),  but  such  is  not  the  case.  These  mountains  consist  of  primitive  and 
transition  rocks,  with  beds  of  limestone  and  marble  on  their  flanks.  They  first 
follow  the  coast  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  where  they  form  numerous  steep  promontories, 
and  then,  turning  abruptly  towards  the  west,  run  parallel  with  that  of  the  ^olian 
Sea.  Their  culminating  point,  near  the  centre,  is  known  as  Madonia  (6,336  feet), 
and  the  magnificent  forests  which  still  clothe  it  impart  to  that  part  of  the  island 


316  1T.VLY. 

quite  a  northern  aspect,  and  we  might  almost  fancy  ourselves  in  the  Apennines  or 
Maritime  Alps.  Limestone  promontories  of  the  most  varied  profile  advance  into 
the  blue  waters  of  the  sea,  and  render  this  coast  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
Me<literraneaii.  We  are  seized  with  admiration  when  we  behold  the  enormous 
quadrangular  block  of  CefulQ,  the  more  undulating  hill  of  Termini,  the  vertical 
masses  of  Coltafano,  and  above  all,  near  Palermo,  the  natural  fortress  of  Monte 
Pellegrino  (1,970  feet),  an  almost  inaccessible  rock,  upon  which  Ilamilcar  Barca 
resisted  for  three  years  the  eiYorts  of  a  Roman  army  to  dislodge  him.  ilonte  San 
Giuliano  (2,:500  feet),  an  almost  isolated  limestone  summit,  terminates  this  chain 
in  the  west.     It  is  the  Ery.\  of  the  ancients,  who  dedicated  it  to  Venus. 

The  mountains  which  branch  off  from  this  main  chain  towards  the  south  gra- 
duallj'  decrease  in  height  as  they  approach  the  sea.  The  principal  slopes  of  the 
island  descend  towards  the  Ionian  and  Sicilian  Seas,  and  all  its  perennial  rivers — 
the  I'latani,  Salso,  and  Simeto — flow  in  these  directions.  The  rivers  on  the 
northern  slope  are  mere  fiumare,  formidable  after  heavy  rains,  but  lost  in  beds  of 
sliingle  during  the  dry  season.  The  lakes  and  swamps  of  the  island  are  likewise 
confined  to  the  southern  slope  of  the  mountains.  Amongst  them  are  the  pautani, 
and  the  Lake,  or  biriere,  of  Lenfini,  which  is  the  most  extensive  sheet  of  water  in 
Sicily ;  the  Lake  of  Pergusa,  or  Enna,  formerly  surrounded  by  flowery  meadows  in 
which  Proserpine  was  seized  by  Pluto  ;  the  biriere  of  Terranova ;  and  several 
marshy  tracts,  the  remains  of  ancient  bays  of  the  sea.  This  southern  coast  of  the 
island  contrasts  most  unfavourably  with  the  northern,  for,  in  the  place  of  pic- 
turesque promontories  of  the  most  varied  outline,  we  meet  with  a  monotonous  sandy 
shore,  devoid  of  all  shade.  Natural  harbours  are  scarce  there,  and  during  the 
winter  storms  vessels  frequenting  it  are  exposed  to  much  danger. 

The  southern  slope  of  Sicily,  to  the  south  of  the  Mudonia,  consists  of  tertiary 
and  more  recent  rocks,  abounding  in  fossil  shells  mostly  belonging  to  species  still 
living  in  the  neighbouring  sea.  In  the  hills  to  the  south  of  Catania  these  tertiary 
rocks  alternate  with  strata  of  volcanic  origin,  which  are  evidently  derived  from 
submarine  eruptions.  This  process  is  still  going  on  between  Girgenti  and  the 
island  of  Pantellaria,  where  the  submarine  volcano  of  Giulia  or  Ferdinandea  occa- 
sionally rises  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It  was  seen  in  1801,  and  thirty  years 
later  it  had  another  eruption,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  an  island  four  miles  in 
circumference,  which  was  examined  by  Jussieu  and  Constant  Prevost.  In  1863  it 
appeared  for  the  third  time.  But  the  waves  of  the  sea  have  always  washed  away 
the  ashes  and  cinders  ejected  on  these  occasions,  spreading  them  in  regular  layers 
over  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  thus  producing  an  alternation  of  strata  similar  to 
that  observed  at  Catania.  In  1840  the  summit  of  this  submarine  volcano  was 
covered  with  only  six  feet  of  water,  but  recently  no  soundings  were  obtained  at  a 
depth  of  fifty  fathoms. 

This  submarine  volcano  is  not  the  only  witness  to  the  activity  of  subter- 
ranean forces  in  Southern  Italy.  "We  meet  there  with  mineral  springs  discharging 
carbonic  acid  and  other  gases,  which  prove  fatal  to  the  smaller  animals  venturing 
within  their  influence,  and  with  a  naphtha  lake  near  Palagonia,  from  which  escape. 


SICILY. 


317 


likewise,  irrespirable  gases.  A  similar  phenomenon  may  be  witnessed  in 
connection  with  the  Lake  of  Pergusa,  which  occupies  an  ancient  crater  about  four 
miles  in  circumference,  and  usually  abounds  in  tench  and  eels.     From  time  to 


Fig.  117. — The  Maccali-iias  and  Girgenti. 
Scale  1  :  100,000. 


n'l35'E  uPGr 


(tjinifiiil 


time,  however,  an  escape  of  poisonous  gases  appears  to  take  place  from  the  bottom 
of  the  lake,  which  kills  the  fish,  whose  carcasses  rise  to  the  surface.     Another 
of  these  mhva  has  made  its  appearance  farther  west,  near   the  Palazzo  Adriano, 
23 


318  ITALY. 

and,  indeed,  the  whole  of  underground  Sicily  appears  to  be  in  a  state  of  chemical 
efFcrvcsccnee. 

Next  to  Mount  Etna  the  great  centre  of  volcanic  activity  in  Sicily  appears  to 
be  near  Girgenti,  at  a  place  known  as  the  Maccaluhas.  The  aspect  of  this  spot 
changes  with  the  seasons.  In  summer  bubbles  of  gas  escape  from  small 
craters  filled  with  liquid  mud,  which  occasionally  overflows,  and  runs  down  the 
exterior  slopes.  The  rains  of  winter  almost  obliterate  these  miniature  volcanoes, 
and  the  plain  is  (hen  converted  into  one  mass  of  nuul,  from  which  the  gases  escape. 
At  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  soil  was  occasionally  shaken  by  earthquakes, 
and  on  these  occasions  jets  of  mud  and  stones  wore  ejected  to  a  height  of  ten  ot 
twenty  yards.  The  Maccalubas  appear  now  to  bo  in  a  state  of  quiescence,  for 
these  mud  volcanoes  also  seem  to  have  their  regular  periods  of  rest  and  activity. 

The  deposits  of  sulphur,  which  constitute  one  of  the  riches  of  Sicily,  undoubt- 
edly owe  their  existence  to  these  subterranean  lakes  of  seething  lava.  These 
sulphur  beds  are  met  with  in  the  tertiary  strata  extending  from  Centorbi  to 
Cattolica,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti.  They  date  from  the  epoch  of  the  Upper 
Miocene,  and  are  deposited  upon  layers  of  fossil  infusoria  exhaling  a  bituminous 
odour.  Geologists  are  not  yet  agreed  on  the  origin  of  these  sulphur  beds,  but  it 
is  most  likely  that  they  are  derived  from  sulphate  of  lime  carried  to  the  surface 
by  hot  springs.  In  the  same  formation  beds  of  gypsum  and  of  rock-salt  are 
met  with,  and  the  latter  may  frequently  be  traced  from  a  saline  effervescence 
known  as  occld  di  mle  ("  eyes  of  salt  ").  , 

Sicily,  like  Greece,  enjoys  one  of  the  happiest  climates.  Tho  heat  of  summer 
is  tempered  by  sea  breezes  which  blow  regularly  during  the  hottest  part  of  each 
d;iy.  The  cold  of  winter  would  not  be  felt  at  all  if  it  were  not  for  the  total 
absence  of  every  comfort  in  the  houses,  for  ice  is  not  known,  and  snow  exceedingly 
rare.  The  autumn  rains  are  abundant,  but  there  ai'c  many  fine  days  even  during 
that  season.  The  prevailing  winds  from  tlie  north  and  west  are  salubrious,  but 
the  sirocco,  which  usually  blows  towards  the  south-east,  is  deadly,  especially  when  it 
reaches  the  northern  coast.  It  generally  blows  for  three  or  four  days,  and  during 
that  time  no  one  thinks  of  clarifying  wine,  suiting  meat,  or  painting  houses  or 
furniture.  This  wind  is  the  great  drawback  to  the  climate.  In  some  parts  of 
Sicily  the  exhalations  from  the  swamps  are  dangerous,  but  this  is  entirely  the  fault 
of  man.  It  is  owing  to  his  neglect  that  Agosta  and  Syracuse  suffer  from  fevers, 
and  that  death  forbids  the  stranger  to  approach  the  ruins  of  ancient  Ilimera.* 

Temperature  and  moisture  impart  to  the  vegetation  of  the  plains  and  lower 
valleys  a  semi-tropical  aspect.  Many  plants  of  Asia  anJl  Africa  have  become 
acclimatized  in  SicilJ^  Groups  of  date-palms  are  seen  in  the  gardens,  and  the 
plains  around  Sciacca,  almost  African  in  their  appearance,  abound  in  groves  of  dwarf 
palms,  or  (jiiniunarc,  to  which  ancient  Selinus  was  indebted  for  its  epithet  of 
Palmosa.  Cotton  grows  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  up  to  a  height  of  600  feet  above 
the  sea ;  bananas,  sugar-cane,  and  bamboos  do  not  require  the  shelter  of  green- 

•  Mean  annual  tnmperalure  at  Palermo  and  Messina,  64°  F. ;  at  Catania  and  Girgenti,  68"  F. ;  rainfall 
at  Palermo,  26  inches. 


SICILY.  319 

houses ;  the  Victoria  regia  covers  the  ponds  with  its  huge  leaves  and  flowers ;  the 
papyrus  of  the  Nile,  which  is  not  known  anywhere  else  in  Europe,  chokes  up  the 
bod  of  the  Anapo,  near  Syracuse  :  formerly  it  grew  also  in  the  Oreto,  near  Palermo, 
but  it  does  so  no  longer.  The  cactus  of  Barbary  {Cactus  opiintia)  has  become  the 
most  characteristic  plant  of  the  coast  districts  of  Sicily,  and  is  rapidly  covering  the 
most  unpromising  beds  of  lava.  These  and  other  plants  flourish  most  luxuriantly  on 
the  southern  slopes  of  Mount  Etna,  where  the  orange-tree  bears  fruit  at  a  height 
of  1,700  feet,  and  the  larch  ascends  even  to  7,400  feet.  These  slopes  facino- 
the  African  sun  are  the  hottest  spots  in  Europe,  for  the  volcano  shelters  them 
from  the  winds  of  the  north,  whilst  its  dark-coloured  .scoria;  and  cinders  absorb 
the  rays  of  the  mid-day  sun. 

Those  portions  of  Sicily  which  are  clothed  with  trees  or  .shrubs  are  always 
green,  for  orange-trees,  olive-trees,  carob-trees,  laurels,  mastic-trees,  tamarisks, 
cypresses,  and  pines  retain  their  verdure  even  in  winter,  when  nature  wears  a 
de.solate  aspect  in  our  own  latitudes.  There  is  no  "  season,"  so  to  say,  for  with  a 
little  care  all  kinds  of  vegetables  can  be  had  throughout  the  year.  The  gardens 
around  Syracuse  are  famous  above  all  others,  because  of  the  striking  manner  in 
which  they  contrast  with  the  naked  rocks  surrounding  them.  The  most  delightful 
amongst  them  is  the  lutayliatcUa,  or  Latomia  de'  Greci,  which  occuj)ies  an  old  quarry 
where  Greek  slaves  dressed  the  stones  used  in  erecting  the  palaces  of  Syracuse. 
The  vegetation  there  is  most  luxuriant ;  the  trunks  of  the  trees  rise  above  masses 
of  .shrubs,  their  branches  are  covered  with  creeping  plants,  flowers  and  ripening 
fruit  cover  the  paths,  and  birds  without  number  sing  in  the  foliage.  This  earthly 
paradise  is  surrounded  by  precipitous  walls  of  rock  covered  with  ivy,  or  bare  and 
white  as  on  the  day  when  Athenian  slaves  were  at  work  there. 

Sicil}^  lies  on  the  high-road  of  all  tlie  nations  who  ever  disputed  the  command  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  its  population  consequently  consists  of  a  mixture  of  the 
most  heterogeneous  elements.  Irrespectively  of  Sicani,  Siculi,  and  other  aboriginal 
nations,  whose  position  amongst  the  European  family  is  uncertain,  but  who 
probably  spoke  a  language  akin  to  that  of  the  Latins,  we  know  that  Phoinicians 
and  Carthaginians  successively  settled  on  its  shores,  and  that  the  Greeks  were 
almost  as  numerous  there  as  in  their  native  country.  Twenty-five  centuries  have 
passed  since  the  Greeks  founded  their  first  colony,  Naxos,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Etna.  Soon  afterwards  Syracuse,  Leontiui,  Catania,  Megara  Hybla;a,  Messina,  and 
other  colonies  sprang  into  existence,  until  the  whole  of  the  littoral  region  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  the  native  populations  being  pushed  back  into  the  interior. 
In  Sicily  the  Greek  met  with  the  same  climate,  and  with  rocks  and  mountains 
similar  in  aspect  to  those  of  his  native  home.  The  "  Marmorean  "  port  and  the 
wide  bay  of  Syracuse,  the  acropolis  and  Mount  Hybla,  do  they  not  recall  Attica  or 
the  Peloponnesus  ?  The  fountain  of  Arethusa,  on  the  island  of  Orfygia,  which  is 
supplied  through  underground  channels,  reminds  us  of  the  fountain  of  Erasinos  and 
of  many  others  in  Hellas,  which  find  their  way  through  fissures  in  the  limestone 
rocks  to  the  seashore.    The  Syracusans  said  that  the  river  Alpheus,  enamoured  of 


820  ITALY. 

the  nymph  Arethusa,  did  not  mingle  its  waters  with  those  of  the  Ionian,  but  found 
its  W!(V  through  subterranean  channels  to  the  coast  of  Sicily,  where  it  rose  again 
at  the  side  of  the  fountain  dedicated  to  the  object  of  his  adoration,  bringing 
the  flowers  and  fruits  of  beloved  Greece.  This  legend  bears  testimony  to  the 
great  love  which  the  Greek  bore  his  native  land,  whose  very  fountains  and 
plants  were  supposed  to  follow  him  into  his  new  home. 

If  we  may  judge  from  the  number  of  inhabitants  with  which  the  principal 
towns  were  credited  at  that  time,  Sicily  must  have  had  a  population  of  several 
millions  of  Greeks.  The  Carthaginian  merchants  and  soldiers,  on  the  other  hand, 
though  they  were  the  masters  of  portions  of  the  island  for  two  or  three  centuries, 
never  settled  uf)on  it,  and  only  a  few  walls,  coins,  and  inscriptions  boar  witness  now 
of  their  ever  having  been  present.  It  has  been  very  judiciously  remarked  by 
yi.  Dennis  that  the  most  striking  evidence  of  their  reign  is  presented  in  the 
desolate  sites  of  the  cities  of  Ilimera  and  Selinus.  At  the  same  time  we  must  not 
forget  that  the  Carthaginians,  by  intermingling  with  the  existing  population, 
materially  affected  the  ulterior  destinies  of  the  island.  The  Romans,  who  hi^ld 
Sicily  for  nearly  seven  centuries,  did  so  in  a  still  higher  degree.  Vandals  and 
Goths  likewise  left  traces  behind  them.  The  Saracens,  themselves  a  mixed  race, 
imparted  their  Southern  impetuosity  to  the  Sicilians,  whilst  their  conquerors,  the 
Normans,  endowed  them  with  the  daring  and  indomitable  courage  which  at  that 
period  animated  these  sons  of  the  North.  In  1071,  when  the  Normans  laid  siege 
to  Palermo,  no  less  than  five  languages  were  spoken  on  the  island,  viz.  Arabic, 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  vulgar  Sicilian.  But  Arabic  was  the  tongue  of  the 
civilised  inhabitants,  and  even  during  the  dominion  of  the  Normans  inscriptions 
upon  palaces  and  churches  were  written  in  it.  It  was  at  the  court  of  King 
Ivoger  that  Edrisi  wrote  his  "  Geography,"  one  of  tlic  great  monuments  of  science. 
In  1223  the  last  Arabs  were  made  to  emigrate  to  Naples,  but  by  that  time  much 
Arab  blood  already  flowed  through  the  veins  of  the  inhabitants. 

Later  on,  the  character  of  the  population  was  still  further  modified  by  French, 
Germans,  Spaniards,  and  Aragonese,  and  all  this  helped  to  make  them  a  people 
differing  in  appearance,  manners,  habits,  and  feelings  from  their  Italian  neigh- 
bours. These  islanders  look  upon  everj'^  inhabitant  of  the  mainland  as  a  foreigner. 
The  absence  of  roads  on  the  island  enabled  the  different  groups  of  its  population 
to  maintain  their  distinct  idioms  and  character  during  a  very  long  period.  Tlie 
Lombards  whom  the  Romans  transplanted  to  Benevento  and  Palermo  spoke  tlieir 
native  dialect  long  afier  it  had  become  extinct  in  Lombardy.  Even  now  there 
are  about  50,000  Sicilians  who  speak  this  ancient  Lombard  tongue.  At  San 
FratcUo,  on  a  steep  hill  on  the  northern  coast,  this  idiom  is  spoken  with  the 
greatest  purity.  Nor  has  the  Italian  wholly  supplanted  the  vulgar  Sicilian  in  the 
interior  of  the  island.  We  meet  with  many  Greek  and  Arab  words.  One  of  the 
most  curious. words  is  that  of  ral,  which  is  applied  to  various  districts  of  Sicily, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  va/i,  the  Arab  term  for  "governor." 
The  Sicilian  idiom  is  less  sonorous  than  the  Italian.  Vowels  standing  between 
consonants  are  frequently   siippressed,  and  the  o,  and   even   the  a  and  ("  (cc),  are 


SICILY.  321 

changed  into  oo,  which  renders  the  speech  hard  and  indistinct.  The  language 
lends  itself,  howes^er,  admirably  to  poetry,  and  the  Sicilian  popular  songs  are  quite 
equal  in  natural  grace  and  delicacy  to  the  much-admired  rispctti  of  Tuscan)'. 

Of  all  the  emigrants  who  have  settled  on  the  island  the  Albanians  alone  have 
not  become  merged  in  the  general  population.  Locally  known  as  Greci,  they  still 
form  separate  communities,  speaking  their  own  language  and  observing  special 
religious  rites,  in  several  of  the  towns  of  the  interior,  and  more  especially  at 
Piana  de'  Greci,  which  occupies  a  commanding  hill  to  the  south  of  Palermo. 
Nor  is  the  fusion  amongst  the  other  races  as  complete  as  it  appears  to  be  at  the 
first  glance.  The  population  around  Mount  Etna,  who  are,  perhaps,  more  purely 
Greek  in  blood  than  the  Greeks  themselves,  are  noted  for  their  grace,  gaiety,  and 
sweetness  of  disposition.  They  are  the  most  intelligent  portion  of  the  population 
of  Sicily.  Those  of  Trupani  and  San  Giuliani  are  said  to  be  the  best-looking,  and 
their  women  delight  the  stranger  bj'  the  regularity  and  beauty  of  their  features. 
The  Palermitans,  on  the  other  hand,  in  whose  veins  flows  much  Arab  blood,  are 
for  the  most  part  unprepossessing  in  their  appearance.  They  open  their  house  but 
rarely  to  strangers,  and  jealously  shut  up  their  women  in  its  most  retired  part. 

The  most  ferocious  usages  of  war,  piracy,  and  brigandage  have  kept  their 
ground  longer  at  Palermo  and  its  environs  than  anywhere  else.  The  laws  of  the 
omerta,  or  "  men  of  heart,"  make  vengeance  a  duty.  A  chi  ti  to<jlic  il  jxine,  e  tu 
toglili  la  vita  !  ("  Take  the  life  of  him  who  has  taken  your  bread  !  ")  is  its  funda- 
mental principle  ;  but  in  practice  Palermitan  vengeance  is  far  from  possessing  the 
simplicity  of  the  Corsican  vendetta,  for  it  is  complicated  by  the  most  atrocious 
cruelties.  No  less  than  four  or  five  thousand  Palermitans  are  said  to  be  affiliated 
to  the  secret  league  of  the  maffia,  whose  members  subsist  upon  every  kind  of 
roo-uerv.  T'p  to  1865  the  brigands  were  masters  in  the  environs  of  that  town. 
They  virtually  laid  siege  to  the  town,  separating  it  from  its  more  distant  suburbs. 
Strangers  were  afraid  to  leave  lest  they  should  be  mtirdered  or  captured  by 
bandits  ;  and  no  farmer  could  harvest  his  com  or  olives,  or  shear  his  sheep, 
without  paying  toll  to  these  highwaymen.  More  than  ten  years  have  passed 
since  then,  but  in  spite  of  measures  of  exceptional  severity  the  maffia  still  exists. 

The  history  of  this  association,  which  dates  its  origin  back  to  the  time  of  the 
Norman  kings,  remains  yet  to  be  written.  It  has  always  flourished  most  in  time 
of  political  troubles,  and  consequent  misery.  No  doubt  things  have  grown  worse 
in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years  ;  taxes  have  been  increased,  the  conscrip- 
tion e.stablished,  and  many  abrupt  changes,  such  as  are  inseparable  from  a  new 
political  regimen,  have  been  introduced.  The  people,  accustomed  to  put  up  with 
ancient  abuses,  have  not  yet  learnt  to  bear  the  burdens  imposed  in  connection 
with  the  annexation  of  the  island  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Nevertheless  the 
Sicilians  grow  more  Italian  from  day  to  day.  Community  of  language  and  of 
interests  attaches  the  island  to  the  peninsula,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when 
both  countries  will  gravitate  in  the  same  orbit.  Italy  is  most  highly  interested  in 
establishing  feeHngs  of  friendship  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  island,  and  in  deve- 
loping its  resources.     The  rapid  increase  of  the  population,  which  is  said  to  have 


322  ITALY. 

tripled  since  1734,  bears  witness  to  the  great  natural  riches  of  the  countrj- ;  and 
what  mi"-ht  not  be  achieved  if  the  barbarous  processes  now  iu  force  there  were 
superseded  by  the  scientific  methods  of  our  own  time  ? 

Sicily  was  the  favourite  haunt  of  Ceres,  and  in  the  plain  of  Citania  this 
beneficent  goddess  taught  man  the  art  of  cultivating  the  soil.  The  Sicilians  have 
not  forgotten  this  teaching,  for  nearly  half  the  area  is  covered  with  corn-fields ; 
but  they  have  not  improved  their  system  of  cultivation  since  those  fabulous  times, 
and  improvements  can  hardly  be  effected  as  long  as  the  restrictions  imposed  by 
the  feudal  tenure  introduced  by  the  Normans  are  allowed  to  exist.  The  agricul- 
tural implements  are  of  a  primitive  kind,  manure  is  hardl}-  known,  and  the 
fate  of  the  crops  depends  entirely  upon  nature.  When  travelling  through  the 
country  districts  of  Sicily,  we  are  struck  by  not  meeting  with  isolated  houses. 
There  are  no  villages,  for  all  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  live  in  towns,  and  are 
content  to  travel  dail^-  to  their  fields,  which  are  occasionall}'  at  a  distance  of  six 
miles.  Sometimes  they  pass  the  night  there,  in  a  cavern  or  a  ditch  covered 
with  boughs,  and  at  harvest-time  the  labourers  sleep  in  improvised  sheds.  This 
absence  of  human  habitations  impiirts  an  air  of  solemn  sadness  to  vast  corn-fields 
covering  valleys  and  slopes,  and  we  almost  fancy  we  are  wandering  through  a 
deserted  country,  and  wonder  for  whose  benefit  the  crops  are  ripening. 

Corn-fields  cover  a  greater  area  than  that  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  all 
other  objects  put  together  ;  nevertheless  the  latter  articles  represent  a  higher 
pecuniary  value.  The  orchards,  vineyards,  and  gardens  near  the  towns  are  a 
far  sreater  source  of  wealth  than  the  distant  corn-fields.  In  former  times  wheat 
was  the  principal  article  of  export ;  now  Sicily  is  no  longer  a  granary,  but  promises 
to  become  a  vast  emporium  of  fruit.  Even  now  the  crop  of  oranges  grown  there, 
which  consists  of  seven  kinds,  subdivided  into  four  hundred  varieties,  represents  a 
value  of  £2,000,000  a  year.  The  marvellous  gardens  which  surround  Palermo  are 
steadily  increasing  at  the  expense  of  the  ancient  plantations  of  ash,  and  ascend 
the  hills  to  a  height  of  1,150  feet.  Hundreds  of  millions  of  oranges  are  exported 
annually  to  Continental  Europe,  England,  and  America,  and  the  inferior  sorts  are 
converted  into  essential  oils,  citric  acid,  or  citrate  of  lime.  The  last  is  used  in 
printing  stuffs,  and  Sicily  enjoys  a  monopoly  in  its  manufacture. 

Sicily  likewise  occupies  a  foremost  place  as  a  vine-growing  country,  and 
supplies  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  wine  produced  throughout  Italy.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine,  which  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  by  foreigners,  is  much  better 
understood  there  than  on  the  neighbouring  peninsula,  and  the  wines  exported 
from  Jlarsala,  Syracuse,  Alcamo,  and  Milazzo  are  justly  held  in  high  estimation. 
Excellent  wine  is  also  s^rown  on  the  southern  and  western  slopes  of  Mount  Etna, 
to  which  the  heat  of  the  sun  imparts  much  fire.  England  and  non-Italian  Europe 
are  the  great  consumers  of  the  wines  of  Sicilj',  as  they  are  of  its  oils,  almonds, 
cotton,  saffron,  sumach,  and  manna,  extracted,  like  that  of  the  Calabrias,  from  a 
kind  of  ash.  Haw  silk,  which  Sicily  was  the  first  to  produce  in  Europe,  is  like- 
wise exported  in  considerable  quantities. 

Sulphur  is  the  great  mineral  product  of  the  island.     The  beds  vary  much  in 


SICILY.  323 

richness,  but  even  where  they  contain  only  five  or  six  per  cent,  a  light  brought  to  the 
walls  of  the  mine  will  cause  the  sulphur  to  boil  like  pitch.  The  blocks  extracted 
from  the  mine  are  piled  up  in  the  open  air,  where  they  remain  exposed  to  the 
destructive  action  of  the  atmosphere.  The  fragments  are  then  heaped  up  over  the 
flame  of  a  furnace,  which  causes  the  stones  to  split,  the  melted  sulphur  flowing 
into  moulds  placed  beneath.  By  this  primitive  process  onl)'  two-thirds  of  the 
sulphur  contained  in  the  rock  are  extracted,  but  it  proves  nevertheless  mos't 
remunerative.  About  200,000  tons  of  sulphur,  or  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
suljihur  required  for  manufacturing  purposes  throughout  Europe,  are  annually 
exported  from  Sicily,  and  the  known  deposits  of  the  island  have  been  computed 
to  contain  from  40,000,000  to  50,000,000  tons.  To  the  north  of  Girgenti  and 
in  other  parts  of  Sicily  sulphureous  plaster  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of 
the  houses,  and  the  atmosphere  there  is  at  all  times  impregnated  with  an  odour 
of  sulphur. 

Kock-salt  is  met  with  in  the  same  formations  as  the  sulphur,  and  in 
quantities  almost  inexhaustible,  but  salt  is  not  a  rare  article,  and  even  the  Sicilians 
prefer  to  gather  it  from  the  salt  swamps  extending  along  the  coast,  the  most 
productive  of  which  are  near  Trapani,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  island.  At 
the  same  spot  the  sea  yields  the  best  coral  of  Sicily.  The  tunny  fishery  is  carried 
on  mostly  in  the  great  bays  between  Trapani  and  Palermo,  while  most  of  the  sword- 
fish  are  captured  in  the  Strait  of  Messina.  The  seas  of  Sicily  abound  in  fish, 
and  the  islanders  boast  of  being  the  most  expert  fishermen  of  the  Western 
Mediterranean. 

Until  recently  communications  in  Sicily  were  kept  up  almost  exclusively  by  sea. 
In  18GG  the  only  carriage  road  of  the  island,  which  connects  Messina  with 
Palermo,  was  hardly  made  use  of  by  travellers,  and  even  now  the  most  important 
mines  of  sulphur  and  salt  communicate  with  the  seashore  only  by  mule-paths ; 
and  the  inhabitants  are  actually  opposed  to  the  construction  of  roads,  from  fear  of 
their  interfering  with  the  existing  modes  of  transport.  The  road  which  connects 
the  harbour  of  Terranova  with  Caltanissetta  has  been  under  construction  for 
twenty  years,  although  it  is  the  only  one  which  joins  the  interior  of  the  country 
to  the  sea-coast.  Railways  to  some  extent  supply  this  deficiency  of  roads,  but  are 
being  built  very  slowly,  hardly  more  than  250  miles  being  at  present  open  for 
traffic. 

Palermo  the  "happy,"  the  capital  of  Sicily,  is  one  of  the  great  towns  of  Italy. 
At  the  time  of  the  Arabs  it  surpassed  all  towns  of  the  peninsula  in  population,  but 
at  present,  though  increasing  rapidl}^  it  yields  to  Naples,  Milan,  and  Rome.  JN'o 
other  town  of  Europe  can  boast  of  an  equally  delicious  climate,  nor  is  any  fairer  to 
look  upon  from  a  distance.  Bold  barren  mountains  enclose  a  marvellous  garden, 
the  famous  "  shell  of  gold "  {conca  d'oro),  from  the  midst  of  which  rise  towers 
and  domes,  palms  with  fan-shaped  leaves,  and  pines,  commanded  in  the  south  by 
the  huge  ecclesiastical  edifices  of  Monreale.  Termini  is  the  only  city  of  Sicily 
which  rivals  Palniero  in  the  beauty  of  its  site,  and  it  truly  merits  its  epithet  of 
splendissime. 


324 


ITALY. 


But  tho  beauty  of  the  country  contrasts  most  painfully  with  the  misery  .'ind 
filth  rci"niii"'  in  most  of  tho  quarters  of  the  capital.  I'ulcnno  has  its  sumittuous 
edifices.  It  boasts  of  a  cathedral  lavishly  decorated ;  its  royal  p;dace  and  pala- 
tine chapel,  covered  with  mosaics,  and  barmoniou.sly  combining  the  beauties  of 
Bvzantine,  ^loorish,  and  Roman  art,  are  unique  of  their  kind;  the  church  of 
Moureale,  in  one  of  its  suburbs,  may   challenge  llavenuu  by  the   number  of  its 

Fif'-    118. PaLEKMO    and    JlllNTE    pEl  LKGllINO. 


mosaics.  There  are  Jloori.sh  palaces,  a  few  modern  monuments,  and  two  broad 
streets,  which  a  Spanish  governor  had  made  in  the  shape  of  a  cross.  But,  besides 
these,  we  only  meet  with  dark  and  narrow  streets  and  wretched  tenements,  the 
windows  of  which  are  stuffed  with  rags.  Down  to  a  recent  period  Palermo  was  unde- 
serving its  Greek  name  of  "Port  of  all  Nations."  Enclosed  within  mountains,  and 
having  no  communications  with  the  interior,  its  commerce  was  merely  local,  and 
its  exports  were  limited  to  the  produce  of  its  fisheries  and  of  its  gardens.     Though 


SICILy.  325 

far  more  populous  than  Genoa,  its  commerce  is  only  half  that  of  the  Ligurian  city, 
but  it  is  rapidly  on  the  increase. 

Trapani,  a  colony  of  the  Carthaginians  like  Palermo,  and  ilarsala,  so  famous  for 
its  wines,  at  the  -nestern  extremity  of  the  island,  are  proportionately  far  busier 
than  the  capital.  Trapani,  built  on  a  sickle- shaped  promontor}',  carries  on  a  lively 
trade.  The  salt  marshes  near  it  are  amongst  the  most  productive  in  all  Italy ;  * 
tunny,  coral,  and  sponge  fishing  is  carried  on ;  and  the  artisans  of  the  town  are 
skilled  as  weavers,  masons,  and  jewellers.  The  harbour  is  one  of  the  best  in  Italy  ; 
the  roadstead  is  well  sheltered  by  the  outlying  Jllgadian  Islands ;  and  tlie  ambi- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  who  look  forward  to  a  time  when  Trapani  will  be  the 
principal  emporium  for  the  trade  with  Tunis,  is  Kkely  to  be  realized  on  the  comple- 
tion of  a  railway  to  Messina.  The  harbour  of  Mazzara,  the  outlet  for  the  produce 
of  the  inland  towns  of  Castelvetrano  and  Salemi,  lies  closer  to  Tunis,  but  its  shelter 
is  indifferent.  As  to  Marsala — the  "Mars  ed  Allah,"  or  God's  haven,  of  the  Arabs 
— its  port  was  filled  up  by  Charles  Y.,  and  has  only  recently  been  reconstructed. 
It  is,  however,  not  of  sufficient  depth  for  large  vessels,  and  only  salt  and  wine  are 
exported  from  it  to  France  and  England.  Marsala  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Lilybffium,  which  had  a  population  of  900,000  souls  when  Diodorus  Siculus 
wrote  his  Geography.  It  has  recently  become  famous  in  consequence  of  the 
landing  there  of  Garibaldi  and  his  thousand  followers  in  1860,  and  its  being 
the  spot  from  which  they  entered  upon  the  triumphaiit  march  which  ended  in  the 
battle  of  the  Yolturno  and  the  capture  of  Gaeta. 

Messina  the  "noble"  is  the  great  commercial  centre  of  Sicily,  and  the  only 
port  of  that  island  where  vessels  of  all  nations  meet.  Messina  is  a  stage  on  the 
ocean  high-roads  which  join  or  connect  Western  Europe  and  the  Levant.  Its 
roadstead  is  one  of  the  safest,  and  vessels  in  distress  are  certain  to  find  protection 
there.  Moreover,  vessels  coming  from  the  Tyrrhenian,  and  fearful  of  encoimter- 
ing  the  dangerous  currents  of  the  strait  during  a  storm,  may  easily  find  shelter  at 
Milazzo,  to  the  north  of  it.  The  port  of  Messina  is  formed  by  a  sickle-shaped 
tongue  of  land,  making  a  natural  breakwater.t  There  are  few  cities  in  Europe 
which  are  more  exposed  to  the  destructive  action  of  earthquakes  than  Messina, 
and  the  traces  of  the  great  shock  of  1783,  which  swamped  the  vessels  in  the 
harbour,  undermined  the  palaces  along  the  seashore,  and  caused  the  death  of 
more  than  a  thousand  persons,  have  not  yet  entirely  disappeared. 

Catania,  the  sub-Etnean,  as  its  Greek  name  implies,  is  menaced  not  only  by 
earthquakes,  but  also  by  volcanic  eruptions.  It,  too,  enjoys  a  high  amount  of 
commercial  prosperity,  and  exports  the  surplus  produce  of  the  towns  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  volcano,  among  which  are  Acireale,  with  its  orange  groves;  Giarre, 
with  its  dusty  streets  ;   Paterno,  abounding  in  thermal  springs  ;   Aderno,  on  the 

*  The  salt  marshes  of  the  province  of  Trapani  cover  an  area  of  2,100  acres,  and  yielded,  in  1865, 
55,000  tons  of  salt,  valued  at  £24,200. 

t  In  1862  27,596  vessels,  of  1,825,232  tons  burden,  entered  and  cleared  from  Sicilian  poi-ts ;  in  1869 
34.989  vessels,  of  2,869.327  tons;  in  1873  70,974  vessels,  of  5.942.700  tons.  In  1875  the  number  of 
vessels  and  tonnage  which  entered  and  cleared  was — at  Messina,  9,213  vessels,  of  2,335,144  tuns;  at 
Palermo,  11,692  vessels,  of  1,812,195  lous ;  at  Citauia,  5,137  vessels,  of  529,539  tons;  and  at  Trapani, 
5,407  vessels,  of  288,475  tons. 


82(5 


ITALY. 


summit  of  a  rock  of  lava;  Bronte,  at  the  junction  of  two  streams  of  scoriae  ;  and 
Randazza,  commanded  by  an  ancient  Norman  castle.  Catania  also  monopolizes 
tlie  export  of  the  produce  of  the  inland  districts  of  Eastern  Sicily  ;  it  is  the  great 
railway  centre  of  the  island,  and  several  carriage  roads  converge  upon  it.  Its  port 
has  grown  too  small  for  the  busine.ss  carried  on  there,  and  it  is  proposed  to  enlarge 
it  by  means  of  piers  and  breakwaters. 

It  is  quite  natural  that  on  an  island,  no  locality  of  which  is  more  than  forty  miles 


Fig.  119.— Tkapani  and  Mar,sala. 
Scale  I  :  270,000. 


liVE  ofOr 


5  Miles. 


from  the  sea,  all  great  towns  should  be  met  with  on  the  coast,  where  there  are 
greater  facilities  for  commerce.  Still  a  few  centres  of  population  sprang  up  in  the 
interior,  either  in  the  midst  of  the  most  fertile  districts  or  at  the  crossings  of  the 
most-frequented  lines  of  communication.  Nicosia,  the  Lombard  city,  is  tiius  a 
natural  place  of  passage  between  Catania  and  the  northern  coa.st  of  the  island. 
Corleone  occupies  a  similar  position  with  respect  to  Palermo  and  the  African  slope 


SICILY.  327 

of  the  island.  Castro  Giovanni,  the  ancient  Enna,  likewise  occupies  a  privileged 
position,  for  it  stands  on  an  elevated  plateau  in  the  very  centre  of  the  island  :  a  large 
stone  near  it  is  said  by  the  inhabitants  to  be  an  ancient  altar  of  Ceres.  Piazza 
Armerina  Populenfissime,  and  Caltagirone,  surnamed  la  gratissinia  on  account  of 
the  fertility  of  its  fields,  are  both  populous  towns,  which  carry  on  a  considerable 
commerce  through  Terranova,  in  the  building  of  which  the  stones  of  the  old  temples 
of  Gcla  have  been  utilised.  Caltanissetta,  farther  to  the  west,  and  its  neighbour 
Canicatti,  export  their  produce  through  the  port  of  Licata. 

In  the  south-eastern  corner  of  Sicily  there  are  likewise  several  inland  towns  of 
some  importance,  amongst  which  Ragusa  and  Modica  are  the  most  considerable. 
Comiso,  an  industrious  place,  lies  farther  to  the  west,  and  is  surrounded  by  cotton 
plantations.  The  valley  of  the  Hipparis,  sung  by  Pindar,  separates  it  from 
Yittoria,  the  saline  plains  of  which  furnish  much  of  the  soda  exported  to 
Marseilles.  !Xoto,  like  most  towns  in  that  part  of  Sicily,  is  at  some  distance  from 
the  coast,  but  its  twin  city,  Avola,  stands  upon  the  shore  of  the  Ionian  Sea.  Xoto 
and  Avola  were  both  overthrown  by  the  earthquake  of  1693,  and  have  been 
rebuilt  with  geometrical  regularity  near  their  former  sites.  The  fields  of  Avola, 
though  not  very  fertile  by  nature,  are  amongst  the  best  cultivated  of  the  island, 
and  it  is  there  only  that  the  production  of  the  sugar-cane  has  attained  to  any 
importance. 

On  the  northern  slope  of  the  hills  forming  the  back-bone  of  the  island  there 
are  several  other  towns  inhabited  by  the  agricultural  population.  Lentiui,  the 
ancient  Leontini,  which  boasts  of  being  the  oldest  city  in  the  island,  is  at  pre- 
sent only  a  poor  place,  having  been  whoUy  rebuilt  since  the  earthquake  of  1693. 
Militello  has  been  restored  since  the  same  epoch,  and  Grammicheli  was  founded  in 
the  eighteenth  century  to  afford  a  shelter  for  the  inhabitants  of  Occhiala,  which  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  Vizzini  and  Licodia  di  Yizzini  are  remarkable  on 
account  of  the  beds  of  lava  near  them,  which  alternate  with  layers  of  marine  fossils, 
and  llineo  stands  near  a  small  crater  of  the  swamp  of  Palici.  The  popular  songs 
of  Mineo  are  famous  throughout  Sicily.  The  marvellous  "  stone  of  poetry  "  is 
shown  near  it,  and  all  those  who  kiss  it  are  said  to  become  poets. 

Southern  Sicily  is  poor  in  natural  ports,  and  formerly,  along  the  whole  of  that 
part  of  the  coast  which  faces  Africa,  there  were  only  open  roadsteads  and  beaches. 
On  the  Ionian  coast,  however,  two  excellent  harbours  are  met  with,  viz.  those  of 
Agosta  and  Syracuse,  which  are  very  much  Like  each  other  in  outline  and  general 
features.  Agosta,  or  Augusta,  the  successor  of  the  Greek  city  of  Megara  Hybloea, 
is  now  nothing  more  than  a  fortress  besieged  by  fever.  Syracuse,  the  ancient 
city  of  the  Dorians,  and  at  one  time  the  most  populous  and  wealthy  city  of 
the  Mediterranean,  has  been  reduced  to  a  simple  provincial  capital.  That 
city,  whose  inhabitants  even  during  the  last  century  celebrated  their  great 
victory  over  the  Athenians,  is  now  hardly  more  than  a  heap  of  ruins.  Its 
"  marble  port,"  formerly  surrounded  by  statues,  is  now  frequented  only  by  small 
boats,  and  its  great  harbour,  large  enough  for  contending  squadrons,  lies 
deserted.      All  that  remains  of  it  is  contained  in  the  small  island  of  Ortygia, 


328 


riALY. 


separated  from  the  muJulaud  by  fortifications,  a  ditch,  and  the  swamps  of 
Svraca.  Tlic  vast  peninsula  of  limestone  fonuerly  occupied  by  the  city  is  at  pre- 
sent inliabitod  only  by  a  few  farmers,  whose  houses  stand  near  the  canals  of  irri- 
gation.    The  grand  edifices  erected  by  the  inhabitants  of  ancient  Syracuse  arc 


Fig.  120. — Syhacvse. 
Scnlo  1  :  100,000. 


lifliE      ..f  Or 


'.'  Miles. 


now  represented  by  the  ruins  of  columns  on  the  banks  of  the  Anapo  rising  from 
the  "  azure"  fountain  of  Cyane;  by  the  fortifications  of  the  Epipolac  and  Euryelum 
erected  by  Archimedes,  and  now  known  as  Belvedere  ;  by  the  remains  of  baths,  an 
enormous  altar  large  enough  for  hecatombs  of  sacrifices,  an  amphitheatre,  and  an 
admirable  theatre  for  25,000  spectators,  who  were  able  to  see  at  a  glance  from  their 


SICILY. 


329 


seats  the  whole  of  the  ancient  city,  with  its  temples  and  fleets  of  merchantmen. 
]S"othing,  however,  is  better  calculated  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  ancient  grandeur 
of  the  city  than  the  vast  quarries  or  lautumim  and  the  subterranean  catacomb?, 
more  extensive  than  those  of  Naples,  and  not  yet  wholly  explored.  In  former 
times  the  summit  of  the  island  of  Ortygia  was  occupied  by  an  acropolis,  in  which 
stood  a  temple  of  Minerva,  a  rival  of  the  Parthenon  of  Athens.     Sailors,  on  leaving 


fig.  121. — TEMPLE  OF  Concord  at  Gibgexti. 


^  -  -^^  -  ^f^^^'e^  ^-^"-.-^4i-,^"1-%"  -  W:-r7f-m 


the  port,  were  bound  to  look  towards  this  temple,  holding  in  their  hands  a  vase  of 
burning  charcoal  taken  from  the  altar  of  Juno,  which  they  flung  into  the  sea 
when  they  lost  sight  of  it.  Portions  of  the  temple  still  exist,  but  its  beautiful 
columns  have  been  covered  with  plaster  and  incorporated  in  an  ugly  church. 

There  are  other  Hellenic  ruins  in  Sicily,  which,  in  the  eyes  of  artists,  make  that 
island  a  worth v  rival  of  Greece  itself.      Girgenti,  the  ancient  Acragas,  or  Agri- 


300  ITALY. 

gcntuiii,  wliicli  numbered  its  inh;il)it<int.sl)V  huiulieds  of  thousands,  but  is  now  a 
poor  place  like  .Syracuse,  possesses  ruins  of  at  least  ten  temples  or  religious  edifices, 
of  which  that  dedicated  to  Olympian  Jupiter  was  the  largest  in  all  Italy,  and 
has  been  made  use  of  in  the  construction  of  the  present  mole.  Another,  that 
dedicated  to  Concord,  is  in  a  better  state  of  preservation  than  any  other  Greek 
temple  outside  the  limits  of  Hellas.  The  modern  city  occupies  merely  the  site  of 
the  ancient  acropolis,  and  is  built  upon  a  laj'er  of  shelly  sandstone,  which  descends 
in  steps  towards  the  sea.  The  cathedral  has  been  built  from  materials  taken  from 
a  temple  of  Jupiter  Atabyrios,  and  its  baptismal  font  is  an  ancient  sarcophagus 
upon  which  are  represented  the  loves  of  Phiedru  and  Ilippolytus.  lu  former  times 
Agrigentnm  reached  to  within  a  couple  of  miles  from  the  sea.  The  modern  port, 
named  in  honour  of  one  of  the  most  famous  sons  of  the  city,  lies  to  the  west  of  the 
ancient  Hellenic  Eiiiporiiim,  at  a  distance  of  four  miles  from  the  city.  It  is  the 
busiest  harbour  on  the  southern  coast,  and  large  quantities  of  sulphur  are  exported 
from  it  (see  Fig.  117,  p.  ;{17). 

Sciacca,  another  seaside  town  farther  to  the  west,  in  one  of  those  localities  of 
the  island  most  exposed  to  earthquakes,  boasts  of  being  the  moderri  representative 
of  Selinus,  though  that  Greek  city  was  situated  about  fourteen  miles  farther  west, 
to  the  south  of  Castelvetrano.  Its  seven  temples  have  been  overthrown  by  earth- 
quakes, but  they  still  present  us  with  remains  of  the  purest  Doric  style.  The 
metopes  of  three  of  them  have  been  conveyed  to  Palermo,  where  they  form  the 
most  precious  ornaments  of  the  museum. 

Segesto,  on  the  north  coast,  no  longer  exists,  but  there  still  remain  the  ruins  of 
a  magnificent  temple.  Other  remains  of  Greek  art  abound  in  all  parts  of  the 
island,  and  there  are  also  monuments  erected  by  the  Homans.  If  we  contrast 
these  ancient  edifices  with  those  raised  since  by  Byzantines,  Mours,  Normans,  Span- 
iards, and  Neapolitans,  we  are  bound  to  admit  that  the  latter  exhibit  no  progress, 
but  decadence.  Alas  !  how  very  much  inferior  are  the  inhabitants  of  modem 
Syracuse  in  comparison  with  the  fellow- citizens  of  an  Archimedes  ! 

Sicily  offers  most  striking  examples  of  towns  changing  their  positions  in  con- 
sequence of  political  disturbances.  When  the  ancient  Greek  cities  were  at  the 
height  of  their  power  they  boldly  descended  to  the  very  coast ;  but  when  war  and 
rapine  got  the  upper  hand — when  Moorish  pirates  scoured  the  sea,  and  brigandage 
reigned  in  the  interior — then  it  was  that  most  of  the  cities  of  Sicily  took  refuge  on 
the  summits  of  the  hills,  abandoning  their  low-lying  suburbs  to  decaj',  and 
allowing  them  finally  to  disappear.  Girgenti  is  a  case  in  point.  Some  of  the 
towns  occupy  sites  of  much  natural  strength,  and  are  almost  inaccessil)le.  Such 
are  Centuripe,  or  Centorbi,  which  stretches  along  the  edge  of  a  rock  to  the  west  of 
the  Simeto,  and  San  Giuliano,  the  town  of  Astarte,  which  stands  on  the  summit  of 
a  pyramidal  rock  1,200  feet  in  height  above  Trapani.  But,  on  the  return  of 
peace,  the  inhabitants  abandoned  their  eyries  and  came  back  to  the  plain  or  coast. 
All  along  the  northern  coast,  from  Palermo  to  ilessina,  the  towns  on  the  marina, 
or  beach,  kept  increasing  at  the  expense  of  the  horgos  occupying  the  summits  of  the 
mountains,  and    in  many  instances  the  latter  were  deserted  altogether.     Cefala 


THE  ^OLIAN  OR  LIPAEIC  ISLANDS.  331 

affords  a  striking  illustration  of  this  change.  The  modern  city  nestles  at  the  foot 
of  a  bold  promontory,  upon  the  summit  of  which  may  still  be  seen  the  crenellated 
walls  of  the  old  town,  within  which  nothing  now  remains  excepting  a  small 
Cyclopean  temple,  the  most  venerable  ruin  of  all  Sicily,  which  has  resisted  the 
ravages  of  thirty  centuries.* 

The  .^oliam  or  Liparic  Islands. 

The  ^olian  or  Liparic  Islands,  though  separated  from  Sicily  by  a  strait  more 
than  300  fathoms  in  depth,  may  nevertheless  be  looked  upon  as  a  dependency  of 
the  larger  island.  Some  of  these  volcanic  islands,  "  born  in  the  shadow  of  Mount 
Etna,"  lie  on  a  line  connecting  that  volcano  with  Mount  Vesuvius,  and  they 
originated  probably  during  the  same  convulsion  of  nature.  They  all  consist  of 
lavas,  cinders,  or  pumice,  ejected  from  volcanoes.  Two  amongst  them,  Vulcano  and 
Stromboli,  are  still  active  volcanoes,  and  the  flames  and  undulating  columns  of 
smoke  rising:  from  them  enable  mariners  and  fishermen  to  foretell  chanares  of 
temperature  or  wind.  It  is  prubable  that  this  intelligent  interpretation  of  volcanic 
phenomena  was  the  reason  why  these  islands  were  dedicated  to  iEolus,  the  god  of 
the  winds,  who  there  revealed  himself  to  mariners. 

Lipari,  the  largest  and  most  central  of  these  islands,  is  at  the  same  time  the 
most  populous.  A  considerable  town,  commanded  by  an  ancient  castle,  rises  like 
an  amphitheatre  on  its  northern  shore.  A  well- cultivated  plain,  abounding  in 
olive-trees,  orange-trees,  and  A'ines,  surrounds  the  town,  and  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
are  cultivated  almost  to  their  very  summits.  The  population,  as  in  Sicily,  has 
been  recruited  from  the  most  diverse  elements  since  the  time  that  Greek  colonists 
from  Rhodes,  Cnidus,  and  Selinus  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  aboriginal  inha- 
bitants. This  intermixture  of  races  is  proceeding  now  as  much  as  ever,  for  commerce 
continually  introduces  fresh  blood,  and  many  Calabrian  brigands  have  been  con- 
veyed to  the  island,  where  they  have  become  peaceable  citizens.  The  population 
is  now  permitted  to  multiply  in  peace,  for  the  volcanoes  of  Lipari  have  been 
quiescent  for  centuries.  The  Lipariotes  have  a  legend  according  to  which  St. 
Calogero  chased  the  devils  from  the  islands,  and  shut  them  up  in  the  furnaces  of 
Vulcano,  and  we  may  infer  from  this  that  the  last  volcanic  eruption  took  place  soon 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity  ;  that  is  to  say,  about  the  sixth  century.  The 
existence  of  subterranean  forces  manifests  itself  now  only  in  thermal  springs  and 

*  Towns  of  Sicily  having  more  than  10,000  iuhabitants  (in  1871) :— Palermo,  186,406  ;  Messina,  71,921 ; 
Catania,  84,397;  Marsala,  34,-i02;  Modica,  33,169;  Trapani,  28,052;  Acireale,  26,692;  Caltagiroue, 
2,5,978;  Ragusa  Superiore,  21,494;  Caltanisselta,  21,464;  Canicatti,  20,908;  Alcamo,  20,890  ;  Castelve- 
Irano,  20,420 ;  Partinico,  20,098  ;  Syracuse  (Siracusa),  20,035  ;  Termini  Imerese,  19,646  ;  Girgenti, 
19,603;  Sciacca,  18,896;  Piazza  Armeiina,  18,252;  Vittoria,  17,528;  Giarre,  17,414;  Comiso,  16,604; 
Gorleone,  16,150;  Licata,  15,966;  Favari,  15,233;  Vizzini,  14,942 ;  Terranova  di  Sicilia,  14,911; 
Paterno,  14,790;  Noto,  14,767;  Aderno,  14,673;  Bronte,  14,589;  Nicosia,  14,544;  Castrogiovaiini, 
14,511;  Barcellona  or PozzodiGotto,  14,471  ;  Salemi,  14,096;  Palma  di  Montechiaro,  13,497;  Monreale, 
13,496  ;  Gangi,  13,057  ;  San  Cataldo,  12,899;  Biancavilla,  12,631  ;  Partana.  12,467;  Mazzara  del  Valle, 
12,155;  Leonforte,  12,010;  Mazzarino,  11,951;  Avola,  11,912;  Agira,  11,876;  Bagheria,  11,651  ;  Riesi, 
11,548;  Agosia,  11,382;  Castellamare  del  GolCo,  11,280;  Mistretta,  11,218;  Kacalmuto,  11.012; 
Niscemi,  10,750;  Sciecli,  10,724  ;  Lentini,  10.578  ;  Cefalii,  10,194  ;  Froina,  10,193;  Grammicheli,  10,192  ; 
Pietraperzia,  10,149  ;  Palazzolo  Ai  reide,  10,132. 


032 


ITALY. 


steam  jets,  wliicli  have  been  visited  from  the  most  ancient  times  for  tlio  cure  of 
diseases.  Earthquakes,  however,  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  ajid  that  of  1780  so 
much  frightened  the  inhabitants  that  with  one  accord  they  dedicated  themselves  to 
the  Virgin  Mary.  Dolomieu,  who  visited  Lipari  in  the  year  following,  found  them 
wearing  a  small  chain  on  the  arm,  by  means  of  which  they  desired  to  show  tliat 
they  had  become  the  slaves  of  the  "  Liberating  Virgin." 

Lipari  is  a  land  of  promise  to  the  geologist,  on  account  of  the  great  variety  of 
its  lavas.  Monte  della  Castagna  is  wholly  composed  of  obsidian.  Another  hill,  Monte 
Bianco,  consists  of  pumice,  and,  when  seen  from  a  distance,  has  the  appearance  of 

J?ig.  122. — The  CeiNtkal  Poutiox  of  the  .^ulia.v  Islands. 


being  covered  with  snow.  The  streams  of  pumice  which  fill  every  ravine  extend 
down  to  the  sea,  and  the  water  is  covered  with  this  buoyant  stone,  which  drifts 
sometimes  as  far  as  Corsica.  Lipari  supplies  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  with 
pumice.* 

Vulcano,  to  the  south  of  Lipari,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  less  than 
a  mile  across,  contrasts  strangely  with  its  smiling  neighbour.  Vulcano,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  olives  and  vines  growing  on  the  southern  slopes,  consists  wholly 
of  naked  scoria;,  and  this  circumstance  probably  led  to  its  being  dedicated  to 
Vulcan.     Most  of  its  rocks  are  black  or  of  a  reddish  hue  like  iron,  but  there  are 

•  Area  and  popiilation  of  the  Liparic  Islands: — Lipari,  12'4  fquarp  iriilfs.  14,000  inhabitant-s ;  Vul- 
cano, 9-7  square  miles,  100  inhabitants;  Panaria  and  n' ighhoiiring  islets,  7  7  sijii.ire  miles,  200  inhabit- 
ants; Stromholi,  7'7  scpiare  miles,  500  inh'iliitanis;  ^iilina,  lOS  square  niilis,  4,.iOO  inhahitints ;  Fi.licudi, 
6-9  sipiare  miles,  SOO  inliubilants  ;  Alieudi,  3  eqnare  mi  cs,  300  inlialiilaits.  Tolal,  o7'2  pqu  ire  miles, 
18,400  inhabiUnU. 


THE  ^OLIAN  OR  LIPAEIO  ISLANDS.  333 

others  which  are  scarlet^  yellow,  or  white.  At  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
island  rises  the  Vulcanello,  a  small  cone  which  appeared  above  the  surface  of  the 
sea  nobody  knows  when,  and  which  an  isthmus  of  reddish  cinders  united  about  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  to  the  principal  volcano  of  the  island.  This 
central  mountain  of  the  island  has  a  crater  about  1,800  yards  in  circumference, 
from  which  steam  continually  escapes.  The  atmosphere  is  charged  with  sul- 
phurous vapours  difficult  to  breathe.  From  hundreds  of  small  orifices  jets  of 
steam  make  their  escape  with  a  throbbing  and  hissing  noise.  Some  of  these 
fumaroles  have  a  temperature  of  610°  F.  Jets  of  a  lower  temperature  are 
met  with  in  other  parts  of  the  island,  and  even  at  the  bottom  of  the  bay.  Violent 
eruptions  are  rare,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  only  three  occurred.  The  last 
eruption  took  place  in  1873,  after  a  repose  of  a  hundred  years.  Until  recently  the 
only  inhabitants  of  Vulcano  were  a  (ew  convicts,  who  collected  sulphur  and 
boracic  acid,  and  manufactured  a  little  alum.  But  an  enterprising  Scotchman  has 
now  taken  possession  of  this  grand  chemical  laboratory.  He  has  built  a  large 
manufactory  near  the  port,  and  a  few  trees  planted  around  his  Moorish  residence 
have  somewhat  improved  the  repulsive  aspect  of  the  country. 

Stromboli,  though  smaller  than  either  Lipari  or  Vulcano,  is  nevertheless 
more  celebrated,  on  account  of  its  frequent  eruptions.  For  ages  bacii  scarcely 
any  mariners  have  passed  this  island  without  seeing  its  summit  in  a  state  of 
illumination.  At  intervals  of  five  minutes,  or  less,  the  seething  lava  filling  its 
caldron  bubbles  up,  explosions  occur,  and  steam  and  stones  are  ejected.  These 
rhj'thmical  eruptions  form  a  most  agreeable  sight,  for  there  is  no  danger  about 
them,  and  the  olive  groves  of  the  Stromboliotes  have  never  been  injured  by  a 
stream  of  lava.  The  volcano,  however,  has  its  moments  of  exasperation,  and 
its  ashes  have  frequently  been  carried  to  the  coast  of  Calabria,  which  is  more 
than  thirty  miles  offi 

Panaria  and  the  surrounding  group  of  islands  between  Stromboli  and  Lipari 
have  undergone  many  changes,  if  Dolomieu  and  Spallanzani  are  correct  in 
saying  that  they  originally  formed  only  a  single  island,  which  was  blown  into 
fragments  by  an  eruption  having  its  centre  near  the  present  island  of  Dattilo. 
A  hot  spring  and  an  occasional  bubbling  up  of  the  sea-water  prove  that  the 
volcanic  forces  are  not  yet  quite  extinct. 

As  regards  the  small  eastern  islands  of  the  archipelago,  Salina,  Felicudi,  and 
Alicudi,  the  last  of  which  resembles  a  tent  pitched  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water,  history  furnishes  no  records  of  their  ever  having  been  in  any  other  than  a 
quiescent  state.  The  island  of  Ustica,  about  thirty  miles  to  the  north  of  Palermo, 
is  likewise  of  volcanic  origin,  but  is  not  known  ever  to  have  had  an  eruption.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  dreaded  places  of  exile  in  Italy.  Near  it  is  the  uninhabited 
island  of  Medico,  the  ancient  Osteodes,  where  the  mercenaries  deserted  by  the 
Carthaginians  were  left  to  die  of  starvation. 

24 


834 


ITALY. 


The  iF.GADiAX  Islands. 

Ofk  the  western  extremity  of  Hicily  lie  shallows,  saiul-buiiks,  and  calcareous 
islands  of  the  same  composition  as  the  adjoining  mainland.  These  are  the  vEgades, 
or  Goat  Islands,  named  after  the  animals  which  climb  their  steep  escarpments. 
Favignana,  near  which  the  Romans  won  the  naval  victory  which  terminated  the 
first  Tunic  war,  is  the  largest  of  these  islands.  Its  steep  cliffs  abound  in  caverns, 
in  which  heaps  of  shells,  gnawed  bones,  and  stone  implements  have  been  found, 
dating  back  to  the  contemporaries  of  the  mammoth  and  the  antediluvian  bear. 
Conflicts  between  contrary  winds  are  frequent  in  this  labyrinth  of  rocks  and 
shoals,  and  the  power  of  the  waves  is  much  dreaded.    The  tides  are  most  irregular. 


Fig.  123. — The  Meditekuanean  to  the  South  of  Sicily. 
Scale  I  :  -l.'JOO.OOO. 


^^  ^  1  />y  <A      O  -    M   FaVumA. 


.'>n  Jliles. 


and  give  rise  to  dangerous  eddies.     The  sudden  ebb,  locally  known  as  marubia,  or 
"  tipsy  sea  "  {mare  tihhriaco  ?),  has  been  the  cause  of  many  shipwrecks. 


Pastef.i.aria. 

Paxtellaria  rises  in  the  very  centre  of  the  strait  which  unites  the  "Western 
Mediterranean  with  the  Eastern.  The  island  is  of  volcanic  origin,  abounds  in 
thermal  springs,  and,  above  all,  in  steam  jets.  Placed  on  a  great  line  of  navigation, 
Pantellaria  might  have  become  of  importance  if  it  had  possessed  a  good  luirbour 
like  Malta.     To  judge  from  certain  ruins,  the  population  was  more  considerable 


MALTA  AND  GOZZO.  335 

formerly  than  it  is  now.  There  exist  about  a  thousand  odd  edifices,  called  sr»i  by 
the  inhabitants,  which  are  supposed  to  be  ancient  dwellings.  Like  the  nuraghi  of 
Sardinia,  thej'  have  the  shape  of  hives,  and  are  built  of  huge  blocks  of  rock 
without  mortar.  Some  of  them  are  twenty-five  feet  high  and  forty-five  feet  wide  > 
and  Rossi,  the  archaeologist,  thinks  that  they  date  back  to  the  stone  age,  for  pieces 
of  worked  obsidian  have  been  found  in  them. 

From  the  top  of  Pantellaria  we  are  able  to  distinguish  the  promontories  on 
the  Tunisian  coast,  but,  though  it  is  nearer  to  Africa  than  to  Eui-ope,  the  island 
nevertheless  belongs  to  the  latter  continent,  as  is  proved  by  the  configuration  of 
the  sea-bottom.  This  cannot  be  said  of  Linosa,  an  island  wiib  four  volcanic  peaks 
to  the  west  of  Malta,  and  still  less  of  the  Pelagian  Islands.  The  latter,  consisting 
of  Lampedusa  and  a  satellite  rock  called  Lampion,  owe  their  name  (Lamp-bearer 
and  Lamp)  to  the  light  which,  legend  tells  us,  was  kept  burning  by  a  hermit  or 
ano-el  for  the  benefit  of  mariners.  In  our  own  days  this  legendary  lamp  has  been 
superseded  by  a  small  lighthouse  marking  the  entrance  to  the  port  of  Lampedusa, 
where  vessels  of  three  or  four  hundred  tons  find  a  safe  shelter. 

About  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Russians  proposed  to  establish 
a  military  station  on  Lampedusa  to  rival  that  of  Malta,  but  this  project  was  never 
carried  out,  and  has  not  been  taken  up  by  the  Italian  Government.  The  popu- 
lation consists  of  soldiers,  political  exiles,  criminals,  and  a  few  settlers,  who  speak 
Maltese.* 


Malta  am)  Gozzo. 

Malta,  though  a  political  dependency  of  Great  Britain,  belongs  geographically  to 
Italy,  for  it  rises  from  the  same  submarine  plateau  as  Sicilv.  About  fifty  miles  to 
the  east  of  the  island  the  depth  of  the  sea  exceeds  1,500  fathoms,  but  in  the  north, 
in  the  direction  of  Sicily,  it  hardly  amounts  to  eight)',  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  an  isthmus  formerly  united  Malta  to  continental  Europe.  Geologists  are  agreed 
that  the  land  of  which  Malta  and  Gozzo  are  now  the  only  remains  must  formerly 
have  been  of  great  extent,  for  amongst  the  fossils  of  its  most  recent  limestone 
rocks  have  been  found  the  bones  of  elephants  and  other  animals  which  only 
inhabit  continents.  Even  now  the  island  is  slowly  wasting  away,  and  its  steep 
cliSs,  pierced  by  numerous  grottoes,  locally  known  as  ghar,  are  gradually  crumbling 
into  dust. 

Placed  in  the  very  centre  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  possessed  of  an  excellent 
port,  Malta  has  at  all  times  been  a  commercial  station  of  much  importance.  It 
has  been  occupied  hj  all  the  nations  who  succeeded  each  other  in  the  possession 
of  the  Mediterranean — Phoenicians,  Carthugiuiaus,  Romans,  and  Greeks.  But  long 
before  that  time  the  island  must  have  been  inhabited,  for  we  meet  with  grottoes 
excavated  in  the  rocks,  and  with  curious  edifices  resembling  the  nuraghi  of 
Sardinia,  and  it  is  just  possible   that  the  descendants  of   these  aborigines    still 

•  Fantellaria,    397   squur«   miles,    6,000   inhabitants;    Linosa,  4-G    square   miles,  900   inhabitauts; 
Lampedusa,  3  square  miles,  600  inhabitauts. 


88G 


ITALY. 


constitulc  the  principal  clement  of  the  existin^j  population,  which,  at  all  events, 
is  very  mixed,  and  during  the  doniinatiou  of   tlic  .Saracens  almost  became  Arab. 
The  language  spoken  is  a  very  corrupt  Italian,  containing  many  Arabic  words. 
The  great  military  part  played  by  Malta  began  when  the  Knights  of  St.  John, 


Fig.  121. — The  Port  of  Malta. 
Boole  1  :  49,000, 


it'sriar.  ..r(v 


^MliMmm^Ski^mM 


2  Miles. 


after  their  expulsion  from  Rhodes  in  1522,  installed  themselves  upon  the  island, 
and  converted  it  into  the  bulwark  of  the  Christian  world.  In  the  beginning  of  this 
century  Malta  passed  into  the  po.sscssion  of  the  English,  who  may  survey  thence, 
as  from  a  watch-tower,  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  Gibraltar  to  Smyrna 


M.4.LTA  AND  GOZZO.  837 

and  Port  Said.  The  excellent  port  of  La  Taletta  singularly  facilitates  the  mili- 
tary and  commercial  part  which  Malta  is  called  upon  to  play  in  the  world  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  sufficiently  spacious  to  shelter  two  entire  fleets,  and  its 
approaches  are  defended  by  fortifications  rendered  impregnable  by  the  successive 
work  of  three  centuries.  There  are,  besides,  all  the  facilities  required  by  merchant- 
men, including  a  careening  dock  larger  than  any  other  in  the  world.  The 
commerce  of  the  island  is  rapidly  increasing  ;  it  is  one  of  the  great  centres  of 
steamboat  navigation,  and  submarine  telegraphs  connect  it  with  all  parts  of  the 
world.* 

The  city  of  La  Yaletta  has  retained  all  its  ancient  picturesqueness,  in  spite 
of  its  straight  streets  and  the  walls  which  surround  it.  Its  high  white  houses, 
ornamented  with  balconies  and  conservatories,  rise  amphitheatre-like  on  the  slope 
of  a  hill ;  stairs  lead  from  landing-place  to  landing-place  to  the  summit  of  this 
hill ;  and  from  every  street  we  behold  the  blue  sea,  with  its  large  merchantmen  and 
crowds  of  smaller  vessels.  Gondolas,  having  two  huge  eyes  painted  upon  the  prow, 
glide  noiselessly  over  the  waters,  and  curious  vehicles  roll  heavily  along  the 
quad's.  Maltese,  English  soldiers,  and  sailors  of  every  nation  crowd  the  streets. 
Now  and  then  a  woman  glides  rapidly  along  the  walls.  Like  all  Christian  women 
of  the  East,  she  wears  the  fahlctfa,  a  sort  of  black  silk  domino,  which  hides  her 
sumptuous  dress,  and  coquettishly  conceals  her  features. 

Malta  beyond  the  walls  of  the  town  is  but  a  dreary  place  of  abode.  The 
country  rises  gently  towards  the  south,  in  the  direction  of  Citt&  Yecchia  and  the 
hills  of  Ben  Gemma.  Grey  rocks  abound,  a  fine  dust  covers  the  vegetation,  and 
the  white  walls  of  the  village  glisten  in  the  sun.  There  are  no  trees,  except  in  a 
few  solitary  gardens,  where  the  famous  mandarin  oranges  grow.  Nor  are  there 
any  rivers.  The  soil  is  scorched,  and  it  is  matter  for  astonishment  that  it  should 
yield  such  abundant  harvests  of  cereals,  and  clover  {sulla)  growing  to  the  height 
of  a  man.  Carnation  tints  delight  the  eve  during  the  season  of  flowers.  The 
Maltese  peasants,  small,  wiry,  and  muscular,  are  wonderfully  industrious.  They 
have  brought  the  whole  island  under  cultivation,  the  cliffs  alone  excepted,  and, 
where  vegetable  soil  is  wanting,  they  produce  it  artificially  by  triturating  the  rocks. 
In  former  times  vessels  coming  from  Sicily  were  bound  to  bring  a  certain  quantity 
of  soil  as  ballast.  But  in  spite  of  their  careful  cultivation,  the  inhabitants  of 
Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Comino  (thus  named  from  cumin,  which,  with  cotton,  is  the 
principal  crop  of  the  island),  the  produce  hardly  suSices  for  six  months'  consump- 
tion, and  the  islanders  are  largely  dependent  upon  Sicily  for  their  food.  Navi- 
gation and  the  fisheries  contribute  likewise  towards  the  means  of  subsistence,  but 
the  Maltese  would  nevertheless  perish  on  their  island  if  the  surplus  population 
did  not  emigrate  to  all  the  coast  lands  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  especially  to 
Algeria,  where  the  Maltese,  as  everywhere  else,  are  distinguished  for  thrift  and 
industry. 

•  The  tonnage  of  vessels  which  enter  and  clear  annnally  from  foreign  ports  amounts  to  4,300.000 
tons ;  the  value  of  dutiable  articles  imported  is  ne;irly  £9,000,000  sterling,  and  the  value  of  the  exports 
about  the  same. 


838  ITALY. 

In  winter  this  exodus  is  in  some  measure  compensated  for  by  the  arrival  of 
many  English  families,  who  visit  the  island  for  the  sake  of  its  dry  and  mild 
climate.  February  is  the  finest  month,  and  the  island  is  then  resplendent  with 
verdure,  but  the  scorching  heat  of  summer  soon  dries  up  the  vegetation. 

A  governor  appointed  by  the  Crown  exercises  executive  functions,  and  enjoys 
the  privilege  of  mercy.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Council  of  seven  members,  by  whom 
all  laws  are  discussed  and  voted.  The  lord-lieutenant  of  each  district  is  chosen 
amongst  the  Maltese  nobles,  and  deputies  appointed  by  the  governor  manage 
the  affairs  of  tlie  villages.  Italian  is  the  language  used  in  the  courts,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Supreme  Court,  into  which  English  was  introduced  in  1823. 

The  revenues  of  the  island,  about  £170,000  annually,  are  not  sufficient  to  cover 
the  military  expenses,  and  the  deficiency  is  made  up  by  the  imperial  treasury. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  bishop  is  appointed  by  the 
Pope,  and  enjoys  an  income  of  £4,000.* 


VIII. — Sardinia. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  an  island  so  fertile  as  Sardinia,  so  rich  in  metals,  and  so 
favourably  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  should  have  lagged 
behind  in  the  race  of  progress  as  it  has.  When  the  Carthaginians  held  that 
island  its  population  was  certainly  more  numerous  than  it  is  now,  and  the  fearful 
massacres  placed  on  record  by  the  historians  of  Home  testify  to  this  fact.  Its 
decadence  was  sudden  and  thorough.  In  part  it  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
configuration  of  the  island,  which  presents  steep  cliffs  towards  Italy,  whence 
emigrants  might  have  arrived,  whilst  its  western  coast  is  bounded  by  marshes 
and  insalubrioxis  swamps.  But  the  principal  cause  of  this  torpor,  which  endured 
for  centuries,  is  traceable  to  the  actions  of  man.  The  conquerors  who  succeeded 
the  Romans  and  Byzantines  in  the  possession  of  the  island,  whether  Saracens, 
Pisans,  Genoese,  or  Aragonese,  monopolized  its  produce  solely  with  a  view  to 
their  own  profit,  and  further  mischief  was  wrought  by  the  pirates  of  Barbary,  who 
frequentl}-  descended  upon  its  coasts.  As  recently  as  1815  the  Tunisians  landed 
upon  Sant'  Antioco,  massacring  the  inhabitants,  or  carrying  them  into  slavery. 
The  coast  districts  became  depopulated,  and  the  inhabitants  retired  to  the  interior, 
where,  oppressed  by  their  feudal  lords,  thej'  led  a  life  of  isolation  from  the  rest  of 
Europe.  It  is  hardlj-  a  generation  since  Sardinia  began  to  participate  in  the 
general  progress  made  throughout  Italy. 

Sardinia  is  nearly  as  large  as  Sicily,  but  has  only  a  fourth  of  its  population. t 
Geographically  it  is  more  independent  of  Italy  than  the  southern  island,  and  a 
profound  sea,  more  than  1,000  fathoms  in  depth,  divides  it  from  the  African 
continent.  Sardinia  with  Corsica  forms  a  group  of  twin  islands,  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  Tuscan  archipelago  by  a  narrow  strait  only  170  fathoms  in  depth. 

•  Area  of  Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Comino,  146  square  miles ;  population  1 19,084,  inclusive  of  7,309  military 
and  their  iamilies. 

t  Area,  9,440  square  miles  ;  population  (1871),  636,500. 


SAEDINIA. 


339 


The  geological  structure  of  the  two  islands  is  identical,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  islands  and  rocks  in  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio  are  the  remains  of  an  isthmus 


Fig.  125. — The  Sea  to  the  South  of  Sardinia. 


Scoje    of  >       Z  ooo  oo 


_J1U0    Miles 


DMia     „      So-  2^A     „  in    . 

Mm      Depth   over    noo 


„  JOO  IJt/O        It 


destroyed  by  the  sea.  On  the  other  hand,  we  learn  from  a  stud}'  of  the  geology  of 
Sardinia  that  at  a  period  not  very  remote  that  island  must  have  consisted  of 
several  separate  islands.      The  principal  island  formed  a   southerly  continuation 


340 


ITALY. 


of  the  mountains  of  Corsica,  whilst  the  smaller  ones  lay  to  the  west.  Alluvial 
deposits,  volcanic  eruptions,  and  perhaps,  also,  an  upheaval  of  the  soil,  have 
converted  the  shallow  straits  which  separated  them  into  dry  land. 

The  mountains  of  Sardinia  may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  islands  of  Maddalena 
and  Caprera,  in  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  and  in  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Gallura 
they  attain  already  a  considerable  height.  A  depression  separates  these  from  the 
southern  portion  of  the  great  back-bone  of  the  island,  which  stretches  along  the 
whole  of  the  eastern  coast,  and  terminates  abruptly  at  Cape  Carbonaro.  These 
mountains,  like  those  of  Corsica,  consist  of  crystalline  rocks  and  schists ;  but 
whilst  the  slope  on  the  latter  island  is  steepest  towards  the  west,  the  reverse  is  the 
case  on  Sardinia,  and  that  island  may  almost  be  said  to  turn  its  back  upon  Italy. 


Fig.  126. — The  Strait  op  Bonifacio. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


r%   Bo«  1K.V110  V,H~^'  "•^'^  ''•"^ 


!  .^ 


:  .f^//a«U«      ,'q    i -.^ 

^J  Haits     of     *Ia^<>  .  \ 


10  Jlilcs. 


The  general  slope  of  the  island  is  towards  the  west,  and  its  occupation  by  Spain 
could  therefore  be  justified  bj-  purely  geographical  arguments. 

The  highest  summits  of  the  island  are  found  in  the  central  portion  of  this 
crystalline  chain,  where  the  Gennargentu,  or  "  silver  mountain,"  rises  to  a  height  of 
6,116  feet.  A  little  snow  remains  in  the  crevices  of  this  mountain  throughout  the 
summer.  The  inhabitants  of  Northern  Sardinia  formerly  imagined  that  their  own 
Gigantinu,  or  "giant,"  in  the  mountains  of  Limbarra,  constituted  the  culminating 
point  of  the  island,  but  careful  measurements  have  shown  that  that  superb  peak 
only  attains  an  elevation  of  4,297  feet. 

The  secondary  mountain  groups  in  the  western  portion  of  the  island  are 
separated  from  the  main  chain   by  recent  geological  formations.      The  granitic 


SAEDINIA.  341 

region  of  La  Xiirra,  to  the  west  of  Sassari,  almost  uninhabited  in  spite  of  its 
fertile  vallej-s,  and  the  island  of  Asinara  adjoining  it,  which  abounds  in  turtles, 
are  amongst  these  insulated  mountain  regions.  Another,  intersected  by  the 
beautiful  yalley  of  Domus  Xovas,  occupies  the  south-western  extremity  of  the 
island.  Geologists  look  upon  it  as  the  most  ancient  portion  of  the  island,  and 
the  plain  of  Campidano,  which  now  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  arm  of  the  sea, 
is  of  quaternary  formation.  The  transversal  range  of  Marghine  occupies  the 
centre  of  the  island,  and  there,  too,  we  meet  with  vast  limestone  plateaux  pierced 
by  volcanic  rocks.  The  ancient  craters,  however,  no  longer  emit  lava,  nor  even 
gases,  and  the  villagers  have  tranquilly  built  their  huts  within  them.  Thermal 
springs  alone  indicate  the  existence  of  subterranean  forces.  Volcanic  cones  of 
recent  age  are  met  with  in  the  north-western  portion  of  the  island,  as  well  as  in 
the  valley  of  the  Orosei,  on  the  east  coast.  The  trachytic  rocks  of  the  islands  of 
San  Pietro  and  Sant'  Antioco  are  of  greater  age.  They  sometimes  present  the 
appearance  of  architectural  piles,  especially  at  the  Cape  of  Columns,  which  is, 
however,  rapidly  disappearing,  as  the  stone  is  being  quarried  to  be  converted  into 
pavement.  On  Sant'  Antioco,  which  a  bridge  joins  to  the  mainland,  there  are 
deep  caverns,  the  haunts  of  thousands  of  pigeons,  which  are  caught  bj-  spreading 
a  net  before  their  entrance. 

In  addition  to  the  changes  wrought  by  volcanic  agencies,  Sardinia  exhibits 
traces  of  a  slow  upheaval  or  subsidence  due  to  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  the 
upper  strata  of  the  earth.  Eaised  beaches  have  been  discovered  by  La  Marmora 
near  Cagliari,  at  an  elevation  of  243  and  322  feet  above  the  sea-level,  where 
shells  of  living  species  are  found  together  with  potsherds  and  other  articles, 
proving  that  when  this  upheaval  took  place  the  island  was  already  inhabited. 
Elsewhere  there  exist  traces  of  a  subsidence,  and  the  old  Phoenician  cities  of  Xora, 
to  the  south-west  of  Cagliari,  and  Tharros,  on  the  northern  peninsula  of  the 
Gulf  of  Oristano,  have  become  partly  submerged. 

Amongst  the  rivers  of  the  island  there  is  only  one  which  deserves  that 
name.  This  is  the  Tirso,  or  Fiume  d'Oristano,  which  is  fed  by  the  snows  of  the 
Gennargentu  and  the  rains  which  descend  on  the  western  mountain  slopes.  Other 
rivers  of  equal  length  are  hardly  more  than  torrents,  which  at  one  time  invade  the 
fields  adjoining  them,  and  at  another  shrink  to  a  thin  thread  of  water  meandering 
between  thickets  of  laurel-trees.  Most  of  the  river  beds  are  dry  during  eight 
months  of  the  year,  and  even  after  rain  the  water  does  not  find  its  way  into  the 
sea,  but  is  absorbed  by  the  littoral  swamps. 

All  these  swamps  have  brackish  water.  The  largest  amongst  them  commimicate 
freely  with  the  sea,  at  least  during  the  rainy  season,  but  others  are  sepai'uted  from 
it  by  a  strip  of  sand.  But  these,  too,  are  brackish,  for  the  sea-water  percolates 
through  the  soil,  and  keeps  them  at  the  same  level.  The  water  of  the  inland 
swamps  is  likewise  saturated  with  saline  substances  derived  from  the  surrounding 
soil.  They  generally  dry  up  in  summer,  but  the  coating  of  salt  which  then  appears 
is  hardly  dry  enough  to  repay  the  labour  of  collection  and  refinement.  The  only 
salt  marshes  actually  exploited  are  those  of  Cagliari  and  of  Carlo-Forte,  on  San 


342  ITALY. 

Pietro.     They  have  been  leased  to  a  French  company,  and  yield  annually  nearly 
120,000  tons  of  salt. 

Swamps  and  marshes  envelop  nearly  the  whole  of  the  island  in  a  zone  of  mias- 
mata, which  are  carried  by  the  wind  into  the  interior,  producing  fever  even  in  the 
more  elevated  mountain  districts.  There  arc  localities  on  the  island  the  air  of 
which  no  stranger  can  breathe  with  impunity.  The  coast  districts  of  Sardinia, 
with  their  stagnant  waters,  are,  in  truth,  the  most  unhealthy  in  Italy,  and  quite 
one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  island  is  exposed  to  the  scourge  of  malaria,  which 
sufficiently  accounts  for  the  .small  population  of  the  island  and  the  little  progress 
made. 

Even  when  Sardinia  was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  and  supplied  Rome 
with  an  abundance  of  corn,  cheese,  pork,  lead,  copper,  iron,  and  textile  fabrics, 
it  was  noted  for  its  unhealthiness,  and  the  emperors  exiled  to  it  those  whom  they 
desired  to  get  rid  of.  Then,  as  now,  the  landed  proprietor.^  about  the  middle  of 
June,  retired  to  the  towns,  the  walls  of  which  offered  some  protection  against  the 
poisonous  air.  The  Italian  Government  officials  are  sent  to  the  island  as  a  punish- 
ment, and  for  the  most  part  look  upon  themselves  as  condemned  to  death.  Even 
the  native  villagers  are  bound  to  observe  the  greatest  precautions,  and  wear  gar- 
ments of  skin  or  leather  which  are  impenetrable  to  rain,  mist,  and  dew.  They 
are  dressed  most  warmly  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  year  as  a  protection  against 
the  climate,  and  in  their  long  ma^itnicas  of  sheepskin  they  almost  look  like  Wal- 
lachian  herdsmen. 

Ancient  geographers,  as  well  as  the  Sardinians  themselves,  ascribe  the  unhealthi- 
ness of  the  climate  to  the  rarity  of  north-easterly  winds.  The  mountains  of  Lim- 
barra,  in  the  north  of  the  island,  are  popularly  supposed  to  act  as  a  sort  of  screen, 
which  diverts  this  health-bringing  wind,  to  the  great  detriment  of  Lower  Sardinia ; 
and  there  appears  to  be  much  truth  in  this  popular  notion.  South-westerly 
winds,  or  libeccios,  are  almost  equally  rare,  and  when  they  blow  they  do  so  with 
tempestuous  violence. 

The  regular  winds  of  Sardinia  blow  from  the  north-west  or  south-cast.  The 
former  is  known  as  the  maestra/e,  the  latter  as  the  levante  or  sirocco,  called  maledetto 
levante  by  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Sardinia.  It  becomes  charged  with  moisture 
during  its  pa.^sage  across  the  Mediterranean,  and  its  temperature  is  in  reality  much 
less  than  might  be  supposed  from  the  lassitude  produced  by  it.  The  maestralo,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  hailed  with  joy,  for  it  is  an  invigorating  wind,  f  >n  reaching  the 
coast  it  generally  parts  with  its  moisture,  and  when  it  arrives  at  (^agliari  it  is  per- 
fectly dry.  The  capital  of  Sardinia  is  indebted  to  this  wind  and  to  sea  breezes 
for  its  low  temperature  (62-4°  F.),  which  is  far  lower  than  that  of  Genoa. 

Hurricanes  are  comparatively  rare,  and  hailstorms,  which  work  such  damage 
elsewhere,  are  hardly  known.  Most  of  the  rain  falls  in  autumn  ;  it  ceases  in 
December,  when  the  pleasantest  season  sets  in.  These  are  the  "  halcyon  days  " 
of  ancient  poet-s,  when  the  sea  calms  down  in  order  that  the  sacred  bird  may  build 
his  nest.  But  these  pleasant  days  are  succeeded  by  a  wretched  spring.  February, 
the  "  double-faced  month  "  of  Sardinian  mariners,  brings  capricious  frosts,  to  which 


SARDINIA.  343 

succeed,  in  March  and  April,  abrupt  changes  of  temperature,  winds,  and  rain. 
Vegetation  in  consequence  is  far  more  backward  than  might  be  supjjosed  from  the 
latitude. 

The  vegetation  of  Sardinia  resembles  that  of  the  other  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  forest  in  the  highland  valleys  of  the  interior  and  on  the  trackless 
mountain  slopes  consists  of  pines,  oaks,  and  holm-oaks,  mixed  here  and  there  with 
yoke-elms  and  maples.  The  villages  are  surrounded  by  chestnut-trees  and  groves 
of  magnificent  walnut-trees.  The  hill-tops,  robbed  of  their  forests,  are  covered 
with  odoriferous  plants  and  thickets  of  ;myrtles,  strawberr3'-trees,  and  heather.  It 
is  there  the  bees  collect  the  bitter  honey  so  much  despised  by  Horace.  Yast  tracts  of 
uncultivated  land  near  the  seashore  are  covered  with  wild  olive-trees,  which  onlj' 
need  grafting  to  jaeld  excellent  fruit.  All  the  fruit  trees  and  useful  plants  of  the 
Mediterranean  flourish  in  Sardinia.  Almond  and  orange  trees,  introduced  by 
the  Moors  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  flourish  vigorously.  The  orange 
groves  of  Milli.s,  which  are  protected  by  the  extinct  volcano  of  Monte  Ferru,  are, 
perhaps,  the  most  productive  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  good 
seasons  yield  60,000,000  oranges.  The  gardens  of  Domus  Novas,  Ozieri,  and 
Sassari  are  of  surprising  fertility.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  wherever  the 
cultivated  fields  gain  uj^on  the  lands  covered  with  rock-roses,  fennel,  and  lilies, 
they  are  fenced  in  with  fig-trees.  The  fan-shaped  foliage  of  the  date-palm  is  seen 
near  every  town,  and  more  especially  in  the  environs  of  Cagliari.  By  a  curious 
contrast  the  dwarf  palm  is  not  met  with  in  the  southern  lowlands  of  the  island, 
though  their  climate  is  almost  African,  but  forms  dense  thickets  in  the  solitudes  of 
Alghero,  in  the  north  of  the  islands.  The  inhabitants  eat  the  roots  of  this  tree,  as 
do  also  the  Moors. 

Although  all  the  plants  of  neighbouring  countries  become  easily  acclimatized  in 
Sardinia,  that  island  is  naturally  poorer  in  species  than  are  continental  regions 
Ijang  under  the  same  latitude.  There  is  nothing  special  about  its  flora,  for  the 
island  is  probably  only  a  remnant  of  a  larger  tract  of  land  which  formerly  joined 
Europe  to  Africa.  As  to  the  famous  plant  mentioned  bj'  ancient  writers,  which,. eaten 
by  mistake,  produced  fits  of  "  sardonic  laughter,"  or  even  death,  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  peculiar  to  the  island.  ^limaut  thinks,  from  the  descriptions  of 
Pliny  and  Pausanias,  that  the  large-leafed  water-parsley  (Siitm  latifoliuin)  is 
referred  to. 

The  number  of  species  of  animals,  like  that  of  plants,  is  smaller  in  Sardinia 
than  on  the  neighbouring  continent.  There  are  neither  bears,  badgers,  polecats, 
nor  moles.  Vipers  or  venomous  serpents  of  any  description  do  not  exist,  and  the 
only  animal  to  be  dreaded  is  the  tarentula  {arza,  or  argia),  a  sting  from  which 
can  be  cured  only  by  dancing  until  completely  exhausted,  or  by  immersion  in 
dung.  The  ordinary  frog,  though  common  in  Corsica,  does  not  exist,  but  European 
butterflies  are  numerous.  The  moufflon,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  ancestor  of  our 
domestic  sheep,  and  has  been  exterminated  in  nearly  all  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  still  lives  in  the  mountains  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  Wild  horses 
roamed  over  Sant'  Antioco  as  recently  as  the  beginning  of  this   century  ;  myriads 


84-1  ITALY. 

of  rabbits  burrow  in  the  small  islands  lining  the  coast ;  and  wild  goats  with  long 
horns  and  yi'llow  teeth  inhabit  the  limestone  island  of  Tavohira,  in  tiie  Gulf  of 
Terranova.  These  goats  are  descended  from  domestic  animals  abandoned  at  some 
former  period.  Caprera,  the  residence  of  Garibaldi,  is  named  after  the  goats 
Avliich  formerly  inhabited  it,  and  animals  of  that  kind  recently  introduced  there 
quii'kly  returned  to  a  state  of  nature. 

Naturalists  have  observed  that  the  mammals  of  Sardinia  are  smaller  than  the 
same  species  living  on  the  continent.  The  goat  is  the  only  exception  to  the  rule. 
The  stag,  door,  wild  boar,  fox,  wild  cut,  hafe,  rabbit,  marten,  and  weasel  are  all  of 
them  smaller  than  the  continental  varieties.  The  same  rule  applies  to  domesticated 
animals,  with  the  exception  of  the  pig,  which  grows  to  a  great  size,  especially  where 
it  is  allowed  to  roam  through  oak  forests.  There  is  a  varietj-  of  this  animal 
whose  hoofs  are  not  cloven,  and  which  ouglit,  therefore,  to  be  classed  amongst  soli- 
peds.  The  horses  and  asses  of  Sardinia  are  dwarfs.  But  the  horse  is  distinguished 
by  great  sobriety,  sureness  of  foot,  vigour,  and  endurance.  If  in  addition  to  these 
advantages  it  possessed  a  more  attractive  exterior,  it  would  rank  among  the  most 
highly  appreciated  horses  of  Europe.  As  to  the  donkeys,  though  hardly  larger 
than  a  mastiff,  they  are  bravo  little  animals,  and  frequently  share  with  their 
masters  the  only  room  of  their  abode.  The  old-fashioned  mills,  resembling  in 
every  respect  the  Roman  bas-reliefs  which  may  be  seen  in  the  Vatican,  are 
propelled  by  these  donkeys,  which  thus  materially  contribute  towards  the  stipport 
of  their  proprietors. 

Sardinia  abounds  more  than  any  other  country  of  Western  Europe  in  pre- 
historic remains.  There  are  megaliths,  known  as  "giants'  stones,"  "  altars,"  or 
"long-stones,"  as  in  Brittany,  scarcely  any  of  thera  showing  traces  of  the  chisel. 
Dolmens,  however,  are  rare,  and  the  genuineness  of  all  is  doubted.  Amongst 
these  monuments  there  are,  perhaps,  some  which  were  connected  with  the  worship 
of  some  Eastern  deity,  for  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians  stayed  for  a  considerable 
time  upon  the  island,  where  they  founded  Caralis,  Nora,  Tharros,  and  other  towns; 
and  even  during  the  time  of  the  Romans  it  was  customary  to  place  Punic  inscrip- 
tions upon  the  tombstones.  The  ruins  of  Tharros  have  yielded  golden  idols  and 
other  articles  in  large  numbers,  most  of  them  being  of  Egyptian  origin.  But  the 
principal  witnesses  to  the  civilisation  of  the  ancient  Sards  are  the  curious 
structures  known  as  num'jhi.  They  generalh"  occupy  the  hill-tops,  and,  seen  from 
a  distance,  resemble  pyramids.  The  limestone  plateau  of  Giara,  near  the  centre  of 
the  islmd,  is  surrounded  by  masonry  structures  of  this  description,  which  abound 
also  in  other  portions  of  the  island,  the  number  still  existing  being  nearly  4,000. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  the  basaltic  region  to  the  south  of  Macomer, 
and  are  met  with  for  the  most  part  in  fertile  districts,  far  away  from  the  arid 
steppes. 

The  origin  and  uses  of  these  nuraglii  have  been  a  subject  of  much  discussion,  but 
archaeologists  now  almost  universally  adopt  the  views  of  Signor  Spano,  the  indefa- 
tigable explorer  of  Sardinian  antiquities.  According  to  him  these  nuraghi  were 
dwellings,  and  their  Phoenician  name  simply  means  "  round  house."     The  rudest 


SAEDIXIA. 


845 


among  them,  dating  back  probably  for  forty  centuries,  contain  but  a  single  chamber. 
They  were  erected  during  the  age  of  stone,  when  man  first  gave  up  his  cavern 
dwellings.  The  more  recent  constructions  date  back  to  the  age  of  bronze,  and  even 
of  iron.  More  skill  is  exhibited  in  their  structure,  though  no  mortar  has  been 
used,  and  they  contain  two  or  more  chambers,  forming  as  many  floors,  and  accessible 
by  means  of  stone  stairs.  The  ground  floor  of  some  is  large  enough  for  the  accom- 
modation of  forty  or  fifty  persons,  and  is  furnished  with  antechambers  and  small 
semicircular  recesses.  The  nuraghi  of  Su  Domu  or  S'Orcu,  near  Domus  NovaSj 
which  has  recently  been  demolished,  contained  ten  chambers  and  four  courtyards ; 


Fig.  127— La  Gl\ka. 
Scale  1  :  308,610. 


3°  30 


A  Nurtujhi. 


5  Males. 


it  was  a  fortress  as  well  as  a  dwelling-place,  capable  of  accommodating  a  hundred 
persons  and  standing  a  siege.  The  dwellings  of  the  modern  Albanians  and  of  the 
Swaneti  in  the  Caucasus  still  resemble  these  ancient  abodes. 

The  rubbish  which  accumulated  in  these  nuraghi  has  yielded  a  multitude  of 
objects  which  throw  light  upon  the  daily  life  of  the  inhabitants,  and  bear  witness  to 
their  relative  civilisation.  The  lower  strata  only  contain  hand-made  utensils,  stone 
arms,  and  pottery,  but  in  the  upper  and  more  recent  layers  many  articles  of  bronze 
have  been  found.  Other  monuments  of  cyclopean  structure  stand  near  these 
ancient  dwellings.     They  are  popularly  known  as  "  giants'  tombs,"  and  Signor 


846  nA].Y. 

Sapi,  who  Las  examined  a  large  number  of  them,  has  discovered  in  every  instance 

the  aslics  of  human  beings. 

Though  very  superstitious,  the  Sardinians  have  no  legends  respecting  these 
dwellings  of  the  aborigines,  and  at  most  attribute  tlicm  to  the  devil.  This 
absence  of  traditions  is  no  doubt  traceable  to  the  almost  total  annihilation  of 
the  inhabitants  by  successive  conquerors.  The  Cartliaginians  showed  no  mercy 
to  the  aborigines,  and  during  the  first  centuries  of  Koinan  rule  massacres  and 
forcible  emigration  were  the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  gaps  thus  created  were  filled 
up  by  Italian  colonists  and  exiles. 

The  ancient  Sards  were  most  likely  Iberians.  They  are  of  low  stature,  and 
the  climate,  which  has  stunted  tlie  growth  of  wild  and  domesticated  animaLs, 
appears  to  have  influenced  man  likewise  ;  but  they  are  well  proportioned  and 
muscular,  have  an  abundance  of  black  hair  and  strong  beards,  and  scarcely  ever 
grow  bald.  There  are  minor  differences  in  the  Sards  of  the  two  provinces.  Those 
of  the  north  have  generally  oval  features  and  an  aquiline  nose,  whilst  those  near 
Cagliari,  who  are  probably  more  mixed,  have  irregular  features  and  prominent 
cheek-bones. 

Tlie  inhabitants  of  the  interior  of  the  island  are,  perhaps,  of  purer  race  than  any 
other  P^uropcans.  Their  ancestors,  no  doubt,  were  of  the  most  di\erse  origin,  but 
most  invasions  which  took  place  after  the  Roman  era  stopped  short  at  the  coast. 
The  Vandals  paid  a  visit  to  Sardinia,  but  all  the  other  Germanic  tribes,  who 
ravaged  nearly  every  other  country  of  "Western  Europe,  spared  tluit  island,  and 
its  inhabitants  were  thus  able  to  preserve  their  manners  and  language.  The 
Moors,  Pisans,  Genoese,  Catalonians,  and  Spaniards,  who  successively  invaded  the 
island,  never  penetrated  beyond  tlie  coast.  There  is  only  one  exception  to  this 
rule,  viz.  that  of  the  Barbaricini,  who  inhabit  the  mountain  district  of  Barbagia, 
in  the  very  centre  of  the  island,  and  who  are  supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of 
Berbers  expelled  from  Africa  by  the  Vandals.  When  they  came  to  the  island 
they  were  still  pagans,  and  they  intermarried  with  their  neighbours,  the  Ilienses, 
an  aboriginal  tribe,  pagans  like  themselves.  They  were  converted  to  Christianity 
in  the  seventh  century,  and  the  sombre  dress  worn  by  their  women  reminds  us  of 
Barbary. 

Of  all  the  idioms  derived  from  the  Latin,  that  spoken  in  Sardinia  has  most 
resemblance  to  the  language  of  the  ancient  Romans.  More  than  five  hundred 
words  are  absolutely  identical.  There  are  likewise  a  few  Greek  words  not  met 
with  in  any  other  Latin  idiom,  as  well  as  two  or  three  words  which  have  no 
affinity  with  any  other  European  tongue,  and  which  are,  perhaps,  derived  from  the 
language  spoken  by  the  aborigines.  The  two  leading  dialects,  those  of  Logoduro, 
in  the  north,  and  of  Cagliari,  are  directly  derived  from  the  Latin,  and  are,  perhaps, 
most  nearlj'  related  to  Spanish.  At  Sassari,  and  in  some  of  the  neighbouring  coast 
districts,  an  Italian  dialect  is  spoken  which  is  very  much  like  that  of  Corsica  or 
Genoa.  At  Alghero  the  descendants  of  the  Catalonian  immigrants  who  settled 
there  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  still  speak  their  old  Provencal. 
The  MaureUi,  or  Mnurcddus,  in  the  environs  of  Iglesias,  who  are  probably  Berbers, 


SARDINIA.  347 

and  can  be  recognised  by  tbeir  narrow  skulls,  make  use  of  a  few  African  words. 
Maltzan  looks  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  fertile  district  of  Millis  as  the  purest 
representatives  of  African  immigrants,  and  it  was  they  who  introduced  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  orange  into  Sardinia. 

The  Sardinians  of  the  interior  not  only  retain  their  ancient  language,  but  like- 
wise many  of  their  ancient  customs.  Their  dances  are  still  the  same  as  in  the 
time  of  Greece.  In  the  north  the  steps  are  regulated  by  the  human  voice,  the 
chanters  occupying  the  centre  of  the  ring.  In  the  south  a  musical  instrument, 
the  launedda,  is  "used,  which  is  nothing  but  an  ancient  flute,  made  of  two  or  three 
reeds.  The  customs  observed  at  christenings,  weddings,  and  funerals  are  likewise 
of  remote  date.  Marriage,  as  amongst  nearly  all  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Europe,  is  preceded  by  a  feigned  abduction  of  the  bride.  The  latter,  after  she  has 
entered  the  house  of  her  husband,  must  not  stir  from  her  place  during  that  day, 
nor  speak  a  single  word.  Mute  as  a  statue,  she  is  no  longer  a  sentient  being, 
but  a  "thing,"  the  property  of  her  husband.  She  is  not  permitted  to  see  her 
relatives  during  three  da3's,  and  in  the  south  many  women  partly  conceal  their 
features. 

The  mountaineers  likewise  observe  the  lugubrious  ceremony  of  a  wake,  called 
titio  or  attifo.  Women,  who  are  either  the  friends  of  the  deceased  or  are  engaged 
for  the  purpose,  penetrate  the  mortuary  chamber,  tear  their  hair,  howl,  and 
improvise  hj'mns  of  mourning.  These  old  pagan  ceremonies  become  truly  terrific 
when  the  deceased  has  been  the  victim  of  assassination,  for  in  that  case  the 
mourners  swear  to  take  the  life  of  the  murderer.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  this 
century  the  practice  of  the  vendetta  annually  cost  the  lives  of  hundreds  of  young 
men.  At  the  present  day  it  is  confined  to  the  most  secluded  parts  of  the  island, 
and  in  the  mountain  districts  of  Nuoro  and  La  Gallura  it  is  customary  at 
christenings  to  place  a  few  bullets  in  the  swaddling-clothes  of  the  infants, 
these  consecrated  bullets  being  supposed  never  to  miss  their  mark.  Another 
custom  still  more  barbarous  has  ceased  to  be  observed  since  the  beginning  of 
the  last  century.  "Women,  called  "finishers"  [accahadure),  were  employed  to 
hasten  the  end  of  dying  persons,  a  practice  which  often  led  to  the  most  atrocious 
deeds. 

The  peasant  of  Sardinia,  though  not  the  proprietor  of  the  soil,  is  nevertheless 
permitted  to  enjoy  the  result  of  his  labour.  The  feudal  system  existed  up  to  1840, 
and  many  traces  of  it  still  survive.  The  great  barons,  most  of  them  of  Spanish 
extraction,  were  almost  the  absolute  masters  of  the  country,  and  up  to  1836  they 
administered  the  law,  had  their  prisons,  and  erected  gallows  as  a  symbol  of  their 
power.  The  peasants,  however,  were  not  tied  to  the  land,  but  could  migrate  at 
pleasure,  and  custom  granted  them  a  fair  share  of  the  produce  of  the  soil.  By 
virtue  of  an  cidoiipn'n'o  they  were  permitted  to  cut  wood  in  the  forests,  to  pasture 
their  sheep  on  the  hills,  and  to  bring  into  cultivation  the  waste  lands  of  the  plains. 
Agriculture  was  carried  on  in  the  most  primitive  fashion,  for  the  great  lords  of 
the  land  usually  resided  abroad,  and  the  management  of  their  estates  was  left  to 
bailiffs.     Government  has  now  become  the  proprietor  of  most  of  the   unenclosed 


348 


ITALY. 


lanrl,  80,000  acres  of  which  have  been  ceded  to  the  Anfrlo-Italian  Company,  which 
lias  undertaken  to  provide  the  ishind  with  a  network  of  railways. 

In  the  more  densely  populated  districts  the  division  of  the  land  is  exceedingly 
minute,  and  this  subdivision  is  still  progressing  at  a  most  disastrous  rate.  The 
nomad  herdsmen,  on  the  other  hand,  possess  no  land  of  their  own,  though,  if 
inclined,  they  are  at  liberty  to  enclose  a  plot.  15iit  vague  proprietary  rights  like 
these  render  the  careful  cultivation  of  the  soil  impossible.  It  lias  been  seriously 
proposed  to  expropriate  the  whole  of  the  land,  and  to  sell  it  to  a  few  enterprising 
capitalists,  but  this  would  simply  amount  to  a  restoiation  of  the  (dd  feudal  times, 


Fig.  128. — DieTRicT  of  Iglesias. 

Scale  1  :  42n.sno. 


a  Miles. 


and  poverty,  which  is  great  even  now,  would  become  greater.  There  are  villages  in 
the  district  of  Ogliastra  where  the  peasants  eat  broad  made  of  the  acorns  of  Qiicrcus 
ilex,  the  dough  being  kneaded  with  water  containing  a  fattj'  clay.  This  is,  perhaps, 
the  onlj'  instance  of  earth-eating  in  Europe.  The  Spaniards,  too,  eat  acorn  bread, 
but  they  use  the  fruit  of  Qiicrcus  hallota,  which  is  really  edible,  and  are  careful 
not  to  mix  its  flour  with  earth. 

The  Sardinians,  even  when  thej'  are  the  owners  of  pasture-grounds  or  of  fields, 
never  live  in  the  country.  Like  the  Sicilians,  they  are  concentrated  in  towns  or 
large  villages,  and  neither  hamlets  nor  isolated  farmhouses  are  met  with.     Even 


SARDINIA.  349 

the  shepherds  in  the  mountains  build  their  huts  in  groups  called  sfnzzi,  and 
combine  for  mutual  protection  into  ciiK.wrgic.  Members  of  these  associations,  when 
they  lose  their  cattle  from  disease  or  any  other  cause,  may  claim  one  or  more 
beasts  from  every  one  of  their  comrades  living  within  the  same  district  or  canton. 
In  other  parts  of  the  island — as,  for  instance,  near  Iglesias — the  produce  of  the 
orchards  is  looked  upon  as  common  property.  The  mountaineers,  though  poor, 
practise  the  ancient  virtue  of  hospitality,  and  though  the  dwellings  are  rude,  thej' 
find  means  of  making  a  stranger  staying  amongst  them  comfortable. 

The  products  of  Sardinia  form  but  a  small  proportion  of  those  of  all  Italy. 
Most  of  the  peasants  only  work  by  fits  and  starts,  and  hardly  more  than  a  fourth 
of  the  area  of  the  island  has  been  brought  under  cultivation.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  crops  are  destroyed  by  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun,  or  eaten  up 
by  locusts,  which  come  in  swarms  from  Africa.  Except  near  Sassari  no  attempt  is 
made  to  improve  the  produce.  The  olive-tree  alone  is  cultivated  with  some  care, 
for  the  grower  of  a  certain  number  of  these  trees  may  claim  political  privileges, 
and  even  the  title  of  "  Count,"  and  thousands  of  proprietors  have  converted  their 
sterile  steppes  into  productive  olive  groves.  The  millions  of  oranges  grown  in  the 
gardens  of  Millis  and  elsewhere  are  taken  entirely  for  home  consumption. 
Commercially  these  oranges  are  of  less  importance  than  the  saline  plants  collected 
in  the  marshes  of  the  coast  districts,  and  the  ashes  of  which  are  exported  to 
Marseilles  to  be  converted  into  soda. 

The  working  of  granite  and  marble  quarries  yields  some  profit,  but  the  mines, 
which  were  of  such  importance  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  are  hardly  touched 
now.  There  is  only  one  iron  mine,  that  of  San  Leone,  where  work  has  been  carried 
on  seriously  by  a  French  company  since  1822.  It  yields  about  50,000  tons  of  ore 
annually,  and  the  oldest  railway  of  the  island  connects  that  mine  with  Cagliari.  The 
district  of  Iglesias,  where  the  Romans  founded  Plumbea  and  Metalla,  and  the 
Pisans  searched  for  silver,  has  recently  regained  some  of  its  ancient  importance  on 
account  of  its  lead  and  zinc  mines.  The  waste  of  the  old  mines  is  likewise  being 
scientifically  treated  by  French,  English,  and  Italian  companies,  to  whom  mining 
claims  have  been  ceded,  and  a  curious  stalactite  cavern  which  traverses  the  hill 
near  Domus  Novas  has  been  utilised  in  gaining  access  to  the  scoriae.  Iglesias  is 
rapidly  growing  into  a  city  of  modern  aspect,  the  village  of  Gonessa  is  already  a 
respectable  town,  and  the  little  harbour  of  Porto  Scuso,  until  recently  almost 
deserted,  is  now  crowded  with  small  craft  employed  in  carrying  annually  900,000 
tons  of  lead  and  zinc  ore  to  the  roadstead  of  Carlo-Forte.  Unfortunately  the 
miners,  especially  those  from  abroad,  frequently  succumb  to  the  climate. 

The  fisheries,  being  for  the  most  part  carried  on  in  the  bays  exposed  to  the 
sea  breezes,  are  not  attended  by  the  same  dangers.  Certain  portions  of  the  coast 
abound  in  fish,  such  as  the  Bay  of  Cagliari,  and  the  narrow  arms  of  the  sea  in  the 
archipelago  of  the  Maddalemi,  which  the  ancients  searched  for  purple  shells. 
Anchovies  and  "sardines"  periodically  visit  the  coasts,  and  as  many  as  50,000 
tunny-fish  are  sometimes  caught  in  a  single  season.  The  swamps  or  lagoons  like- 
wise yield  fish,  which  are  caught  in  nets  spread  at  the  openings  of  the  channels 


850 


ITALY. 


commiinicatinn:  with  the  sea.  The  swamp  of  Cajrliari  abounds  in  shad,  that  of 
Oristaiio  in  mullets  and  eels,  and  that  of  Alghero  in  pike  and  gold  tish.  The  fisheries 
of  Sardinia  are  consequently  of  much  importance,  but  most  of  their  profits  are 
reaped  by  strangers.  Corsicans  fish  near  La  Maddalona,  Genoese  around  San 
Pietro,  and  Italians  monopolize  the  coral  fisheries.  These  latter,  too,  collect  the 
Pinmt  uohilis,  a  shell,  the  silky  byssus  of  which  is  converted  into  stuff  for  garments. 
Nor  do  the  Sardinians  take  to  the  sea  as  sailors,  and  the  commerce  of  the  island 

Fig.  129  — Caoliibi,  as  seen  fbom  the  Pass  op  Bonebia. 


is  carried  on  almost  exclusively  in  Genoese  and  other  Italian  vessels.      (Jut  of 
2,400  proverbs  collected  by  Spano,  only  three  refer  to  the  sea  !  * 

The  inhabitants  of  the  northern  "  Cape  "  of  Sassari,  or  di  Sopra,  claim  to  be 
more  intelligent  and  civilised  than  those  of  the  southern  "  Cape  "  of  Cagliari,  or 
(/;  Sotfo.  The  former  do  not  call  themselves  Sardinians  at  all,  but  applj'  that 
name,  which  to  them  is  synonymous  with  barbarians,  to   the   inhabitants  of  the 

•  In  1873  ll,2a6  vessels,  of  1,080,000  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  five  ports  of  the  island.  In  1873 
2,516  vessels,  of  d04,7d6  tons,  entered  and  cleared  at  Cagliari  aionc,  the  increase  since  1861  having  been 
nearly  100  per  cent. 


SAEDINIA. 


351 


interior  and  of  the  south.  In  former  times  these  two  sections  of  the  popuhition 
hated  each  other,  and  the  spirit  of  the  vendetta,  which  set  family  against  family, 
village  against  village,  made  its  influence  felt  all  over  the  island.  This  old 
animosity  has  not  yet  completely  died  out ;  but  the  people  of  Sassari  can  no 
longer  claim  to  be  the  superiors  of  their  southern  neighbours.  They  certainly 
are  better  agriculturists  and  more  industrious,  but  the  southerners  possess  the 
richest  mines,  their  portion  of  the  island  is  most  productive,  and  it  is  the  seat  of 
the  capital. 

Cagliari,  the  ancient  Camlis,  has  remained  the  great  emporium  of  the  island 
since  the  days  of  Carthage.     Only  a  few  idols,  sepulchral  chambers,  the  ruins  of 


Fig   130. — The  Port  of  Terkanova. 
Scale  1  :  ariO.ooo. 


9»3i  E    W'Cr 


-  5  Holes. 


an  aqueduct,  and  an  amphitheatre  excavated  in  the  rock,  recall  the  dominion  of 
Carthaginians  and  Romans,  but  it  could  not  be  deprived  of  its  excellent  harbour 
and  magnificent  roadstead.  The  town  was  only  a  short  time  under  the  rule 
of  the  Moors,  but  its  physiognomy  is  almost  more  oriental  than  that  of  any  city 
in  Europe,  manj'  of  its  houses  being  provided  with  cupolas  and  balconies  over- 
hanging the  streets.  Its  position  as  a  place  of  commerce  is  most  favourable,  for 
it  lies  on  the  ocean  highway  connecting  Sicily  with  the  Balearic  Islands,  and  the 
coast  of  Africa  is  within  a  day's  sail.  It  is  sure  to  prosper,  especially  if  a  serious 
effort  is  made  to  drain  the  marshes  and  to  transform  the  plain  of  the  Campidano 
into  a  fertile  garden.  The  latter,  an  ancient  arm  of  the  sea,  extends  to  the 
south-east  towards   Oristano,  the   "  town  of  potters."     During  the  Middle  Ages 


852  ITAIA-. 

the  latter  was  fho  scat  of  the  most  powerful  lords  of  the  island,  and  it  was  thence 
ElcDnora  promulgated  her  famous  Cartu  do  /oiju,  whieh  became  the  public  law  of 
the  whole  island.  Oristano  has  an  excellent  harbour,  sheltered  by  the  peninsula 
of  Tharros,  upon  which  the  Phoenicians  had  founded  one  of  their  settlements;  its 
fields  arc  fertile,  and,  to  bring  about  a  return  of  its  ancient  prosperity,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  drain  the  marshes  wliich  now  hem  it  in.  In  former  times  fires  were 
lighted  upon  the  walls  of  the  town  during  the  season  of  malaria,  to  purify  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  but  the  vast  forests  from  which  the  fuel  for  these  fires  was  procured  have 
disappeared,  and  this  portion  of  Sardinia  is  no  longer  entitled  to  its  ancient 
epitliet  of  "  Arborea."  It  is  said  that  in  the  marshes  of  Nurachi,  to  the  north- 
east of  Oristano,  may  be  heard  now  and  then  a  noise  resembling  the  bellowing 
of  a  bull.  This  noise  is  probably  produced  by  the  passage  of  air  through  some 
subterranean  cavern,  and  similar  phenomena  have  been  observed  on  the  coast  of 
Dalmatia. 

Sassari  the  delightful,  the  rival  of  Cagliari,  is  embosomed  amidst  olive-trees, 
gardens,  and  country  houses.  It  alone,  of  all  the  towns  of  the  island,  could  boasb 
of  a  republican  government  during  the  Midrllc  Ages,  and  the  public  spirit  of  its 
present  inliabitants  is,  perhaps,  traceable  to  this  circumstance.  Its  geographical 
position,  however,  is  far  less  favourable  than  that  of  Cagliari,  for  a  zone  of 
swamps  separates  it  from  the  sea.  It  might  export  its  produce  through  the  port 
of  Alghero  or  the  excellent  harbour  of  Porto  Conto,  to  the  south  of  the 
mountains  of  La  Nurra  ;  but  facility  of  access  has  dictated  its  choice  of  Porto 
Torres,  a  miserable  village  on  the  swampy  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Asinara.  Porto 
Torres  occupies  the  site  of  a  Roman  city,  and  the  arches  of  a  huge  aqueduct  and 
the  columns  of  a  Temple  of  Fortune  still  rise  above  the  reeds.  This  old  port 
certainly  offers  great  facility  for  the  export  of  the  olive  oil  of  Sassari  and  the 
wines  of  Tempio,  as  respects  France  and  Genoa  ;  but  the  intricate  navigation  of 
the  Strait  of  Bonifacio  separates  it  from  tlie  nearest  Italian  coast.  Italy  has 
therefore  determined  to  create  an  additional  port  on  the  oast  coast  of  the  island, 
and  the  Bay  of  Terranova  has  been  selected  for  that  purpose.  O/hin,  which  at 
the  time  of  the  Romans  had  no  less  than  150,000  inhabitants,  occupied  the  site 
of  the  present  town,  which  the  Italians  fondly  imagine  may  become  the  great 
emporium  of  the  island.  Its  port  is  certainly  well  sheltered,  and  the  roadsteads 
of  the  archipelago  of  La  Maddalcua  near  it  afford  additional  accommodation  ;  but 
seriously  to  improve  the  condition  of  Sardinia  it  will  be  necessary,  above  all  things, 
to  drain  its  dreary  swamps,  and  to  "  transform  their  poisonous  exhalations  into 
bread."* 


IX. — TiiK  Pkeseto"  Axn  FrrrnE  of  Italy. 

No  impartial  spectator  can  deny  that  Italy,  since  it  has  again  taken  its  place 
among  the  nations  of  Europe,   promises  great  things   for  the  future.     Even  its 

♦  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Sardinia  (1871)  :— Cagliari,  31,9  5;  Sassari,  30,.542;  Alghero, 
8,769;  Ozieri,  7,965  ;   Iglesias,  7,191 ;  Oris'ano,  6,963  ;  Terranova,  1,976. 


THE  PRESENT  AND  FUTURE  OF  ITALY.  353 

political  regeneration  has  brought  to  the  surface  men  of  the  highest  intellect, 
courage,  zeal,  and  public  spirit.  There  are  some  amongst  them  whom  posterity 
will  look  upon  as  a  credit  to  all  mankind.  Possibly  this  period  of  excitement 
and  nervous  activity  may  be  succeeded  by  a  sort  of  moral  collapse,  such  as 
generally  takes  place  after  every  great  crisis  in  the  life  of  a  nation.  But  this 
need  not  render  us  anxious  for  the  future,  for  generations  exhausted  by  the  efforts 
they  have  made  will  be  succeeded  by  others  eager  to  continue  the  work  their  pre- 
decessors have  begun. 

In  sciences  and  arts  the  native  country  of  Volta,  Cialdi,  Secchi,  Rossini,  Verdi, 
and  Vela  occupies  even  now  a  position  of  equality  with  the  most  advanced  nations 
of  Europe.  The  Italian  of  the  present  day  is  able  to  refer  without  shame  to  the 
two  great  centuries  of  the  Renaissance,  for  he  has  entered  upon  a  second  period 
of  regeneration,  and  the  names  of  contemporaries  can  be  mentioned  by  the  side 
of  the  great  names  of  the  past.  Italy  has  its  skilful  painters  and  sculptors, 
its  celebrated  architects  and  unrivalled  musicians.  The  great  works  achieved  by 
its  engineers  are  deserving  the  study  of  foreigners.  Amongst  its  physicists, 
geologists,  astronomers,  and  mathematicians  there  are  some  of  the  brightest 
ornaments  of  the  age,  and  the  assiduity  with  which  universities  are  frequented 
insures  their  having  worthy  successors.  A  geographical  societj'  only  recently 
established  has  successfully  taken  up  the  work  of  exploration  so  gloriously  carried 
on  by  the  Genoese  and  Venetians.  It  is  not  just,  therefore,  to  say  ironically 
that  "  Italy  has  been  made,  but  not  Italians."  Individually  the  Italians  are 
inferior  to  no  other  race  of  Europe,  and  the  reorganization  of  the  country  would 
have  been  impossible  had  there  been  any  deficiency  in  men  of  mark. 

Italy  is  more  densely  inhabited  than  any  other  of  the  great  states  of  Europe, 
in  spite  of  vast  extents  of  almost  uninhabitable  mountain  tracts  and  swamjjs. 
The  population,  however,  increases  less  rapidly  than  in  Russia,  England,  or 
Germany.  It  doubles  in  about  a  century,  whilst  that  of  Russia  doubles  in  fiftj^ 
and  that  of  France  in  two  hundred  years.  Italy  thus  occupies  an  intermediate 
position.  In  Apulia  and  Calabria,  which  are  amongst  the  poorest  provinces,  the 
birth  rate  is  highest,  whilst  in  the  wealthy  Marches  and  Umbria  it  is  lowest.  On 
an  average  the  Italian  dies  when  he  is  thirty-two,  and  his  life  is  consequently 
much  shorter  than  that  of  the  average  Frenchman  or  Englishman. 

Agriculture  and  the  development  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  soil  and  the 
sea  engage  much  more  attention  than  industry  properly  so  called.  Nearly 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  under  cultivation.  The  cereals  raised  do 
not  suffice  for  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants,  but  other  products  are  exported  in 
considerable  quantities.  In  its  production  of  oil  Italy  holds  a  foremost  rank  as 
regards  quantity,  but  not  always  with  respect  to  quality.  The  amount  of  fruit 
grown,  such  as  iigs,  grapes,  almonds,  and  oranges,  is  greater  than  in  any  other 
country  of  Europe.  The  chestnut  forests  in  the  Apennines  and  Alps  yield  rich 
harvests.  Its  mulberry  plantations  are  four  times  more  extensive  than  those  of 
France,  and  the  raw  silk  produced  in  favourable  years  exceeds  in  quantity  that 
exported  from  China.     The  peninsula  is   still  entitled  to  its  ancient  epithet  of 


854  ITALY. 

Qilnotriii  (wine  land),  but,  apart  from  certain  districts  of  continental  Italy  and 
Sicily,  the  ijiiality  of  wine  produced,  owing  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
growers,  is  inferior  to  what  it  is  in  France.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  com- 
paratively of  small  importance.  The  breeding  of  animals  yields  large  profits,  and 
Italy  is  noted  throughout  Europe  for  the  quality  of  some  kinds  of  cheese.* 

The  working  of  the  iron  mines  of  Elba,  the  quarrying  of  marble  and  granite  in 
the  Alps  and  Apuanic  Alps,  the  extraction  of  borax  and  _boracic  acid  in  the 
Tuscan  Sub-Apennines,  the  mining  for  lead  and  zinc  in  Sardinia,  and  for  sulphur 
in  Sicily, t  lead  up  to  industrial  pursuits  properly  so  called.  These  latter  extend 
nearly  to  everything,  from  the  manufacture  of  pins  to  the  construction  of  steam- 
engines  and  ships.  Italy,  however,  is  eminent  only  in  the  production  of  certain 
articles  de  luxe,  such  as  straw  bonnets,  cameos,  coral  jewellery,  glass,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  macaroni  and  other  farinaceous  pastes.  The  manufacture  of  silk, 
however,  has  taken  a  rapid  development  in  recent  years,  and  Milan  lias  become  a 
dangerous  rival  of  Lyons.  In  the  province  of  Novara,  and  more  especially  at 
Biella,  there  are  hundreds  of  woollen  factories.  The  cotton  manufacture  is  not  of 
much  importance,  and  linen- weaving  is  for  the  most  part  carried  on  as  a  domestic 
industry.  Italy,  in  fact,  cannot  yet  be  called  a  manufacturing  country.  The  number 
of  workmen  is  large,  but  they  mostly  labour  at  home  or  in  small  workshops,^  and 
a  division  of  labour,  such  as  exists  in  England,  France,  or  Germany,  is  hardl}' 
known.  Manufiictories,  however,  are  rapidly  increasing,  and  economical  con- 
ditions are  gradually  becoming  what  they  are  already  in  most  other  countries  of 
Europe. 

Italj"^  possesses  a  powerful  mercantile  marine,  manned  by  150,000  seamen  ;  but 
its  foreign  commerce  is  far  less  than  might  have  been  expected  from  its  tonnage. § 
Most  of  the  vessels  are  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  The  first  Italian  vessel  was 
seen  in  the  Pacific  in  1847,  and  even  now  the  Italian  flag  is  very  inadequately 
represented  in  the  navigation  of  the  great  oceans.  Italian  patriots  are  anxious  to 
see  the  commerce  of  the  country  extended  to  the  most  distant  regions.  For  the 
present  Italy  enjoys  a  sort  of  monojioly  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  any  increase  of 

»  Agricultural  statistics  of  Italy,  1869  (accordinsf  to  Miieslri)  : — Distribulion  of  ylrea  .•— Fields,  vine- 
yards, and  orchards,  27.2«7,.3CO  acres  ;  cdivo  pltintatitins,  1,371,400  acres;  chestnut  plantations.  1,445,000 
acres;  forests,  10,240,400  acres;  meadows,  2,900.010  acres;  pastures,  l.'?,.'?37,000  acres.  Jniiunl 
Produce  .-—Cereals,  20'i,. 300,000  bushels  (value  £84.000,000) ;  potiitoes,  27,500,000  bushels  (£2,000,000) ; 
wines,  880,000,000  fjallons  (£44,000.000);  raw  silk,  6,889,437  lbs.  in  1873,  6,305,214  lbs.  in  1874; 
tobacco,  7,23,5,000  lbs.;  oil,  3,747,850  lbs.  (£8,800,000);  chestnut-s  14,860,000  bushels.  Dometlieated 
AidmaU  (1868) :— 1,196,128  horses,  3,489,125  heads  of  cattle,  8,674,527  sheep  and  goats,  1,553,582 
pigs. 

t  ADniial  mineral  produce  of  Italy  (in  tons) :— Iron,  85,000;  copper,  13,000;  lead,  32,250;  zinc, 
30,000;  eoi.l,  110,750;  sulphur,  285,611;  salt,  388,000;  besides  small  quantities  of  silver,  nickel, 
mercury,  &c. 

J  Oceiipaliont : — Amongst  every  1,000  inhabitants  there  are  342  agriculturists;  103  miners  and 
artisans;  29  commercial  men ;  23  artists  and  scientific  men;  7  priests ;  6  ofiBcials ;  1  soldier;  31  "  pro- 
prietors ;  "  21  domestic  servants  ;  13  paupers  ;  and  382  without  occupation. 

§  In  1874  there  were  10,929  vessels  (including  138  steamers),  of  a  burden  of  1,031,889  tons ;  37,560 
vessels,  of  7,580,317  tons,  entered  from  or  cleared  for  foreign  ports;  197.896  vessels,  of  16,500,000  tons, 
entered  and  cleared  in  the  home  trade.  Of  everj-  1,000  tons  engaged  in  the  foreign  commerce,  368  sailed 
under  the  Italian,  266  under  the  English,  and  173  unde'  the  French  flng.  The  commerce  with  France 
engaged  1,779,672  tons;  that  with  England  1,388,300  tons;  and  that  with  Austria  998,740  tons. 


THE  PRESENT  AND  FUTURE  OF  ITALY. 


355 


population  or  wealth  in  Northern  Africa  must  prove  of  immediate  advantage  to  it. 
But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  proposed  railway  from  Antwerp  or  Calais  to 
Saloniki  or  Constantinople  will  seriously  affect  the  transit  trade  of  Italian  ports. 
Nor  are  Italian  shipowners  able  to  compete  with  their  rivals  of  Marseilles  or  Trieste 
when  it  is  a  question  of  speed,  for  the  number  of  their  steamers  is  very  small. 


Fig.  131. — Navigation  of  Ttai.v. 


.»/.  s 


Ot>\JU> 


CoasUntf     Trade      *  ' L, 


The  facilities  for  carrying  on  coasting-  trade  have,  in  some  measure,  interfered 
with  the  development  of  the  inland  trade  of  the  country.  The  construction  of 
railways,  however,  is   gradually  bringing  about  a  change.     Already  five  lines  of 


856 


ITALY. 


rails  cross  tlie  Apennines,  others  uro  projected,  and  one  of  the  Ifaliiin  imIIwuvs, 
namely,  that  which  pierces  the  Alps  in  the  tunnel  of  ilont  Cenis,  and  finally 
follows  the  eastern  coast  to  Rimini,  has  become  a  portion  of  the  great  Europcim 


l''ig.    Vi'2.  —  KoHTES    OF    CuMMEHCE    OF    ItaLV. 

Scale  1  :  8,000,000. 


100  HOes. 


highway  to  India.  Xor  must  the  political  importance  of  these  railways  be  under- 
rated, for  they  knit  together  the  most  distant  provinces  of  Italy,  and  make  the 
country  really  one.* 

•  In  1876  4,791  miles  of  milway  had  been  opened  for  traffic,  and  460  miles  were  building.     There 
-were  also  1,853  miles  of  canals  and  navigable  rivers,  and  77,1-10  miles  of  public  roads. 


THE  PRESENT  AXD  FUTURE  OF  ITALY.  357 

The  commerce  of  Italj'  has  increased  rapidly  of  late,  but  it  is  still  inferior  not 
only  to  that  of  England,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia,  but  likewise  to 
that  of  much  smaller  countries,  like  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands.  In  1875 
the  imports,  including  transit,  were  estimated  at  £48,614,280,  the  exports  at 
£42,301,800.  France  participates  in  this  commerce  to  the  extent  of  31  per  cent., 
England  is  represented  by  23,  Austria  by  20,  and  all  the  other  countries  of  the 
world  share  in  the  remainder.  Recently  the  commerce  with  North  and  South 
America  ha3  assumed  considerable  proportions,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  obtain 
a  footing  in  Eastern  Asia. 

The  great  scourge  of  Italy  consists  in  the  poverty  of  its  peasantry  even  in 
the  most  fertile  provinces,  as  in  Lombardy  and  the  Basilicata.  These  peasants 
live  in  foul  hovels,  and  the  united  earnings  of  a  whole  family  are  hardly  sufficient 
to  procure  bread.  Chestnuts,  and  a  polenta  of  maize  and  paste  made  of  damaged 
flour,  are  the  principal  articles  of  food,  and  nothing  is  left  for  luxuries,  or  even 
comfortable  clothing.  Rickets  and  other  diseases  brought  about  by  an  insufficiency 
of  food  are  common,  and,  in  fact,  mortality  is  very  great.  Emigration  is  under 
these  circumstances  of  immense  advantage  to  the  country,  for  the  thousands  of 
Italians  who  seek  work  or  found  new  homes  in  South  America,  the  United  States, 
France,  Turkej',  Egypt,  and  elsewhere,  not  only  earn  their  bread,  but  also  render 
some  assistance  to  those  of  their  relatives  who  remain  behind.  It  is  said  that  out 
of  500,000  Italians  living  abroad,  no  less  than  100,000  are  engaged  in  art,  either 
as  painters,  sculptors,  or  musicians,  the  latter  being  frequently  mere  street-singers 
or  organ-grinders. 

Ignorance,  the  usual  companion  of  poverty,  is  still  very  great  throughout  the 
peninsula.  We  might  err  in  condemning  the  Italians  because  of  their  ignorance 
of  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing,  for,  as  the  heirs  of  an  ancient  civilisation, 
they  are  more  polished  in  their  manners  than  the  educated  peasants  of  the 
North.  Still  this  ignorance  is  most  deplorable,  for  it  precludes  all  progress. 
Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  population  over  ten  years  of  age  are  unable  to  read,  and 
fiftj'-nine  men  and  seventy-eight  women  out  of  every  hundred  are  unable  to  sign 
the  marriage  registers.  There  are  several  thousand  parishes  without  elementarj' 
schools,  and  the  number  of  pupils,  instead  of  amounting  to  the  normal  proportion 
of  one  to  every  six  or  seven  inhabitants,  is  only  one  to  about  eleven.*  Education, 
however,  is  making  fair  progress,  but  its  influence  upon  the  diminution  of  crimes 
of  violence  has  hitherto  been  small.  In  1874  Signor  Cantelli,  the  Home 
Secretary,  stated  that  there  occurred  annually  3,000  homicides,  4,000  cases  of 
highway  robbery,  and  30,000  violent  assaults. 

The  permanent  confusion  of  the  finances  of  Italy,  attended  as  it  is  by  heavy 
and  vexatious  taxes,  must  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  principal  causes  which 
retard  the  development  of  the  country.  The  national  debt  may  appear  a  small 
matter  if  we  compare  it  with  that  of   France,  but  it  has  been  raised  in  the  course 

•  Public  5c/(0o/s  (1872)  : — 58,322   elementary  and  evening  schools,  2,274,999  pupils;  1,082  superior 
schools,  64, 044  pupils;    21    universities,   10,000  stuiionts;    651   professional,  technical,  and  art  schools, 
33,311  students.     Total,  60,076  schools,  &c.,  with  2,3S2,354  pupils  and  students. 
26 


858  ITALY. 

of  a  single  generation,  and  is  augmenting  from  year  to  year.  The  revenue 
increases  but  the  expenditure  does  so  likewi.se,  and  the  additional  income 
resulting  from  an  increase  of  taxation  and  the  sales  of  Church  property  is  not 
sufficient  to  cover  the  deficiency.  The  heavy  cost  of  the  army,  an  absence  of 
sustained  efforts  in  carrying  on  public  works,  waste  and  fraud  by  public  servants. 
have  hitherto  prevented  the  establishment  of  a  balance  between  income  and 
expenditure,  and  the  paper  money  issued  by  Government  is  nowhere  accepted  at 
its  nominal  value. 

This  disorganization  of  the  finances  places  Italy  at  the  mercy  of  foreigners, 
and  the  arrangements  which  have  to  be  made  from  time  to  time  with  foreign 
capitalists  are  not  always  of  a  purely  financial  nature.  The  inefficiency  of  her 
military  and  naval  organization,  moreover,  compels  her  to  cultivate  foreign  alli- 
ances as  expediency  may  direct,  and  to  these  alliances  Italy  is,  in  a  large  measure, 
indebted  for  her  political  unity.* 

Nor  i.s  this  unity  even  now  as  perfect  as  could  be  desired.  The  Pope  has  been 
deprived  of  his  temporal  power ;  he  resides  at  the  Vatican  as  a  guest ;  and  the 
money  offered  him  by  the  Italian  Government,  but  which  has  never  been  accepted, 
is  not  tribute,  but  a  gratuity.  But,  in  spite  of  this,  the  Pope  is  still  a  real  po-wer, 
and  his  very  presence  interferes  substantially  with  the  permanent  establishment 
of  the  state.  The  Catholics  of  the  world  have  not  yet  acquiesced  in  his  disesta- 
blishment, and  they  allow  no  opportunity  for  attacking  the  new  order  of  things 
to  escape  them.  Political  Europe  is  consequently  much  interested  in  the  home 
affairs  of  Italj',  and  feels  tempted  frequently  to  intervene.  The  most  expert 
diplomacy  may  not  be  able  to  avert  this  danger,  and  if  there  is  a  struggle  it  will 
certainly  not  be  confined  to  the  peninsula. 

In  the  end  Italy  will  no  doubt  escape  from  the  anomalous  position  of  having 
for  her  capital  a  city  which  is  the  seat  of  a  theocratic  government  claiming  the 
allegiance  of  the  Roman  Catholics  of  the  entire  world.  The  geographical 
conditions  of  no  other  country  are  equally  favourable  to  the  development  of 
national  sentiments  and  the  maintenance  of  a  national  individuality.  At  the 
same  time  the  well-defined  boundaries  of  the  country  deprive  it  of  all  force  of 
expansion.  Italy  wiU  never  play  a  great  part  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  though  Italian  may  obtain  a  certain  preponderance  in  Tunis,  Egypt, 
and  the  Levant,  the  noble  language  of  Dante  has  no  chance,  as  regards  univer- 
sality, when  opposed  to  English,  French,  Spanish,  German,  or  Russian. 


X. — Govern MKXT  and  Administration. 

The     charter     promulgated     in    March,    1848,    declares  the    old     kingdom    of 

Sardinia  to  be  an   hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  It  has  gradually  been 

1861.                                              1873.  18T6. 

•  Expenditure         .         .         .         £24,206,920                      £61,704,000  £.56.618,600 

Revenue       ....         £18.332.880                      £52.384,000  £.55,499,800 

DeBcit          ....            £5,874.040                          £9,340,000  £1,118.800 

Kational  Debt     .         .         .       £100,000,000                   £402,400,000  £460,000,000 


GOVEENMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION.  359 

extended  to  the  other  portions  of  the  peninsula.  Like  most  similar  documents,  it 
guarantees  equality  before  the  law,  personal  liberty,  and  inviolability  of  the  domi- 
cile. The  press  is  free,  "  subject  to  a  law  repressing  its  abuses ; "  the  right  of 
meeting  is  recognised,  "  but  not  in  the  case  of  places  open  to  the  general  public  ; " 
and  all  citizens  are  promised  the  enjoyment  of  equal  civil  and  political  rights, 
"  except  in  those  cases  which  shall  be  determined  by  law." 

The  executive  is  intrusted  to  the  King,  but  no  law  or  act  of  government  is 
valid  unless  countersigned  by  a  minister.  The  King,  as  such,  is  commander  of 
the  naval  and  military  forces,  he  concludes  all  treaties,  and  the  assent  of  the 
Chambers  is  only  required  if  they  concern  cessions  of  territory,  or  entail  an 
expenditure  of  public  money.  All  Government  officials  are  appointed  by  the  King, 
he  may  dissolve  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  justice  is  administered  in  his  name, 
and  he  possesses  the  right  of  pardon.  He  enjoys  the  fruits  of  the  Crown  lands, 
and  may  dispose  of  his  private  property  vrithout  reference  to  the  general  laws  of 
the  country.  The  civil  list  of  the  King  and  the  members  of  his  family  annually 
exceeds  £800,000 ! 

Senators  are  appointed  by  the  King  from  amongst  ecclesiastical,  military,  and 
civil  functionaries,  persons  of  wealth,  and  men  who  have  deserved  well  of  the 
country.  Their  number  is  not  limited,  and  they  must  be  forty  years  of  age. 
Deputies  are  elected  for  five  years.  They  must  be  thirty  years  of  age.  Neither 
senators  nor  deputies  are  in  receipt  of  emoluments,  and  this  may  explain  the 
little  zeal  they  exhibit  in  the  performance  of  their  public  duties.  A  quorum, 
consisting  of  one-half  the  members  of  each  house  7j/«.s  one,  is  frequently  unattain- 
able for  weeks. 

The  franchise  is  enjoyed  by  professors  of  universities  and  colleges,  civil 
servants,  knights  of  orders  of  chivalry,  members  of  the  liberal  professions, 
merchants,  persons  who  have  an  income  of  £24  from  money  invested  in  Govern- 
ment securities,  and  all  others  twenty-five  years  of  age,  able  to  read  and  write, 
and  paying  32s.  in  taxes.  The  number  of  electors  is  about  400,000,  but  hardly 
one-half  of  them  ever  go  to  the  poll. 

Each  province  occupies  the  position  of  a  "  corporation,"  which  may  hold 
property,  and  enjoys  a  certain  amount  of  self-government.  The  "  Provincial 
Councils "  consist  of  from  twenty  to  sixty  members,  who  are  chosen  by  the 
municipal  electors  for  five  years.  These  Councils  usually  occupy  themselves 
with  the  material  interests  of  the  province,  and,  when  not  sitting,  are  represented 
by  a  "  Deputation  "  charged  with  controlling  the  acts  of  the  prefect. 

The  municipal  organization  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  provinces.  The 
Councils  are  elected  for  five  j-ears :  all  males  of  twenty-one  years  of  age  paying 
from  4s.  to  20s.  in  taxes  (according  to  the  importance  of  the  municipality), 
professors,  civil  servants,  members  of  liberal  professions,  and  soldiers  who 
have  been  decorated  are  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  franchise.  The  Council  meets 
twice  a  year,  and  its  sittings  are  held  in  public  if  a  majority  demands  it.  It 
appoints  a  municipal  (jiiinta  of  from  two  to  twelve  members,  charged  with  the 
conduct    of    current     affairs.      The    mayors,    like    the    provincial    prefects,    are 


860  ITALY. 

appointed  by  Government,  but  must  be  chosen  from  the  members  of  the  Municipal 
Council. 

The  great  territorial  divisions  of  the  kingdom  (see  p.  362)  consist  of  69 
provinces  and  284  circles  (circoiidarii),  or  districts.  These  latter  again  are  sub- 
divided into  1,779  judicial  districts  {tnandaniciiti)  and  (S,360  communes.  The 
central  Government  is  ref)resented  in  the  provinces  by  a  prefect,  in  the  districts 
by  a  sub-prefect,  and  in  the  communes  by  a  mayor,  or  sinddco.  This  system  of 
administration   s  very  much  like  that  existing  in  modern  France. 

The  administration  of  justice  was  organized  in  1865.  In  each  commune  there 
is  a  ''Conciliator,"  appointed  for  three  years  by  Government,  on  the  presentation 
of  the  Municipal  Council.  A  "Pretor  "  administers  justice  at  the  capital  of  each  of 
the  judicial  districts  :  he  is  assisted  by  one  or  more  Vice-pretors.  Next  follow  161 
civil  and  correctional  courts,  92  assize  courts,  24  courts  of  appeal,  25  commercial 
tribunals,  and  4  courts  of  cassation  ;  the  latter  at  Florence,  Naples,  Palermo,  and 
Turin.  The  Code  of  Laws  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Code  Napoleon,  and  breathes 
the  same  spirit. 

In  military  matters  Prussia  has  se^^'ed  as  a  model.  Every  Italian,  on  attaining 
his  twent3--first  year,  becomes  liable  to  serve  in  the  army  or  navy.  Men  embodied 
in  the  first  category  of  the  standing  army  (efercito  permanciite)  remain  from  three 
to  five  years  under  the  colours,  according  to  the  arm  to  which  they  belong,  and  six  to 
seven  3'ears  on  furlough.  The  men  of  the  second  category,  or  reserve  of  the  stand- 
ing army,  drill  fifty  days,  and  arc  then  dismissed  to  their  homes.  The  "  mobilised 
militia"  includes  all  men  up  to  forty  not  belonging  to  the  standing  army.  A 
"levy  en  masse,"  or  Milizia  stanziole,  is  provided  for  by  law,  but  nothing  has  been 
done  hitherto  to  render  it  a  reality.  The  standing  army  includes  90  regiments  of 
infantrj^  20  regiments  of  cavalry,  14  of  artillery,  and  1  of  engineers,  and  numbers 
410,000  men;  the  reserve  amounts  to  180,000  men;  the  mobilised  militia  (247 
battaKons,  24  Alpine  companies,  60  batteries,  and  10  companies  of  engineers), 
277,000,  and  234,000  officers  and  men  are  stated  to  be  under  the  colours.  The 
four  great  fortresses  of  the  north  are  Verona,  Mantua,  Peschiera,  and  Legnago. 
These  form  the  famous  "  Quadrilateral."  Venice  is  likewise  a  place  of  great 
strength,  and  made  an  heroic  defence  in  1849.  Palmanova  defends  the  frontier 
between  the  Julian  Alps  and  the  Gulf  of  Trieste.  Rocca  d'Anfo,  on  an  isolated 
rock  to  the  north  of  Lake  Garda,  commands  the  defiles  of  the  Adiee  and  Chiese. 
Pizzighettone,  on  the  Adda,  is  no  longer  of  much  importance,  now  that  Italy  has 
acquired  possession  of  the  Quadrilateral ;  but  Alessandria,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Tanaro  and  Bormida,  will  always  retain  its  rank  as  the  great  strategical  centre  of 
Piemont,  and  one  of  the  strongest  places  of  Europe.  Casale  may  be  looked  upon 
as  one  of  its  outworks,  and  together  with  Genoa  defends  the  passages  of  the 
Apennines.  Piacenza  and  Ferrara  command  important  passages  of  the  Po.  The 
other  fortresses  of  Italy  are  Ancona  in  the  centre  ;  Porto  Ferrajo  in  Elba  ;  Gaeta, 
Capua,  and  Taranto  in  the  south  ;  and  Messina  in  Sicily. 

The  navy  consists  of  21    ironclads  (179  guns,  engines  of  11,310  horse-power, 
76,842   tons)  and  51  wooden   steamers,   manned  by  20,000  seamen.     The   great 


GOVEENMEXT  AND  ADMINISTRATION.  361 

naval  arsenals  and  stations  are  at  Spezia,  Genoa,  Naples,  Castellaraare  di  Stabbia, 
Venice,  Ancona,  and  Taranto. 

The  Romun  Catholic  Church  alone  is  acknowledged  by  the  State,  but  aU  other 
religions  are  tolerated.  The  conflict  between  Church  and  State  is  favourable  to  tbe 
spread  of  Protestantism  ;  but,  apart  from  the  Waldenses  and  a  few  foreigners  in  the 
larger  towns,  there  are  no  Protestants  in  Italy.  Many  of  those,  however,  who  are 
nominally  Catholics  have  ranged  themselves  amongst  the  enemies  of  their  Church, 
or  are  perfectly  indifferent. 

Italy  occupies  quite  a  special  position  in  the  world,  owing  to  its  being  tbe  seat 
of  the  Papacy.  Rome  is  the  seat  of  two  governments,  viz.  that  of  the  King  and 
of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff.  The  latter,  though  shorn  of  his  temporal  power,  is 
in  principle  one  of  the  most  absolute  monarchs.  Once  elected  Vicar  of  Jesus 
Christ  by  the  cardinals  met  in  conclave,  he  is  responsible  to  no  one  for  his 
actions,  though  it  is  customary  for  him  to  listen  to  the  advice  of  the  Sacred 
College  of  Cardinals  before  deciding  questions  of  importance.  The  Pope  alone,  of 
all  men,  is  infallible  ;  he  can  efiace  the  crimes  of  others,  "  bind  and  unbind,"  and 
holds  tbe  keys  of  heaven  and  hell,  his  power  extending  thus  beyond  the  span  of 
man's  natural  life. 

The  cardinals  are  the  great  dignitaries  of  this  spiritual  government.  They 
are  created  by  the  Pope.  Their  number  is  limited  to  70,  viz.  6  Cardinal  Bishops 
(who  reside  at  Rome),  50  Cardinal  Priests,  and  14  Cardinal  Deacons.  The  Cardinal 
Camerlengo  represents  the  temporal  authority  of  the  Holy  See,  and  on  the  death  of 
a  pope  be  takes  charge  of  the  Vatican  and  of  the  Fisherman's  Key,  which  is  the 
symbol  of  the  power  bestowed  upon  St.  Peter  and  his  successors.  In  special  cases 
the  cardinals  of  the  three  orders  may  be  convoked  to  an  (Ecumen'ical  Council. 
On  the  death  of  a  pope  the  cardinals  elect  his  successor,  who  must  be  fifty-five 
years  of  age,  and  obtain  two-thirds  of  the  votes.  His  investment  with  the 
pallium  and  tiara,  however,  only  takes  place  after  tbe  assent  of  the  Grovernments 
of  France,  Spain,  Austria,  and  Naples  (now  represented  by  Italy)  has  been 
secured. 

In  virtue  of  tbe  formula  of  "  A  free  Church  in  a  free  State,"  so  frequently 
repeated  since  Cavour,  the  Pope  is  permitted  to  enjoy  sovereign  rights.  He 
convokes  councils  and  chapters,  appoints  all  ecclesiastical  officers,  has  his  own 
post-office  and  telegraph,  his  guard  of  nobles  and  of  Swiss,  pays  no  taxes,  and 
enjoys  in  perpetuity  the  palaces  of  the  Vatican  and  Lateran,  as  well  as  the  villa 
of  Castel-Gandolfo,  on  the  Lake  of  Albano.  In  addition  to  this,  he  has  been  voted 
by  the  Italian  Parliament  an  annual  "  dotation  "  of  £129,000.  This  grant,  how- 
ever, he  has  not  touched  hitherto,  but  the  "  Peter's  pence,"  collected  by  the 
faithful  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  amount  to  more  than  double  that  sum. 

Italy  is  divided  into  47  archiepiscopal  and  206  episcopal  sees.  There  are  more 
than  100,000  secular  priests,  and  in  1866,  when  the  monasteries  and  convents  were 
suppressed,  their  inmates  receiving  pensions  from  Government,  there  were  32,000 
monks  and  44,000  nuns.  The  ecclesiastical  army  consequently  numbers  176,000 
souls,  and  is  nearly  as  numerous  as  the  military  force  on  a  peace  footing. 


862 


ITALY. 


The  following  tabic  exhibits  the  area  and  population  (estimated  for  1875)  of 
the  great  territorial  divisions  of  Italy  : — 


Area. 

Area. 

Square  miles. 

Population. 

Square  milca. 

Population. 

Piemont    .     . 

.      11,301 

2,99-5,213 

Abruzzos — Molisi 

6,676 

1,302,966 

Liguria     .     . 

2,056 

865,254 

faiiipania    .      . 

6,9n 

2,807,450 

TjO'nbardy 

.       9,084 

3,553,913 

Apulia  (Puglic) 

8,539 

1,461,604 

Vonetia  (Venezia)     9,060 

2,733,406 

Uasilicata    . 

4,122 

517,069 

Kinili:i  .     .     . 

.       7,921 

2,153,381 

Calabria .     .     . 

6,663 

1,229,614 

Viiibria      .      . 

.       3,720 

663,582 

Sicily      .     .     . 

11,290 

2,698,672 

Marches     .     . 

3,748 

930.712 

Sardinia       .     . 

9,398 

654,432 

Tuscany    .     . 

9,287 

2,172,832 

Total    .     . 

114,407 

27,482,174 

Rome  (Latium) 

4,601 

839,074 

CORSICA.* 


ORSICA,  with  Sardinia,  forms  a  world  apart.  At  a  remote  epocli 
these  two  islands  were  but  one,  and  it  is  curious  to  find  that 
Corsica,  which  politically  now  forms  part  of  France,  is  geo- 
graphically as  well  as  historically  much  more  Italian  than  its  sister 
island.  A  glance  at  a  map  is  sufficient  to  convince  us  that  Corsica 
is  a  dependency  of  Italy,  for  while  abyssal  depths  of  more  than  500  fathoms 
separate  it  from  Provence,  it  is  joined  to  the  coast  of  Tuscany  by  a  submarine 
plateau,  the  mountains  of  which  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  waters  as  islands.  The 
climate  and  natural  productions  of  the  island  are  those  of  Italy,  and  the  language 
of  its  inhabitants  is  Italian.  Purchased  from  the  Genoese,  then  conquered  by 
main  force,  Corsica  in  the  end  voluntarily  united  its  destinies  with  those  of  France. 
It  has  now  been  connected  for  more  than  three  generations  with  the  latter,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  most  of  its  citizens  look  upon  themselves  as  Frenchmen. 
Though  only  half  the  size  of  Sardinia,  Corsica  is  nevertheless  larger  than  an 
average  French  department.  The  fourth  island  in  size  of  the  Mediterranean,  it 
follows  next  to  Cyprus,  but  is  far  more  important  than  that  island,  and  only  yields 
to  Sicily  and  Sardinia  in  wealth  and  population.!  It  is  a  country  of  great  natural 
beauty.  Its  mountains,  attaining  an  altitude  of  over  8,000  feet,  remain  covered 
with  snow  during  half  the  year,  and  the  view  from  the  summits  embraces  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  island,  its  barren  rocks,  forests,  and  cultivated  fields,  ilost  of 
the  valleys  abound  in  running  water,  and  cascades  glitter  in  all  directions.  Old 
Genoese  towers,  standing  upon  promontories,  formerly  defended  the  entrance  to 
every  bay  exposed  to  incursions  of  the  Saracens,  but  they  are  hardly  more  now- 
adays than  embellishments  of  the  landscape. 

Monte  Cinto,  the  culminating  point  of  the  island,  does  not  pierce  the  region  of 

*  Authorities  : — Marmocchi,  "  Geographic  de  la  Corse  ;  "  Gregorovius,  "  CorsiOii ; '"  Pr.  Merimee, 
"  Voyage  en  Corse." 

t  Area  of  Corsica,  3,378  square  miles ;  length  from  north  to  south,  lU  miles ;  width,  52  miles  ;  deve- 
lopment of  coast-line,  300  miles. 


3G4 


CORSICA. 


persistent  snows.  A  huge  citadel  of  grunite,  wbose  fa.stnesses  afforded  a  shelter  to 
the  Corsicans  during  their  wars  of  independence,  it  rises  in  tlie  north-western 
portion  of  the  island.  From  its  summit  we  can  trace  the  whole  of  the  coast  from 
the  French  Alps  to  the  Apennines  of  Tuscany.  There  are  other  peaks  to  the 
north  and  south  of  it  which  almost  rival  it  in  height.*  This  main  chain  of  the 
island  consists  throughout  of  crystalline  rock.  Transverse  ridges  connect  it  with 
a  parallel  range  of  limestone  mountains  on  the  east,  which  extend  northward 
through  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  of  liastia,  and  shut  in,  farther  south,  the  old 
lake  basin  of  Corte,  now  drained  bj-  the  Golo,  Tavignano,  and  other  rivers.  The 
whole  of  the  interior  of  Corsica  may  be  described  as  a  labyrinth  of  mountains,  and 


Fig.  133. — ScBMARiN'E  Platrai-  iietween  Coksica  and  Tl'scaxy. 

Scale  I  :  1.850,0fin. 


.  25  Miles. 


in  order  to  pass  from  village  to  village  it  is  necessary  to  climb  up  steep  steps,  or 
sca/c,  and  to  ascend  from  the  region  of  olives  to  that  of  pasturage.  The  high-road 
which  joins  Ajaccio  to  Bastia  has  to  climb  a  pass  3,793  feet  in  height  (Fig.  134), 
and  even  the  road  following  the  populous  western  coast  ascends  and  descends  con- 
tinuously, in  order  to  avoid  the  promontories  descending  steeply  into  the  sea. 
These  physical  obstacles  sufficiently  explain  why  railways  have  not  yet  been 
built. 

The  western  coast  of  the  island  is  indented  by  numerous  gulfs  and  bays,  which 
resemble  ancient  fiords  partly  filled  up  by  alluvial  sediment.    On  the  eastern  coast, 

•  From  north  to  south:— Monte  Padro,  7,846  ftet ;  Monte  Cinlo,  8,878  feet;  Paglia  Oiba,  8,283  feet; 
liolondo,  8,607  feet ;  Moiit€  d  Oro,  7,890  feet ;  Incudine,  6,746  feet. 


>.^ 


CJ 


CORSICA.  365 

wliich  faces  Italy,  the  slopes  are  more  gentle ;  the  rivers  are  larger  and  more 
tranquil,  though  not  one  of  them  is  navigable ;  and  the  ground  is  more  level. 
This  portion  of  the  island  is  known  as  Banda  di  Dentro,  or  "  inner  zone,"  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  Bcmda  diFuori,  or  "  exterior  (western)  zone."  The  eastern  coast 
appears  to  have  been  upheaved  during  a  comparatively  recent  epoch,  and  ancient 
gulfs  of  the  sea  have  been  converted  into  lagoons  and  swamps,  quite  as  dangerous 
from  their  miasmatic  exhalations  as  those  of  tlie  sister  island.  If  we  add  that  the 
mountains  in  the  west  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  vivifying  mistral,  that  the  heat 
in  summer  is  great,  and  droughts  frequent,  we  have  said  enough  to  account  for 
the  insalubrity  of  the  climate.*  The  maritime  basin  between  Corsica  and  Italy 
is  almost  shut  in  by  mountains,  and  purifying  breezes  are  rare  there.  Between 
Bastia  and  Porto- Vecchio  not  a  single  town  or  village  is  met  with  on  the  coast, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  July  the  peasantry  retire  to  the  hills  in  order  to  escape 
the  fever.  Only  a  few  guards  and  the  imfortunate  convicts  shut  up  in  the  peni- 
tentiary of  Casablanca  remain  behind.     Nothing  more  melancholy  can  be  imagined 

Fig.  134. — Pkofilk  of  the  Road  fkom  Ajaccio  to  BasxiA. 


than  these  fertile  fields  deserted  by  their  inhabitants.     Plantations  of  eucalyptus 
have  been  made  recently  with  a  view  to  the  amelioration  of  the  climate. 

Owing  to  the  great  height  of  the  mountains  we  are  able  to  trace  in  Corsica 
distinct  zones  of  vegetation.  Up  to  a  moderate  height  the  character  of  the 
vegetation  is  sub-tropical,  and  resembles  that  of  Sicily  or  Southern  Spain.  There 
are  districts  which  can  be  numbered  amongst  the  most  fertile  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. One  of  these  is  the  Campo  deU'Oro,  or  "field  of  gold,"  around  Ajaccio, 
where  hedges  of  tree-like  cacti  separate  the  gardens  and  orchards  ;  such,  also,  is 
the  country  to  the  north  of  Bastia,  with  its  aromatic  flowers  and  luscious  fruits. 
Olive  forests  generally  cover  the  lower  hills,  their  silvery  foliage  contrasting  with 
the  sombre  verdure  of  the  chestnut  woods  above.  Balagna,  near  Calvi,  on  the 
north-western  coast  of  the  island,  is  famous  for  its  olives,  whilst  another  valley,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  island,  near  Bastia,  can  boast  of  the  most  magnificent 
chestnut-trees.     Chestnuts,  in  some  parts,  constitute  the  principal  article  of  food, 

•   Mean  annual  temperature  at  Bastia,  66-7°  F. ;  rainfall,  23  inches. 


3GG  CORSICA. 

and  enable  the  inhabitants,  who  are  by  no  means  distinguished  ior  their  industry, 
to  dispense  with  the  cultivation  of  cereals.  Some  political  economists  have 
actually  proposed  to  fell  these  trees,  in  order  that  the  inhabitants  may  be  forced 
to  work. 

Chestnut-trees  grow  up  to  a  height  of  6,250  feet.  The  virgin  forests  which 
formerly  extended  beyond  them  to  the  zone  of  pasturage  have  for  the  most  part 
disappeared.  In  the  upper  lialagna  valley,  Valdoniello,  and  Aitone,  however, 
magnificent  forests  may  still  be  seen,  and  a  larch  {Piiiks  a/tivniinKx),  the  finest 
conifer  of  all  Europe,  attains  there  a  height  of  160  feet.  These  splendid  trees, 
unfortunately,  are  rapidly  disappearing.  They  are  being  converted  into  masts,  or 
sawn  into  staves  and  planks. 

The  pasturing  grounds  above  these  forests  are  frequented  during  summer  by 
herdsmen  with  their  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats.  The  agile  moufflon  is  still  met 
witli  there  in  a  few  rocky  recesses,  and  the  shepherds  assert  that  wild  boars, 
though  very  numerous  on  the  i.sland,  carefully  avoid  its  haunts.  The  wolf  is 
unknown  in  the  island,  and  the  bear  has  disappeared  for  more  than  a  century. 
Foxes  of  large  size  and  small  deer  complete  the  fauna  of  the  forest  region  of 
Corsica.  The  mahuignatn  spider,  whose  bite  is  sometimes  mortal,  is  probably  of 
the  same  species  as  that  of  Sardinia  and  Tuscany  ;  the  turi'titnla  is  the  same  as 
that  of  Naples,  but  the  venomous  aut  known  as  innafantato  appears  to  be  peculiar 
to  the  island. 

We  know  nothing  about  the  origin  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Corsica. 
There  are  neither  nuraghi,  as  in  Sardinia,  nor  other  antiquities  enabling  us  to 
form  an  opinion  with  respect  to  their  manners.  But  there  exist  near  Sartenc  and 
elsewhere  several  dolmens,  or  sfazzone,  menhirs,  or  dautare,  and  even  avenues 
of  stones,  which  are  similar  in  all  respects  to  those  of  Brittany  and  England.  We 
may  assume,  therefore,  that  these  countries  were  formerlj'  inhabited  by  the  same 
race. 

The  inhabitants  of  Corte,  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  and  the  mountaineers  of 
Bastelica,  boast  of  being  Corsicans  of  the  purest  blood.  At  Bastia  the  type  is 
altogether  Italian,  but  as  we  travel  into  the  interior  we  meet  men  with  large 
fleshy  fiices,  small  noses  devoid  of  character,  clear  complexion,  and  eyes  of  a  chest- 
nut colour  rather  than  black.  Phocieans,  Romans,  and  Saracens,  who  maintained 
themselves  here  until  the  eleventh  century,  were  succeeded  by  Italians  and  French. 
Calvi  and  Bonifacio  were  Genoese  settlements,  and  at  Carghese,  near  Ajaccio,  we 
even  meet  with  a  colony  of  Greek  Mainotes,  who  settled  there  in  the  sevent<^enth 
century,  and  whose  descendants  now  speak  Greek,  Italian,  and  French.  But,  in 
spite  of  these  foreign  immigrations,  the  Corsicans  have  in  a  large  measure  retained 
their  homogeneitj'.  Paoli  was  rather  proud  of  a  Genoese  proverb,  which  said 
that  the  "  Corsicans  deserved  to  be  hanged,  but  knew  how  to  bear  it."  History 
bears,  indeed,  witness  to  their  patriotism,  fearlessness,  and  respect  for  truth  ;  but  it 
also  tells  us  of  foolish  ambitions,  jealousies,  and  a  furious  spirit  of  revenge.  Even 
in  the  middle  of  last  century  tlie  practice  of  the  vendetta  cost  a   thousand  lives 


CORSICA.  367 

annually.  Entire  villages  were  depopulated,  and  in  many  parts  every  peasant's 
house  was  converted  into  a  fortress,  where  the  men  were  constantly  on  the  alert, 
the  women,  protected  by  custom  against  outrage,  sallying  forth  alone  to  cultivate 
the  fields.  The  ceremonies  observed  when  a  victim  of  the  vendetta  was  brought 
home  were  terrible.  The  women  gathered  round  the  corpse,  and  one  amongst 
them,  in  most  cases  a  sister  of  the  deceased,  furiously  called  down  vengeance  upon 
the  head  of  the  murderer.  The  roceri  of  death  are  amongst  the  finest  national 
songs.  Foreign  domination  is  to  blame,  no  doubt,  for  the  frequency  of  these 
assassinations.  The  judges  sent  to  the  country  did  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  these  latter  returned  to  the  primitive  law  of  retaliation. 

Though  Corsica  gave  a  master  to  France,  the  spirit  of  the  people  is  essen- 
tially republican.  The  Romans  barely  succeeded  in  enslaving  it,  and  even  in 
the  tenth  century  the  greater  portion  of  the  island  formed  a  confederation  of 
independent  communities  known  as  Terra  del  Cornune.  The  inhabitants  of  each 
valley  formed  a,  picve.  (jj/ebs),  by  whom  were  elected  a  podesta  and  the  "  fathers  of 
the  commune."  These  latter  appointed  a  "  corporal,"  who  was  charged  with  the 
defence  of  popular  rights.  The  podestas  in  turn  elected  a  Council  of  twelve,  who 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  confederation.  This  constitution  survived  conquest  and 
invasion.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  when  fighting  heroically  against  Genoa  and 
France,  Corsica  declared  all  citizens  equal.  It  was  institutions  like  these  which 
made  Rousseau  say  that  "that  little  island  would  one  day  astonish  Europe." 
Since  that  time  the  Napoleonic  era  has  whetted  the  ambition  of  the  Corsicans, 
and  they  appear  to  have  forgotten  their  traditions  of  freedom. 

Corsica  is  one  of  the  least -populated  departments  of  France.*  The  eastern 
slope  of  the  island,  though  more  fertile  and  extensive  than  the  western,  and 
formerly  densely  peopled,  is  now  almost  a  desert.  The  Roman  colony  of  Mariana 
no  longer  exists,  and  the  Phocaean  emporium  of  Aleria  has  dwindled  down  since 
the  thirteenth  century  into  an  isolated  homestead  standing  close  to  a  pestiferous 
swamp.  At  the  present  time  the  great  centres  of  population  are  on  the  western 
coast,  which  faces  France,  enjoys  a  salubrious  climate,  and  possesses  magnificent 
ports. 

The  Corsicans  certainly  appear  to  deserve  the  charge  of  idleness  which  is 
brought  against  them,  for  they  have  done  but  little  to  develop  the  great  resources 
of  their  island.  Fishing  and  cattle-breeding  they  understand  best.  In  many 
parts  agricultural  operations  are  carried  on  almost  exclusively  with  the  help  of 
Italian  labourers,  known  as  Lucchesi,  because  most  of  them  formerly  came  from 
Lucca.  Thanks,  however,  to  the  impulse  given  by  France,  a  commencement  has 
been  made  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  olive  oil,  equal  to  the  best  of  Provence, 
wine,  and  dried  fruits  already  constitute  important  articles  of  export,  f 

Corsica  abounds  in  ores,  but  they  do  not  appear  to  be  as  rich  as  those  of 
Sardinia.     Formerly  iron  mines  alone  were  worked,  the  ore  being  convej-ed  to  the 

*  Area,  3,378  square  miles;  population  in  1740,  120,3S0  ;  in  1872,  2.59,861. 

+  Average   annual  produce : — Cereals,  ,2,613,000   bushels;    oil,    3,300,000    gallons;    wine,    6,600,000 
gallons. 


868 


COESICA. 


furnaces  near  Bastia  and  Porto  Vccchio ;  but  of  lute  years  copper  mines  have  been 
opened  at  Castifuo,  near  Corte,  and  argentiferous  lead  is  being  procured  from  a 
mine  near  Argentella,  not  far  from  lie  Rousse.  Red  and  blue  granite,  porphj-rv, 
alabaster,  serpentine,  and  marble  are  being  quarried.  There  are  many  mineral 
springs,  but  the  only  one  enjoying  a  European  reputation  is  that  of  Orezzo,  which 
rises  in  the  picturesque  district  of  Castaguiccia.  Its  ferruginous  water  contains 
a  considerable  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  and  is  recommended  as  efficacious  in  a 
host  of  diseases. 

The  most  important  town  of  Corsica,  though  not  its  capital,  is  Bastia,  thus 

Fig.  135.— View  of  Uastia. 


named  from  a  Genoese  castle  built  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century  on 
the  beach  of  the  hill  village  of  Cardo.  Bastia  stands  about  a  mile  to  the  north  of 
the  two  former  capitals  of  the  island,  viz.  Mariana  and  Biguglia,  of  which  the 
former  has  left  no  trace,  whilst  the  latter  has  dwindled  down  to  a  mi.serable 
village.  The  geographical  position  of  Bastia  is  excellent,  for  it  is  within  easy 
reach  of  Italy,  and  frequent  communications  with  that  country  have  exercised  a 
most  happy  influence  upon  its  inhabitants,  who  are  the  most  civilised  and  indus- 
trious of  the  whole  island.  Its  harbour  is  small,  and  far  from  safe,  but  it  is  much 
frequented.  The  city  rises  amphithcatrically  upon  hills,  and  is  surrounded  by 
delightful  gardens  and  numerous  villas. 


CORSICA.  369 

St.  Florcnt,  only  six  miles  from  Bastia,  but  on  the  western  coast  of  the  island, 
has  an  excellent  harbour,  but  the  atmosphere  hanging  over  its  marshes  is  deadly. 
He  Rousse,  farther  to  the  west,  is  the  principal  port  of  the  fertile  district  of 
Balagna.  It  was  founded  by  Paoli  in  1758,  in  order  to  ruin  Calvi,  which  had 
remained  faithful  to  the  Genoese.  This  object  has  been  attained.  He  Rousse 
exports  large  quantities  of  oil  and  fruit,  whilst  the  old  town  of  Calvi,  on  its 
whitish  rock,  is  a  place  without  life,  frequently  visited  by  malaria.  The  coast  to 
the  south  of  Calvi,  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Sagone,  though  exceedingl}'  fertile,  is 
almost  a  desert,  and  many  parts  of  it  suffer  from  malaria.  Ajaccio,  however,  at 
one  time  merely  a  maritime  suburb  of  Castelvecchio,  standing  a  short  distance 
inland,  has  risen  into  great  importance.  It  is  the  pleasantest  and  best-built 
town  of  the  island,  and  Napoleon,  the  most  famous  of  its  sons,  showered  favours 
upon  it.  The  inhabitants  fish  and  cultivate  their  fertile  orchards.  ThcA'  also 
derive  great  advantages  from  a  multitude  of  visitors,  who  go  thither  to  enjoy  a 
delicious  climate  and  picturesque  scenery. 

The  other  towns  of  Corsica  are  of  no  importance  whatever.  Sartene,  though 
the  capital  of  an  arrondissement,  is  merely  a  village,  and  the  activity  of  the  dis- 
trict centres  in  the  little  port  of  Propriano,  on  the  Gulf  of  Yalinco,  one  of  the 
trysting-places  of  Neapolitan  fishermen.  Corte  is  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
island  as  the  birthplace  of  the  heroes  of  the  wars  of  independence.  Porto  Yecchio, 
though  in  possession  of  the  best  harbour  of  the  island,  is  frequented  only  by  a  few 
coasting  vessels,  whilst  Bonifacio,  an  ancient  ally  of  the  Genoese,  is  important  only 
because  of  its  fortifications.  The  prospect  from  the  isolated  limestone  rock  upon 
whicli  it  is  built  is  exceedingly  picturesque.  The  mountains  of  Limbara  stand 
out  clearly  against  the  sky,  and  in  front  we  look  down  upon  the  granitic  islets 
dotting  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  so  dangerous  to  navigators.  It  was  here  the 
frigate  La  Semillante  foundered  in  18o5,  with  nearly  a  thousand  souls  on  board.* 


*  Towns  of  Corsica  {1872): — Bastia,  17,9.50:  Ajaccio,   16,.530;    Corte,  5,4.50;    Sartene,  4,150;   Bodi- 
facio,  3,600;  Bastelica,  2,950;  Calenzana.  2,600;  Calvi,  2,175  inhabitants. 


SPAIN.* 


I. — General  Aspects. 


HE  Iberian  peninsula,  Spain  and  Portugal,  must  be  looked  upon 
geographically  as  one.  Differences  of  soil,  climate,  and  language 
may  hiive  justified  its  division  into  two  states,  but  in  the  organ- 
ism of  Europe  these  two  constitute  but  a  single  member,  having 
the  same  geological  historj',  and  exhibiting  unity  in  their  physical 
configuration.! 

Compared  with  the  other  peninsulas  of  Southern  Europe,  viz.  Italy  and  that  of 
the  Balkans,  Iberia  is  most  insular  in  its  character.  The  isthmus  which  attaches 
it  to  the  trunk  of  Europe  is  comparatively  narrow,  and  it  is  defined  most  distinctly 
by  the  barrier  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  contour  of  the  peninsula  is  distinguished 
by  its  massiveness.  There  are  curving  bays,  but  no  inlets  of  the  sea  penetrating 
far  inland,  as  in  the  case  of  Greece.  J 

It  was  said  long  ago,  and  with  justice,  that  Africa  begins  at  the  Pyrenees. 
Iberia,  indeed,  bears  some  resemblance  to  Africa.  Its  outline  is  heavy,  there  are 
hardly  any  islands  along  its  coasts,  and  few  plains  open  out  upon  the  sea.  But  it 
is  an  Africa  in  miniature,  only  one-fiftieth  the  size  of  the  continent  upon  which  it 
appears  to  have  been  modelled.  Moreover,  the  oceanic  slope  of  the  peninsula  is 
quite  European  as  to  climate,  vegetation,  and  abundance  of  running  water  ;  and 


•  Authorities:— Coello,  F.  de  Luxan  y  A.  Pascual,  " Rcsefias  Geogr&fica,  Geol6gica  y  Agricola  de 
Espana  ; "  Baron  Davillier  et  Gust.  Dore,  "  Voyage  en  Espagne  ; "  De  Laborde,  "  Itineraire  Descriptif  de 
I'EspagTie  : "  Borj-  de  Saint- Vincent,  "  Kesume  Geographique  de  la  Peninsule  Ibcrique  ; "  De  Vemeuil  et 
CoUomb,  "  Memoires  Geologiqucs  sur  I'Espagne  : "  Ford,  "  Handbook  for  Travellers  in  Spain  :  "  Fern. 
Garrido,  "  L'Espagne  Contemporaine  ; "  Chcrbuliez,  "  L'Espagne  Politique  ;  "  Ed.  Quinct,  "  Mes  Vacancea 
en  Espag:ne  : "  Th.  Gautier,  "  Tras  los  Montcs,"  "  Voyage  en  Espagne  : "  M.  Willkomm,  "  Die  Pj-re- 
naische  Halbinsel,"  "  Strand-  und  Steppengebiete  der  iberischon  Halbinsel ; "  George  .Sand,  "Un  Hiver  a 
Majorque  ; "  Ludw.  Salvator,  "  Balearen  in  AVort  und  Bild  : "  Blade,  "  Etudes  Gt-ographiquos  sur  la 
Vallee  d'Andorre;"  W.  von  Humboldt,  "  X'rbcwohncr  Spaniens;"  Eug.  Cordicr,  •'Organisation  de  la 
Famille  chez  les  Basques ; "  Paul  Broca,  "  Memoires  d' .Anthropologic." 

t  Area  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  exclusive  of  the  Balearic  Islands,  22.5,605  square  miles ;  area  of  Spain, 
191.104  square  miles;  of  Portugal  (without  the  Azores),  34,d01  square  miles.  Average  height,  according 
to  Leipoldt,  2..300  feet. 

X  Contour  of  peninsula,  2.015  miles,  of  which  1 ,301  are  on  the  Atlantic,  and  714  on  the  Mediterranean. 
W'iiltli  of  the  isthmus  of  the  Pv  ivn-fs,  260  miles. 


GENERAL  ASPECTS. 


371 


certain  features  of  its  flora  even  justify  a  belief  that  at  some  remote  epoch  it  was 
joined  to  the  British  Islands.  African  Hispania  only  begins  in  reality  with  the 
treeless  plateaux  of  the  interior,  and  more  especially  with  the  Mediterranean 
coasts.  There  we  meet  the  zone  of  transition  between  the  two  continents.  Its 
general  aspect,  flora,  fauna,  and  even  population,  mark  out  that  portion  of  Spain 
as  an  integral  part  of  Barbary  ;  the  Sierra  Xevada  and  the  Atlas,  facing  each 
other,  are  sister  mountains ;  and  the  strait  which  separates  them  is  a  mere  accident 
in  the  surface  relief  of  our  planet. 


Fig.  136. — The  Table-lands  of  the  InERLix  Peninsula. 
Scale  X  :  10,300,fKHi 


Jo-  3i8/h. 


\0otrj2  8o/l. 

lOoaiiles. 


Spain,  though  nearly  surrounded  by  the  sea,  is  nevertheless  essentially  con- 
tinental in  its  character.  Xearly  the  whole  of  it  consists  of  table-lands,  and  only 
the  plains  of  the  Tajo  (Tagus)  and  of  Andalusia  open  out  broadly  upon  the  ocean. 
The  coast,  for  the  most  part,  rises  steeply,  and  the  harbours  are  consequently  diffi- 
cult of  access  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  interior,  a  circumstance  most  detrimental 
to  the  development  of  a  large  sea-borne  commerce. 

Ever  .since  the  discovery  of  the  ocean  high-roads  to  America  and  the  Indies,  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  has  taken  the  lead  in  commercial  matters, 


372  SPAIN. 

a  fiict  easily  ai^couiited  for  by  the  physical  features  of  the  country.  Spain,  like 
peninsular  Italy,  turns  her  l)ack  upon  the  eu.st.  The  plateaux  slope  down  gently 
towards  the  west ;  the  principal  rivers,  the  Ebro  alone  excepted,  flow  in  that  direc- 
tion ;  and  the  water-shed  lies  close  to  the  ile.iterranean  shores. 

Spain  must  either  have  given  birth  to  an  aboriginal  people,  or  was  peopled  by 
way  of  the  Pyrenees  and  by  emigrants  crossing  the  narrow  strait  at  the  columns  of 
Hercules.  The  Iberian  race  actually  forms  the  foundation  of  the  populations  of 
Spain.  The  Basks,  or  Basques,  now  confined  to  a  few  mountain  valleys,  formerly 
occupied  the  greater  portion  of  the  peninsula,  as  is  proved  by  its  geograpliical  nomen- 
clature. Celtic  tribes  subsequently  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  established  themselves 
in  various  parts  of  the  country,  mixing  in  many  instances  with  the  Iberians,  and 
forming  the  so-called  Celtiberiaus.  This  mixed  race  is  met  with  principally  in 
the  two  Castiles,  whilst  Galicia  and  the  larger  portion  of  Portugal  appear  to  be 
inhabited  by  pure  Celts.  The  Iberians  had  their  original  seat  of  civilisation  in 
the  south ;  they  thence  moved  northward  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
penetrating  as  far  as  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 

These  original  elements  of  the  population  were  joined  by  colonists  from  the 
great  commercial  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean.  Cadiz  and  Malaga  were  founded 
by  the  Phoenicians,  Cartagena  by  the  Carthaginians,  Saguntum  by  innuigrants  from 
Zacynthns,  Ro.sa.i  is  a  Rhodian  colony,  and  the  ruins  of  Aiiipurias  recall  the  Eni- 
poriiK  uf  the  Massilians.  But  it  was  the  Romans  who  nioditied  the  character  of  the 
Iberian  and  Celtic  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula,  whom  they  subjected  after  a 
hundred  years'  war.  Italian  culture  gradually  penetrated  into  every  part  of  the 
country,  and  the  use  of  Latin  became  universal,  except  in  the  remote  valleys 
inhabited  by  the  Basques. 

After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  Spain  was  successively  invaded  by 
Suevi,  Alani,  Vandals,  and  Visigoths,  but  only  the  latter  have  exercised  an 
abiding  influence  upon  the  language  and  manners  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the 
pompous  gravitj'  of  the  Castilian  appears  to  be  a  portion  of  their  heritage. 

To  these  northern  invasions  succeeded  an  invasion  from  the  neighbouring 
continent  of  Africa.  The  Arabs  and  Berbers  of  Mauritania  gained  a  footing  upon 
the  rock  of  Gibraltar  early  in  the  eighth  century,  and  very  soon  afterwards  nearly 
the  whole  of  Spain  had  fallen  a  prey  to  the  Mussulman,  who  maintained  himself 
here  for  more  than  seven  centuries.  Moors  immigrated  in  large  numbers,  and  they 
substantially  affected  the  character  of  the  population,  more  especially  in  the  south. 
The  Inquisition  expelled,  or  reduced  to  a  condition  of  bondage,  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  these  Moors,  but  its  operations  only  extended  to  Mussulmans  or 
doubtful  converts,  whilst  Arab  and  Berber  blood  had  already  found  its  way  into 
the  veins  of  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Castilian  bears  witness  to  the  great 
influence  of  the  Saracens,  for  it  contains  many  more  words  of  Arabic  than 
of  \  isigothic  origin,  and  these  words  designate  objects  and  ideas  evidencing  a 
state  of  progressive  civilisation,  such  as  existed  when  the  Arabs  of  Cordova  and 
Granada  inaugurated  the  modern  era  of  science  and  industry  in  Europe. 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.  373 

During  the  dominion  of  the  Moors  the  Jews  prospered  singularly  on  the  soil  of 
Spain,  and  their  number  at  the  time  of  the  first  persecution  is  said  to  have  been 
800,000.  Supple,  like  most  of  their  faith,  they  managed  to  get  a  footing  in  both 
camps,  the  Christian  and  Mohammedan,  and  enriched  themselves  at  the  expense  of 
each.  They  supplied  both  sides  with  money  to  carry  on  the  war,  and,  as  farmers  of 
taxes,  they  oppressed  the  inhabitants.  The  Christian  faith  triumphed  in  the  end ;  the 
kings,  to  pay  the  cost  of  their  wars,  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  the  Jews  ;  and  the 
people  threw  themselves  with  fury  upon  their  hated  oppressors,  sparing  neither  iron, 
fire,  tortures,  nor  the  stake.  A  few  Jewish  families  may  have  escaped  destruction 
by  embracing  Catholicism,  but  the  bulk  of  that  people  perished  or  were  driven  into 
exile. 

Far  happier  has  been  the  lot  of  the  Gipsies,  or  Gitanos,  who  are  sufiiciently 
numerous  in  Spain  to  give  a  special  physiognomy  to  several  large  towns.  These 
Gipsies  have  always  conformed  outwardlj'  to  the  national  religion,  and  the  Inqui- 
sition, which  has  sent  to  the  stake  so  many  Jews,  Moors,  and  heretics,  has  never 
interfered  with  them.  The  Gipsies,  in  many  instances,  have  settled  down  in  the 
towns,  but  they  all  have  traditions  of  a  wandering  life,  and  most  highly  respect 
those  of  their  kinsmen  who  still  range  the  woods  and  plains.  These  latter  are 
proud  of  their  title  of  riandaides,  or  wayfarers,  and  despise  the  dwellers  in  towns. 
These  Spanish  Gitanos  appear  to  be  the  descendants  of  tribes  who  sojourned  for 
several  generations  in  the  Balkans,  for  their  lingo  contains  several  hundred  words 
of  Slav  and  Greek  origin. 

M.  de  Bourgoing  has  drawn  attention  to  the  great  diversity  existing  amongst 
the  population  of  Spain.  A  Galician,  for  instance,  is  more  like  an  Auvergnat 
than  a  Catalonian,  and  an  Andalusian  reminds  us  of  a  Gascon.  Most  of  the 
inhabitants,  however,  have  certain  general  features,  derived  from  a  common 
national  history  and  ancestry. 

The  average  Spaniard  is  of  small  stature,  but  strong,  muscular,  of  surprising 
agility,  an  indefatigable  walker,  and  proof  against  every  hardship.  The  sobriety 
of  Iberia  is  proverbial.  "  Olives,  salad,  and  radishes  are  fit  food  for  a  nobleman." 
The  physical  stamina  of  the  Spaniard  is  extraordinary,  and  amply  explains  the  ease 
with  which. the  conquisfadores  surmounted  the  fatigues  which  they  were  exposed  to 
in  the  dreaded  climate  of  the  New  World.  These  qualities  make  the  Spaniard  the 
best  soldier  of  Europe,  for  he  possesses  the  fiery  temperament  of  the  South  joined 
to  the  physical  strength  of  the  North,  without  standing  in  need  of  abundant 
nourishment. 

The  moral  qualities  of  the  Spaniard  are  equally  remarkable.  Though  careless 
as  to  every-day  matters,  he  is  very  resolute,  sternly  courageous,  and  of  great 
tenacity.  Any  cause  he  takes  up  he  defends  to  his  last  breath.  The  sons  always 
embrace  the  cause  of  their  fathers,  and  fight  for  it  with  the  same  resolution. 
Hence  this  long  series  of  foreign  and  civil  wars.  The  recovery  of  Spain  from  the 
Moors  took  nearly  seven  centuries  ;  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  South 
America  was  one  continued  fight  lasting  throughout  a  century.  The  war  of  inde- 
pendence which  freed  Spain  from  the  yoke  of  Napoleon  was  an  almost  unexampled 
27 


374  SPAIN. 

effort  of  patriotism,  and  the  Spaniards  may  justly  boast  that  the  French  did  not 
find  a  single  spy  amongst  them.  The  two  Carlist  wars,  too,  would  have  been 
possible  nowhere  else  but  in  Spain. 

Who  need  wonder,  after  this,  if  even  the  lowliest  Spaniard  speaks  of  himself  with 
a  certain  haughtiness,  which  in  any  one  else  would  be  pronounced  presumptuous? 
"  The  Spaniard  is  a  Gascon  of  a  tragic  type  ; "  so  says  a  French  traveller.  With  him 
deeds  always  follow  words.  He  is  a  boaster,  but  not  without  reason.  He  unites 
qualities  which  usually  preclude  each  other,  for,  though  haughty,  he  is  kindly  in 
his  manners  ;  he  thinks  verj"  highly  of  himself,  but  is  considerate  of  the  feelings  of 
others ;  quick  to  perceive  the  shortcomings  of  his  neighbours,  he  rarely  makes 
them  a  subject  of  reproach.  Trifles  give  rise  to  a  torrent  of  sonorous  language, 
but  in  matters  of  importance  a  word  or  a  gesture  suffices.  The  Spaniard  combines 
a  solemn  bearing  and  steadfastness  with  a  considerable  amount  of  cheerfulness. 
Nothing  disquiets  him  ;  he  philosophically  takes  things  as  they  are  ;  jjoverty  has  no 
terrors  for  him  ;  and  he  even  ingeniously  contrives  to  extract  pleasure  and  advantage 
from  it.  The  life  of  Gil  Bias,  in  whom  the  Spaniards  recognise  their  own  like- 
ness, was  more  chequered  than  that  of  any  other  hero  of  romance,  and  yet  he  was 
always  full  of  gaiety,  which  even  the  dark  shadow  of  the  Inquisition,  then  resting 
upon  the  country,  failed  to  deprive  him  of.  "  To  live  on  the  banks  of  the 
Manzanares,"  says  a  Spanish  proverb,"  is  perfect  bliss ;  to  be  in  paradise  is  the  second 
degree  of  happiness,  but  only  on  condition  of  being  able  to  look  down  upon  Madrid 
through  a  .skylight  in  the  heavens." 

These  opposites  in  the  character  of  the  Spaniards  g^ve  rise  to  an  appearance  of 
fickleness  which  foreigners  are  unable  to  comprehend,  and  they  themselves  com- 
placently describe  them  as  co-sas  de  E.spaiia.  How,  indeed,  are  we  to  explain  so 
much  weakness  associated  with  so  many  noble  qualities,  so  many  superstitions  in 
spite  of  common  sense  and  a  keen  perception  of  irony,  such  ferocity  of  conduct  in  men 
naturally  generous  and  magnanimous  ?  A  Spaniard,  in  spite  of  his  passions,  will 
resign  himself  philosophically  to  what  he  looks  upon  as  inevitable.  Lo  (pie  ha  de 
ser  no  puede  faUar,  "  What  is  to  be  will  be,"  he  says,  and,  wrapped  up  in  his  cloak, 
he  allows  events  to  take  their  course.  The  great  Lord  Bacon  observed,  three  hundred 
years  ago,  that  the  "  Spaniards  looked  wiser  than  they  were  ;  "  and,  indeed,  most 
of  them  are  passionately  fond  of  gambling,  and  their  apathetic  fatalism  accounts 
for  many  of  the  ills  their  country  sufiers.  The  rapid  decay  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  course  of  three  centuries  has  led  certain  historians  to  number  the 
Spaniards  amongst  fallen  nations.  The  edifices  met  with  in  manj'  towns  and 
villages  speak  of  a  grandeur  now  past,  and  the  dexpoh/ados  and  dc/iemn,  which  we 
encounter  even  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  tell  of  once  fertile  fields  returned 
to  a  state  of  nature. 

Buckle,  in  his  "  History  of  Civilisation,"  traces  this  decay  to  the  physical 
nature  of  Spain  and  to  a  long  succession  of  religious  wars.  The  Visigoths  defended 
Arianism  against  the  Franks,  and  when  the  Spaniards  had  become  good  Catholics 
their  countrj'  was  invaded  by  Moors,  and  for  more  than  twenty  generations  they 
struggled  against  them.     It  thus  happened  that  patriotism  became  identical  with 


GENEEAL  ASPECTS. 


375 


absolute  obedience  to  the  behests  of  the  Church,  for  every  one,  from  the  King  down 
to  the  meanest  archer,  was  a  defender  of  the  faith  rather  than  of  his  native  soil. 
The  result  might  have  been  foretold.  The  Church  not  only  took  possession  of  most 
of  the  land  won  from  the  infidels,  but  it  also  exercised  a  baneful  influence  upon  the 
Government,  and,  through  its  dreaded  tribunals  of  the  Inquisition,  over  the  whole 
of  society. 

But  whilst  these  long  religious  struggles  tended  to  the  moral  and  intellectual 
abasement  of  the  Spaniards,  there  were  other  causes  which  operated  in  an  inverse 
sense,  and  these  Buckle  does  not  appear  to  have  properly  appreciated.  The  kings, 
in  order  to  secure  the  support  of  the  people  in  their  wars  against  the  Mussulmans, 
found  themselves  compelled  to  grant  a  large  measure  of  liberty.  The  towns 
governed  themselves,  and  their  delegates,  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century,  sat  with 
the  nobility  and  clergy  in  the  Cortes,  and  voted  the  supplies.  Local  government 
conferred    advantages  upon    Spain   then   enjoyed    only  in   few  parts  of  Europe. 


Fig.  137. — Dkhesas  ix  the  Environs  of  Madrid. 
Scale  1 :  450,000. 


Industry  and  the  arts  flourished  in  these  prosperous  cities,  and  a  stop  was  even 
put  to  the  encroachments  of  the  clergy  long  before  Luther  raised  his  powerful 
voice  in  Germany. 

A  struggle  between  the  supporters  of  local  government  and  of  a  centralized 
monarchy  at  length  became  imminent,  and  no  sooner  had  the  infidels  been  expelled 
than  civil  war  began.  It  terminated  in  favour  of  King  and  Church,  for  the 
comuneros  of  the  Castiles  met  with  little  support  in  the  other  provinces,  and  their 
towns  were  ravaged  by  the  bloodthirsty  generals  of  Charles  Y. 

The  discovery  of  the  Xew  World,  which  happened  about  this  period,  proved  a 
disaster  to  Spain,  for  young  men  of  enterprise  and  daring  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
and  thus  weakened  the  mother  country,  which  was  too  small  to  feed  such  huge 
colonies.  The  immense  amount  of  treasure  (more  than  £2,000,000,000  between 
1500  and  1702)  sent  home  from  the  colonies  contributed  still  further  to  the  rapid 
decay  of  Spain,  for  it  corrupted  the  entire  nation.    Money  being  obtainable  without 


870 


SPAIN. 


work,  all  honest  labour  ceased,  and  when  the  colonies  no  longer  yielded  their 
metiillic  treasures  the  country  saw  itself  impoverished,  for  the  gold  and  silver 
had  found  their  way  to  foreign  lands,  whence  Spain  had  procured  her  supplies. 

History  affords  no  other  example  of  so  rapid  a  decadence  brought  about  with- 
out foreign  aggression.  The  workshops  were  closed,  the  arts  of  peace  forgotten, 
the  fields  but  indifferently  cultivated.  Young  men  flocked  to  the  9,000  monas- 
teries to  enjoy  a  life  of  indolence,  and  "  science  was  a  crime,  ignorance  and 
stupidity  were  the  first  of  virtues."  Population  decreased,  and  the  Spaniard  even 
lost  his  ancient  renown  for  bravery.     If  the  Bourbon  kings  placed  foreigners  in 


Fig.  138. — Density  of  the  Popvi.ation  of  the  Iiifkian  Peninsula. 


all  high  positions  of  state,  they  did  so  because  the  Spaniards  had  become  incapable 
of  conducting  public  business. 

But  if  we  compare  the  Spain  of  our  own  days  with  the  Spain  of  the  Inquisition, 
we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  vast  progress  made.  Spain  is  no  longer 
a  "  happy  people  without  a  history,"  for  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  century 
it  has  been  engaged  in  struggles,  and  during  this  period  of  tumultuous  life  it 
has  done  more  for  arts,  science,  and  industry  than  in  the  two  centuries  of  peace 
which  succeeded  the  dark  reign  of  Philip  II.     No  doubt  Spain  might  have  done 


THE  CASTILES,  LEOX,  AXD  ESTEEiLlDUEA.  377 

even  more  if  the  strength  of  the  country  had  not  been  wasted  in  internal  strugglea. 
Unfortunately  the  geographical  configuration  of  the  peninsula  is  unfavourable  to 
the  consolidation  of  the  nation.  The  littoral  regions  combine  every  advantage  of 
climate,  soil,  and  accessibility,  whilst  the  resources  of  the  inland  plateaux  are 
comparatively  few.  The  former  naturally  attract  population  ;  they  abound  in 
large  and  bustling  cities,  and  are  more  densely  populated  than  the  interior  of  the 
country.  Madrid,  which  occupies  a  commanding  position  almost  in  the  geo- 
metrical centre  of  the  country,  has  become  a  focus  of  life,  but  its  environs  are  very 
thinly  inhabited. 

This  unequal  distribution  of  the  population  could  not  fail  to  exercise  a  powerful 
influence  upon  the  history  of  the  country.  Each  of  the  maritime  provinces  felt 
sufficiently  strong  to  lead  a  separate  existence.  During  the  struggles  with  the 
Moors  common  interests  induced  the  independent  kingdoms  of  Iberia  toco-operate, 
and  facilitated  the  establishment  of  a  central  monarchy  ,  but,  to  maintain  this  unity 
afterwards,  it  became  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  a  system  of  terrorism  and 
oppression.  Portugal,  being  situated  on  the  open  Atlantic,  shook  off  the  detested 
yoke  of  Castile  after  less  than  a  century's  submission  In  the  rest  of  the 
peninsula  political  consolidation  is  making  progress,  thanks  to  the  facilities  of 
intercommunication  and  the  substitution  of  Castilian  for  the  provincial  dialects  ; 
but  it  would  be  an  error  to  suppose  that  Andalusians  and  GaUcians,  Basques  and 
Catalans,  Aragonese  and  Madrilefios,  have  been  welded  into  one  nation.  Indeed, 
the  federal  constitution  advocated  by  Spanish  republicans  appears  to  be  best  suited 
to  the  geographical  configuration  of  the  country  and  the  genius  of  its  population. 
The  desire  to  establish  provincial  autonomy  has  led  to  most  of  the  civil  wars  of 
Spain,  whether  raised  by  Carlists  or  Inti'ansigentes.  It  is  therefore  meet  that,  in 
our  description  of  Spain,  we  should  respect  the  limits  traced  by  nature,  bearing 
in  mind  the  fact  that  the  political  boundaries  of  the  province  do  not  always 
coincide  with  water-sheds  or  linguistic  boundaries. 


II. — The  Castiles,  Leon,  and  Estremadura.* 

The  great  central  plateau  of  the  peninsula  is  bounded  on  the  north,  east,  and 
south  by  ranges  of  mountains  extending  from  the  Cantabrian  Pyrenees  to  the 
Sierra  Morena,  and  slopes  down  in  the  west  towards  Portugal  and  the  Atlantic. 
The  uplands  through  which  the  Upper  Duero,  the  Tajo  (Tagus),  and  the  Guadiana 
take  their  course  are  thus  a  region  apart,  and  if  the  waters  of  the  ocean  were  to 
rise  2,000  feet,  they  would  be  converted  into  a  peninsula  attached  by  the  narrow 
isthmus  of  the  Basque  provinces  to  the  French  Pyrenees.  The  vast  extent  of 
these  plateaux — they  constitute  nearly  half  the  area  of  the  whole  country — accounts 
for  the  part  they  played  in  history,  and  their  coma.anding  position  enabled  the 
Castilians  to  gain  possession  of  the  adjacent  territories. 

Area. 
•  Basin  of  the  Duero  (Leon  and  Old  CastOe,   )  . 

exclusive  of  Logrono  and  Santandcr)    j      "Jb,o.M  sq.  m. 
Basins  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana    .     .     .     44,719      „ 


PopiilaHon  (1870). 

Density. 

2,550,000 

69 

2,276,000 

51 

878  SI'AIX. 

The  Castiles  can  hardly  be  culled  beautiful,  oi  rather  their  solemn  beauty  does 
not  commend  them  to  the  majority  of  travellers.  Vast  districts,  such  as  the  Tierra 
de  Campos,  to  the  north  of  Valladolid,  are  ancient  lake  beds  of  great  fertility,  but 
exceedingly  monotonous,  owing  to  the  absence  of  forests.  Others  are  covered  with 
small  stony  hillocks  ;  other?-,  again,  may  be  described  as  mountainous  Mountain 
ranges  covered  with  meagre  herbage  bound  the  horizon,  and  sombre  gorges, 
enclosed  between  precipitous  walls  of  rock,  lead  into  them.  Elsewhere,  as  in  the 
Lower  Estremadura,  we  meet  with  vast  pasture-lands,  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and,  as  in  certain  parts  of  the  American 
prairies,  not  a  tree  arrests  the  attention.  Looking  to  the  fearful  nakedness  of 
these  plains,  one  would  hardly  imagine  that  a  law  was  promulgated  in  the  middle 
of  last  cent.ury  which  enjoins  each  inhabitant  to  plant  at  least  five  trees.  Trees, 
indeed,  have  been  cut  down  more  rapidly  than  they  were  planted.  The  peasants 
have  a  prejudice  against  them  ;  their  leaves,  they  say,  give  shelter  to  birds,  which 
prey  upon  the  corn-fields.  Small  birds,  nightingales  alone  excepted,  are  pursued 
without  mercy,  and  a  proverb  says  that  "swallows  crossing  the  Castiles  must 
carry  provisions  with  them."  Trees  are  met  with  only  in  the  most  remote 
localities.  The  hovels  of  the  peasantry,  built  of  mud  or  pebbles,  are  of  the  same 
colour  as  the  soil,  the  walled  towns  are  easily  confounded  with  the  rock  near  them, 
and  even  in  the  midst  of  cultivated  fields  we  may  imagine  ourselves  in  a  desert. 
Many  districts  suffer  from  want  of  water,  and  villages  whicli  rejoice  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  spring  proclaim  the  fact  aloud  as  one  of  their  attributes.  Huge  bridges 
span  the  ravines,  though  for  more  than  half  the  year  not  a  drop  of  water  passes 
over  their  pebbl}'  beds. 

The  Sierra  de  Guadarrama  and  its  western  continuation,  the  Sierra  de  Gredos, 
separate  this  central  plateau  of  Spain  into  two  portions,  lying  at  different 
elevations.  Old  Castile  and  Leon,  which  lie  to  the  north,  in  the  basin  of  the 
Duero,  slope  down  from  east  to  west  from  5,600  to  2,300  feet ;  whilst  New  Castile 
and  La  Mancha,  in  the  twin  basins  of  the  Tujo  and  the  Guadiana,  have  an  average 
elevation  of  only  2,000  feet.  In  the  tertiary  age  these  two  plateaux  were  covered 
with  huge  lakes.  One  of  them,  the  contours  of  which  are  indicated  by  the  debris 
carried  down  from  the  surrounding  hills,  originally  discharged  its  waters  in  the 
direction  of  the  valley  of  the  Ebro,  but  subsequently  opened  itself  a  passage 
through  the  crystalline  mountains  of  Portugal,  now  represented  by  the  gorges  of 
the  Lower  Duero.  At  another  epoch  this  Lake  Superior  communicated  with  the 
lake  which  overspread  what  are  now  the  plains  of  Xew  Castile  and  La  Mancha. 
The  area  covered  by  these  two  lakes  amounted  to  30,000  square  miles,  and  Spain 
was  then  a  mere  skeleton  of  crystalline  mountains,  joined  together  by  saddles  of 
triassic,  Jurassic,  and  cretaceous  age,  enclosing  these  two  fresh-water  lakes,  and 
bounded  exteriorly  by  the  ocean.  This  geological  period  must  have  been  of  very 
long  duration,  for  the  lacustrine  deposits  are  sometimes  nearly  a  thousand  feet  in 
thickness.  The  miocene  strata  which  form  the  superficial  deposits  of  these  two  lake 
basins  of  the  Castiles  are  geologically  of  the  same  age,  for  fossil  bones  of  the 
same  great  animals — megatheria,  mammoths,  and  hipparions — are  found  in  both. 


THE  CASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTEEMADUEA. 


379 


The  Cantabrian  Mountains  bound  Leon  and  Old  Castile  towards  the  north-west 
and  north,  but  broad  mountain  ranges  run  out  from"  these  immediately  to  the  east 
of  the  Pefia  Labra,  and  form  the  water-shed  between  the  basin  of  the  Duero  and 
the  head-stream  of  the  Ebro.  These  ranges  are  known  by  various  names.  They 
form  first  the  Pdramos  of  Lora  (3,542  feet),  which  slope  gently  towards  the  south, 
but  sink  down  abruptly  to  the  Ebro,  which  flows  here  in  a  gorge  many  hundred 
feet  in  depth.  The  water-shed  to  the  east  of  these  continues  to  the  mountain 
pass  of  the  Brujula,  across  which  leads  the  road  (3,215  feet)  connecting  Burgos 
with  the  sea.  Beyond  this  pass  the  so-called  Montcs  of  Oca  gradually  increase  in 
height,  and  join  the  crystalline  Sierra  de  Demanda,  culminating  in  the  Pico  de 
San  Lorenzo  (7,554  feet).  Another  mountain  mass  lies  farther  to  the  south-east. 
It  rises  in  the  Pico  de  Urbion  to  a  height  of  7,367  feet,  and  gives  birth  to  the 
river    Duero.      The   water-shed    farther    on    is   formed   by   the  Sierra  Cebollera 

Fig.  139. — Profile  of  the  Railway  from  Bayonne  to  Cadiz. 

(Altitudes  in  feet.) 


-*- 

o 

^ 

CI 

-^ 

e 

1 

1 

§ 

(7,039  feet),  which  subsides  by  degrees,  its  ramifications  extending  into  the  basins 
of  the  Ebro  and  Duero.  The  Sierra  de  la  Moncayo  (7,905  feet),  a  crystalline 
mountain  mass  similar  to  the  San  Lorenzo,  but  exceeding  it  in  height,  terminates 
this  portion  of  the  enceinte  of  the  central  plateau.  The  broad  ranges  beyond 
ofier  no  obstacles  to  the  construction  of  roads,  but  there  are  several  rugged  ridges 
to  the  south  of  the  Cebollera  and  Moncayo,  which  force  the  Duero  to  take  a 
devious  course  through  the  defile  of  Soria.  Numantia,  the  heroic  defence  of 
which  has  since  been  imitated  by  many  other  towns  of  the  peninsula,  stood  near 
that  gorge. 

The  average  height  of  the  mountains  separating  tbe  basin  of  the  Duero  from 
that  of  the  Tajo  is  more  than  that  of  those  in  the  north-east  of  Old  Castile.  The 
mountains  gradually  increase  in  height  towards  the  west  and  south-west,  until 
tbey  form  the  famous  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  the  granitic  rocks  of  which  bound  the 
horizon  of  Madrid  in  the  north.     It  constitutes  a  veritable  wall  between  the  two 


380 


SPAIN. 


Ca.stilos,  and  the  construction  of  the  roads  which  lead  in  zigzag  over  its  passes  of 
Somosierra  (4,G80  feet),  Navaeerrada  (o,834  feet),  and  Guadarrama  (o.O^iO  feet) 
was  attended  with  difficulties  so  considerable  that  Ferdinand  VI.,  proud  of  the 
achievement,  placed  the  statue  of  a  lion  upon  one  of  the  highest  summits,  and  thus 
recorded  that  the  "King  had  conquered  the  mountains."  This  sierra  forms  a 
natural  rampart  to  the  north  of  the  plains  of  Madrid,  and  many  sanguinary 
battles  have  been  fought  to  secure  a  passage  through  them.  The  railway  to 
Madrid  avoids  them,  but  the  depression  of  Avila,  through  which  it  passes,  is 
nevertheless  more  elevated  than  the  summit  of  the  Mont  Conis  Railway. 

The  mountains  to  the  south-west  of  the  Peak  of  Pefialara  (7,870  feet),  which 


Fig.  140. — SiEKUAS  DE  Gredos  and  de  Gata. 
Scale  1  :  800,000. 


.  L>0  Miles. 


is  the  culminating  point  of  the  sierra,  sink  down  rapidly,  and  at  the  Alto  de  la 
Cierva  (6,027  feet)  the  chain  divides  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  northern 
forms  the  water-shed  between  the  Duero  and  the  Tajo,  whilst  the  more  elevated 
southern  chain  joins  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama  to  the  Sierra  de  Gredos,  but  is  cut 
in  two  by  the  defile  excavated  by  the  river  Alberche,  which  rises  to  the  north 
of  it. 

The  Sierra  de  Gredos  is,  next  to  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
Granada,  the  most  elevated  mountain  chain  of  Spain,  for  in  the  Plaza  del  Moro 
Almanzor  it  attains  a  height  of  8,680  feet,  and  thus  reaches  far  beyond  the  zone 
of  trees.  Its  naked  summits  of  crystalline  rocks  remain  covered  with  snow 
during  more  than  hulf  the  year.     The  country  extending  along  the  southern  slope 


THE  CASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTEEM  A  DURA.  381 

of  these  mountains  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  districts  of  all  Spain.  It 
abounds  in  streams  of  sparkling  water  ;  groups  of  trees  are  dotted  over  the  hill- 
slopes  and  shield  the  villages;  and  Charles  Y.,  when  he  selected  the  monastery  of 
St.  Yuste  as  the  spot  where  he  proposed  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  days,  exhi- 
bited no  mean  taste.  In  former  times  the  foot  of  the  sierra  was  much  more 
frequented,  for  the  Roman  road  known  as  Via  Lata  (now  called  Caiiiiiio  de  hi  Plata) 
crossed  immediately  to  the  west  of  it,  by  the  Puerto  de  Baiios,  and  thus  joined  the 
valley  of  the  Duero  to  that  of  the  Tajo. 

The  Sierra  de  Gata,  which  lies  beyond  this  old  road,  has  a  course  parallel  with 
that  of  the  Sierra  de  Gredos,  and  this  parallelism  is  observable  likewise  with  respect 
to  the  minor  chains  and  the  principal  river  beds  of  that  portion  of  Spain.  The 
Sierra  de  Gata  rises  to  a  height  of  5,690  feet  in  the  Peiia  de  Francia,  thus  named 
after  a  chapel  built  by  a  Frankish  knight.  Within  its  recesses  are  the  secluded 
valleys  of  Las  Batuecas  and  Las  Hurdes. 

In  the  eastern  portion  of  New  Castile  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  undu- 
lating rather  than  mountainous,  and,  if  the  deep  gorges  excavated  by  the  rivers 
were  to  be  filled  up,  would  present  almost  the  appearance  of  plains.  The  most 
elevated  point  of  this  portion  of  the  country  is  the  Muela  de  San  Juan  (-5,900  feet), 
in  the  Montes  Universales,  thus  called,  perhaps,  because  the  Tajo,  the  Jucar,  the 
Guadalaviar,  and  other  rivers  flowing  in  opposite  directions  take  their  rise  there. 

The  Sierra  del  Tremendal,  in  the  district  of  Albarracin,  farther  north,  is  said 
to  be  frequently  shaken  by  earthquakes,  and  sulphurous  gases  escape  there  where 
oolitic  rocks  are  in  contact  with  black  porphyry  and  basalt.  Several  triassic 
hills  in  the  vicinity  of  Cuenca  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their  rock-salt,  the 
principal  mines  of  which  are  those  of  Minglanilla. 

Farther  south  the  height  of  land  which  separates  the  rivers  flowing  to  the 
Mediterranean  from  those  tributary  to  the  Tajo  and  Guadiana  is  undulating,  but 
not  mountainous.  "We  only  again  meet  with  real  mountains  on  reaching  the  head- 
waters of  the  Guadiana,  Segura,  and  Guadalimar,  where  the  Sierra  Morena,  form- 
ing for  250  miles  the  natural  boundary  between  La  Mancha  and  Andalusia,  takes 
its  rise.  Seen  from  the  plateau,  this  sierra  has  the  appearance  of  hills  of  moderate 
height,  but  travellers  facing  it  from  the  south  see  before  them  a  veritable  mountain 
range  of  bold  profile,  and  abounding  in  valleys  and  wild  gorges.  Geographically 
this  sierra  belongs  to  Andalusia  rather  than  to  the  plateau  of  the  Castiles. 

In  the  west,  judging  from  the  courses  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana,  the  country 
would  appear  to  subside  by  degrees  into  the  plains  of  Portugal ;  hut  such  is  not  the 
case.  The  greater  portion  of  Estremadura  is  occupied  by  a  mountain  mass  con- 
sisting of  granite  and  other  crystalline  rocks.  The  sedimentary  strata  of  the 
region  bounded  in  the  north  by  the  Sierras  of  Gredos  and  Gata,  and  in  the  south 
by  the  Sierra  de  Aroche,  are  but  of  small  thickness.  In  former  times  these 
granitic  mountains  of  Estremadura  retained  pent-up  waters  of  the  lakes  which  then 
covered  the  interior  plateaux,  until  the  incessant  action  of  water  forced  a  passage 
through  them.  Their  highest  summits  form  a  range  between  the  rivers  Guadiana 
and  Tajo  known  as  the  Sierra  of  Toledo,   and  attain  a  height  of  5,115  feet  in 


882 


SPAIN. 


the  Sierra  de  Guadalupe,  famous  in  other  days  on  account  of  the  image  of  a 
miracle-working  Virgin  Mary,  an  object  of  veneration  to  Estremenos  and  Chris- 
tianized American  Indians. 

Geologically  the  series  of  volcanic  hills  known  as  Campo  de  Calatrava  (2,270 
feet)  constitute  a  distinct  group.  They  occupy  both  banks  of  the  Guadiana,  and  the 
ancient  inland  lake  now  converted  into  the  plain  of  La  Mancha  washed  their  foot. 

Fii?.  141. — Dehle  ok  the  Taju  in  the  Province  of  Gcadalajaiia. 


From  their  craters  were  ejected  trachytic  and  basaltic  lavas,  as  well  as  ashes,  or 
neyrizaks,  but  acidulous  thermal  springs  are  at  present  the  only  evidence  of  sub- 
terranean activity. 


The  rivers  of  the  Castilcs  are  of  less  importance  than  might  be  supposed  from 
a  look  at  a  map,  for,  owing  to  a  paucity  of  rain,  they  are  not  navigable.  The 
moisture  carried  eastward  by  the  winds  is  for  the  most  part  precipitated  upon  the 


THE  CASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTEEMADURA.  383 

exterior  slopes  of  the  mountains,  only  a  small  jjroportion  reaching  the  Castiliaii 
plateaux.  Evaporation,  moreover,  proceeds  there  very  rapidly,  and  if  it  were  not 
for  springs  supplied  by  the  rains  of  winter  there  would  not  be  a  single  perennial 
river.* 

Of  the  three  parallel  rivers,  the  Duero,  the  Tajo,  and  the  Guadiana,  the  latter 
two  are  the  most  feeble,  for  the  supplementary  ranges  of  the  Sierras  of  Gredos  and 
Guadarrama  shut  off  their  basins  from  the  moisture-laden  winds  of  the  Atlantic.  Yet, 
in  spite  of  their  small  volume,  the  geological  work  performed  by  them  in  past 
ages  was  stupendous.  Both  find  their  way  through  tortuous  gorges  of  immense  depth 
from  the  edge  of  the  plateaux  down  to  the  plains  of  Lusitania.  The  gorge  of  the 
Duero  forms  an  appropriate  natural  boundary  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  for  it 
offers  almost  insurmountable  obstacles  to  intercommunication.  The  more  con- 
siderable tributaries  of  the  Duero — such  as  the  Tormes,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the 
Sierra  de  Gredos  ;  the  Yeltes  ;  and  the  Agueda — likewise  take  their  course  through 
wild  defiles,  which  may  be  likened  to  the  canons  of  the  New  World.  The  Tajo 
presents  similar  features,  and  below  its  confluence  with  the  Alberche  it  enters  a 
deep  defile,  hemmed  in  by  precipitous  walls  of  granite. 

The  Guadiana  passes  through  a  similar  gorge,  but  only  after  it  has  reached 
the  soil  of  Portugal.  The  hj'drography  of  its  head-streams,  the  Giguela  and 
Zancara,  wbich  rise  in  the  Serranio  of  Cuenca,  offers  curious  features ;  but,  as 
they  are  for  tbe  most  part  dry  during  summer,  the  bountiful  springs  known  as 
the  ojos,  or  "  eyes,"  of  the  Guadiana  are  looked  upon  by  the  inhabitants  as  the 
true  source  of  the  river.  They  are  three  in  number,  and  yield  about  four  cubic 
yards  of  water  a  second.  These  springs  are  popularly  believed  to  be  fed  by  the 
Ruidera,  which,  after  having  traversed  a  chain  of  picturesque  lakelets,  disappears 
beneath  a  bed  of  pebbles  ;  but  Coello  has  shown  that  after  heavy  rains  this  head- 
stream  of  the  Guadiana  actually  reaches  tbe  Zancara. 

The  climate  of  the  Castilian  plateaux  is  quite  continental  in  its  character. 
The  prevailing  winds  of  Spain  are  the  same  as  in  the  rest  of  Western  Europe,  but 
the  seasons  and  sudden  changes  of  temperature  in  the  upper  basins  of  the  Duero,  the 
Tajo,  and  the  Guadiana  recall  the  deserts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  The  cold  in  winter  is 
most  severe,  the  heat  of  summer  scorching,  and  the  predominating  winds  aggravate 
these  features.  In  winter,  the  norfe,  which  passes  across  the  snow-covered  Pyrenees 
and  other  mountain  ranges,  sweeps  the  plains  and  penetrates  through  everj^ 
crevice  in  the  wretched  hovels  of  the  peasants.  In  summer  a  contrary  wind,  the 
solano,  penetrates  through  breaks  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Sierra  Morena, 
scorches  the  vegetation,  and  irritates  man  and  animals.  The  climate  of  Madrid  t 
is  typical  of  that  of  most  of  the  towns  of  Castile.  The  air,  though  pure,  is  exceed- 
ingly dry  and  penetrating,  and  persons  affected  with  diseases  of  the  throat  run 
considerable  risk  during  their  period  of  acclimation.  "  The  air  of  Madrid  does 
not  put  out'  a  candle,  but  kills  a  man,"  says  a  proverb,  and  the  climate  of  that 
city  is  described  as  "  three  months  of  winter  and  nine  of  hell."      True,  in  the 

*  Average  rainfall  at  Madrid,  lO-"  inches;  evaporation,  72-6  inches, 
t  Slean  annual  temperature,  57'9° ;  extremes,  104°  and  14°  F. 


884 


SPAIN. 


time  of  Charles  V.,  Madrid  enjoyed  the  repututiou  of  having  an  excellent  climate, 
and  it  is  just  possible  that  its  deterioration  may  be  ascribable  to  the  destruction  of 
the  forests. 

The  greatest  variety  of  plants  is  met  with  if  we  ascend  from  the  plains  to  the 
summits  of  the  mountains,  but  taken  as  a  whole  the  vegetation  is  singularly 
monotonous,   for  the   number  of  plants  capable  of  supporting  such  extremes  of 


Fig.  142.— The  Steppes  op  New  C.\stile. 
Acoonling  to  Willkoinm.     Senle  1  :  l.-'iUl.otMi. 


20  Miles. 


temperature  is  naturally  limited.  Herbs  and  shrubs  predominate.  The  thickets 
in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Duoro  and  on  the  plateaux  to  the  east  of  the  Tajo  and  the 
Guadiana  consist  of  thyme,  lavender,  rosemary,  hyssop,  and  other  aromatic  plants  ; 
on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains  heaths  with  small  pink  flowers 
predominate  ;  vast  areas  in  the  mountains  of  Cuenca  arc  covered  with  Spanish 
broom,  or  esparto  ;  and  saline  plants  abound  in  the  environs  of  Albacete.  These 
regions  are  generally  described  as  the  "Steppes  of  Castile,"  though  "deserts" 


THE  CASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTREMADUEA.  385 

would,  perhaps,  be  a  more  appropriate  term.  For  miles  around  the  Tillage  of  San 
Clemente  not  a  rivulet,  a  spring,  or  a  tree  is  met  with,  and  the  aspect  of  the 
country  throughout  is  exceedingly  dreary.  The  interminable  plains  of  La  Mancha 
— the  "  dried-up  country  "  of  the  Arabs — adjoin  these  steppes  in  the  west,  and 
there  corn-fields,  vineyards,  and  pasture-grounds  alternate  with  stretches  of  thistles, 
and  the  monotony  is  partly  relieved  by  the  windmills,  with  their  huge  sweeps  slowly 
revolving  overhead.  Estremadura  and  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Morena  are  princi- 
pallj'  covered  with  rock-roses,  and  from  the  summit  of  some  hills  a  carpet  oijaraks, 
bluish  green  or  brown,  according  to  the  season,  extends  as  far  as  the  eye  reaches, 
and  in  spring  is  covered  with  an  abundance  of  white  flowers  resembling  newly 
fallen  snow. 

Woods  are  met  with  only  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  Oaks  of  various 
species  and  chestnut-trees  occupy  the  lower  zone,  and  conifers  extend  beyond  them 
to  the  extreme  limit  of  trees.  These  latter  likewise  cover  the  vast  tracts  of  shifting 
sands  which  extend  along  the  northern  foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  and  are 
the  analogue  of  the  French  landes. 

The  remains  of  the  ancient  forests  still  shelter  wild  animals.  In  the  beginning 
of  this  centiu'y  bears  were  numerous  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Cantabrian 
Mountains ;  the  thickets  of  Guadarrama,  Gredos,  and  Gata  still  harbour  wolves, 
lynxes,  wild  cats,  foxes,  and  even  wild  goats.  Deer,  hares,  and  other  game  abound. 
The  oak  forests  are  haunted  by  wild  boars  of  immense  size  and  strength.  Before 
the  downfall  of  Islam  it  was  thought  meritorious  to  keep  large  herds  of  pigs,  and 
a  traveller  who  visits  the  remote  villages  of  Leon,  Valladolid,  and  Upper  Estrema- 
dura will  find  that  this  ancient  custom  still  survives.  The  black  hogs  of  Trujillo 
and  Montanchez  are  famous  throughout  Spain  for  their  excellent  hams. 

The  country  offers  great  facilities  for  the  breeding  of  sheep  and  cattle  ;  there 
are,  however,  several  districts  which  are  admirably  suited  to  the  production  of  cereals. 
The  Tierra  de  Campos,  in  the  basin  of  the  Duero,  is  one  of  them.  It  owes  its 
fertility  to  a  subterranean  reservoir  of  water,  as  do  also  the  mesa  of  Ocafia  and 
other  districts  in  the  upper  basins  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana,  which  are  arid  only 
in  ai:)pearance.  The  vine  flourishes  on  stony  soil,  and  yields  excellent  wine,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  olive-tree,  which  constitutes  the  wealth  of  the 
Campo  de  Calatrava.  Agricultural  pursuits  would  thus  appear  to  offer  great 
advantages;  and  if  thousands  of  acres  are  still  allowed  to  lie  fallow,  if  nomad 
habits  still  predominate,  this  is  owing  to  sloth,  force  of  habit,  the  existence  of 
feudal  customs,  and  sometimes,  perhaps,  to  discouragement  produced  by  seasons 
of  drought. 

Most  of  the  herds  of  merinos  are  obliged  to  traverse  nearlj'  half  Spain  in 
search  of  the  food  they  require.  Each  herd  of  about  10,000  sheep  is  placed 
in  charge  of  a  mai/oral,  assisted  by  rahadancs  in  charge  of  detachments  of  from 
1,000  to  1,200  animals.  The  shepherds  and  sheep  of  Balia,  in  Leon,  are  reputed 
to  be  the  best.  In  the  beginning  of  April  the  merinos  leave  their  pasture- grounds 
in  Andalusia,  La  Mancha,  and  Estremadura  for  the  north,  where  they  pass  the 
summer,  returning  in   September  to  the  south.     It  may  readily  be  imagined  that 


886  SPAIN. 

these  wandering  herds  do  mucli  damage  to  the  fields  through  which  they  pass, 
even  though  the  privileges  of  the  sheep-breeders  were  abrogated  in  a  large  measure 
in  18;i().  Spain,  however,  in  spite  of  every  advantage  offered  by  nature,  is  obliged 
now  to  import  sheep  from  abroad  to  improve  its  flocks.  Mules,  too,  which  are 
almost  indispensable  in  so  stony  a  country,  are  imported  from  France.  Camels, 
llamas,  and  kangaroos  have  been  introduced,  but  their  number  has  never  been 
large,  and  tlie  fauna  as  well  as  the  flora  cf  the  Castiles  bears  the  stamp  of  monotony. 

As  is  the  land,  so  are  its  inhabitants.  The  men  of  Leon  and  the  Castiles  arc 
grave,  curt  of  speech,  majestic  in  their  gait,  and  of  even  temper.  Even  in  their 
amusements  they  carry  themselves  with  dignity,  and  those  amongst  them  who 
respect  the  traditions  of  the  good  old  time  regulate  every  movement  in  accordance 
with  a  most  irksome  etiquette.  The  Castilian  is  haughty  in  the  extreme,  and  Yo 
soy  CantcUano  !  cuts  short  every  further  explanation. .  He  recognises  no  superiors, 
but  treats  his  fellows  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality.  A  foreigner  who  mixes 
for  the  first  time  in  a  crowd  at  Madrid  or  elsewhere  in  the  Castiles  cannot  fail 
of  being  struck  by  the  natural  freedom  with  which  rich  and  poor  converse  with 
each  other. 

The  Castilian,  thanks  to  his  tenacious  courage  and  the  central  position  he 
occupies,  has  become  the  master  of  Spain,  but  he  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  the 
master  in  his  own  capital.  Madrid  is  the  great  centre  of  attraction  of  the  entire 
peninsula,  and  its  streets  are  crowded  with  provincials  from  every  part  of 
Spain.  This  invasion  of  the  capital,  and  of  the  Castiles  generally,  is  exjjlained  by 
the  sparseness  of  the  population  of  the  plateaux,  a  sparseness  not  so  much  due  to 
the  natural  sterility  of  the  country  as  to  political  and  social  causes.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  Castiles  formerly  supported  a  much  denser  population  than 
they  do  now,  but  the  towns  of  the  valleys  of  the  Tajo  and  the  Guadiana  have  shrunk 
into  villages,  and  the  river,  which  was  formerly  navigable  as  far  as  Toledo,  is  so 
no  longer,  either  because  its  volume  is  less  now  than  it  used  to  be,  or  because  its 
floods  are  no  longer  regulated.  Estremadura,  at  present  one  of  the  poorest 
provinces  of  Spain,  sujiported  a  dense  population  in  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
who  founded  there  the  Colon  ia  Augusta  Emerita  (Merida),  which  became  the 
largest  town  of  Iberia.  During  the  dominion  of  the  Moors,  too,  Estraniadura 
yielded  bounteous  harvests,  but  the  old  cities  have  disappeared,  and  the  fields  are 
now  covered  with  furze,  broom,  and  i-ock-roses. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Moors  no  doubt  contributed  towards  the  decay  of  these 
once  fertile  regions,  but  the  principal  cause  must  be  looked  for  in  the  growth  of 
feudal,  military  and  ecclesiastical  institutions,  which  robbed  the  cultivator  of  the 
fruits  of  his  labours.  Subsequently,  when  Cortes,  Pizarro,  and  other  lonquisfudores 
performed  their  prodigious  exploits  in  the  New  World,  they  attracted  the  enter- 
prising j'outh  of  the  province.  The  peaceable  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  held  in 
contempt,  fields  remained  untilled,  and  40,000  nomadic  shepherds  took  possession 
of  the  country.  It  is  thus  the  Estrcmeitos  became  what  they  are,  the  "  Indians" 
of  the  nation. 


THE  CASTILES,  LEOX,  AND  ESTEEMADURA.  387 

This  decrease  of  population  was  unfortunately  attended  by  a  return  towards 
barbarism.  Three  hundred  j'ears  ago  the  region  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  de  Guadarrama  was  famous  for  its  industry.  The  linen  and  cloth  of  Avila, 
Medina  del  Campo,  and  Segovia  were  known  throughout  Europe ;  Burgos  and 
Aranda  del  Duero  were  the  seats  of  commerce  and  industry ;  and  Medina  de 
Rio  Seco  was  known  as  "  Little  India,"  on  account  of  the  wealth  displayed  at  its 
fairs.  But  misgovernment  led  to  the  downfall  of  these  industries,  the  country 
became  depopulated,  and  its  ancient  culture  dwindled  to  a  thing  of  the  past.  At  the 
famous  university  of  Salamanca  the  great  discoveries  of  K^ewton  and  Harvev  were 
still  ignored  at  the  close  of  last  century  as  being  "  contrary  to  revealed  religion," 
and  the  lower  classes  grovelled  in  the  most  beastly  superstitions. 

In  this  very  province  of  Salamanca,  close  to 'the  Pena  de  Francia,  exist  the 
"  barbarous "  Batuecas,  who  are  charged  with  not  being  able  to  distinguish 
the  seasons.  JS^or  are  the  inhabitants  of  other  remote  mountain  districts  of 
the  Castiles  what  we  should  call  ci\ilised.  Amongst  these  may  be  noticed  the 
charros  of  Salamanca  and  the  famous  maragatos  of  Astorga,  most  of  them 
muleteers.  They  only  intermarry  amongst  themselves,  and  are  looked  upon  as 
the  lineal  descendants  of  some  ancient  tribe  of  Iberia.  The  suggestion  that 
they  are  a  mixed  I'ace  of  Visigoths  and  Moors  is  not  deser\ang  of  attention, 
for  neither  in  their  dress  nor  in  their  manners  do  they  remind  us  of  Mussulmans. 
They  wear  loose  trousers,  cloth  gaiters  fastened  below  the  knee,  a  short  and 
close-fitting  coat,  a  leather  belt,  a  frill  round  the  neck,  and  a  felt  hat  with  a 
broad  brim.  They  are  tall  and  strong,  but  wiry  and  angular.  Their  taci- 
turnity is  extreme,  and  they  neither  laugh  nor  sing  when  driving  before  them 
their  beasts  of  burden.  It  is  difiicult  to  excite  their  passion,  but,  once  roused, 
they  become  ferocious.  Their  honesty  is  above  suspicion,  and  they  may  be  safely 
trusted  with  the  most  valuable  goods,  which  they  will  defend  against  every 
attack,  for  they  are  brave,  and  skilled  in  the  use  of  arms.  Whilst  the  men 
traverse  the  whole  of  Spain  as  carriers  of  merchandise,  the  women  till  the  soil, 
which,  being  arid  and  rocky,  yields  but  a  poor  harvest. 

The  vicissitudes  of  history  explain  the  existence  of  numerous  towns  in  the 
Castiles  which  can  boast  of  having  been  the  capital  of  the  country  at  one  time  or 
other.  Numantia,  the  most  ancient  of  all  those  cities,  exists  no  longer,  and  the 
learned  are  not  yet  agreed  whether  the  ruins  discovered  near  the  decayed  town  of 
Soria  are  the  remains  of  the  walls  demolished  by  Scipio  .^ilmilianus.  But  there  are 
several  cities  of  great  antiquity  which  possess  some  importance  even  at  the  present 
day.  Leon  is  one  of  these.  It  was  the  head-quarters  of  a  Roman  legion 
{septima  gemina),  and  its  name,  in  reality  a  corruption  of  /rgio,  is  supposed  to  be 
symbolized  by  the  lions  placed  in  its  coat  of  arms.  Leon  was  one  of  the  first 
places  of  importance  taken  from  the  Moors.  Its  old  walls  are  in  ruins  now,  and 
the  beautiful  cathedral  has  been  transformed  into  a  clumsy  cube.  Astorga,  the 
"  magnificent  city  "  of  Asturica  Augusta,  has  fallen  even  lower  than  Leon,  whilst 
Palencia  (the  ancient  Pallantia)  still  enjoys  a  certain  measure  of  prosperity,  owing 


388 


SPAIN. 


to  its  favourable  geographical  position  at  the  Pisuerga,  which  has  caused  it  to 
be  selected  as  one  of  the  great  railway  centres  of  the  peninsula. 

Burgos,  the  former  capital  of  Old  Castile,  points  proudly  to  its  graceful  cathe- 
dral and  other  ancient  buildings,  but  its  streets  are  nearly  deserted,  and  the  crowds 
which  congregate  occasionally  in  the  churches,  hotels,  or  at  the  railway  station 
are  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  beggars.  In  the  cathedral  are  preserved 
numerous  relics,  and  the  Cid,  whose  legendary  birthplace,  Bivar,  is  near,  lies  buried 
in  it. 

Valladolid,  the  Belad  Walid  of  the  Moors,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  all  Spain, 
enjoys  a  more  favourable  geographical  position  than  Burgos,     It  lies  on  the  Lower 


Fig.  143— Salamanca  and  its  DusrobLADOS. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


-  J  MUe». 


Pisuerga,  where  that  river  enters  the  broad  plain  of  the  Duero,  at  an  elevation 
of  less  than  liOO  feet  above  the  sea.  There  are  numerous  factories,  conducted 
by  Catalans,  and  the  city  boasts,  like  Burgos,  of  many  curious  buildings  and 
historical  reminiscences.  The  houses  in  which  Columbus  died  and  Cervantes  was 
born  are  still  shown,  as  is  the  beautiful  monastery  of  San  Pablo,  in  which  resided 
Torquemada,  the  monk,  who  condemned  8,000  heretics  to  die  at  the  stake.  The 
castle  of  Simancas,  where  the  precious  archives  of  Spain  are  kept,  is  near  this 
city. 

Descending  the  Duero,  we  pass  Tore,  and  then  reach  Zamora,  the  "  goodly 
walls  "  of  which  proved  such  an  obstacle  to  the  Moors.  Zamora,  though  on  the 
direct  line  between  Oporto  and  continental  Europe,  is  an  out-of-the-way  place  at 


THE  CASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTREMADUEA.  389 

present,  and    the  same  may   be   said    of   the  famous  city  of  Salamanca,   on   the 
Tormes,  to  the  south  of  it. 

Salamanca,  the  Salmantica  of  the  Romans,  succeeded  to  Palencia  as  the  seat  of 
a  university,  and  during  the  epoch  of  the  Renaissance  was  described  as  the  "  mother 
of  virtues,  sciences,  and  arts,"  and  the  "Rome  of  the  Castiles."     It  still  deserves 
the  latter  epithet,  because  of  its  magnificent  bridge  built  by  Trajan,  and  the  beau- 
Fig.  144.— The  Alcazak  of  Segovia. 


tiful  edifices  dating  back  to  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.     Its  intellectual 
superiority,  however,  is  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Arevalo,  and  the  famous  town  of  Medina  del  Campo,  to  the  north-east  of  Sala- 
manca, carry  on  a  considerable  trade  with  corn.  Avila  occupies  an  isolated  hillock 
on  the  banks  of  the  Adaja,  to  the  north  of  the  Sierra  de  Gredos.  Avila  still  preserves 
its  turreted  walls  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  its  fortress-like  cathedral  is  a  marvel 
of  architecture.     There  are  also  curious  sculptures  of  animals,  which  are  ascribed 

28 


390 


SPAIN. 


to  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country.  Similar  works  of  rude  art  in  tli3 
vicinity  are  known  as  the  "bulls  of  Guisando,"  from  a  village  in  the  Sierra  de 
Gredos. 

Segovia  the  "  circumspect "  is  situated  on  an  affluent  of  the  Duero,  like 
Avila,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Sierra  dc  Guadarrama.  Its  turreted 
walls  rise  on  a  scarped  rock,  supposed  to  resemble  a  ship.     On  the  poop  of  this 

Fig.  Ho. — Toledo. 


fancied  ship,  high  above  the  confluence  of  the  Clamores  and  Eresma,  rise  the 
ruins  of  the  Moorish  Alcdzar,  whilst  the  cathedral,  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  mainma.st.  A  beautiful  aqueduct  supplies  Segovia  with 
the  clear  waters  of  the  Guadarrama.  It  is  the  finest  Roman  work  of  tliis  class  in 
Iberia,  and  far  superior  to  the  royal  palace  of  San  Ildefonso  or  of  La  Granja,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  city. 

Toledo  is  the  most  famous  city  to  the  south  of  the  great  rampart  formed  by  the 


v^   •■%  V-l-l     iJ         *!!  fi 


it 


•^1 


THE  CASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTEEMADUEA.  391 

Sierras  of  Guadarrama,  Gredos,  and  Gata.  This  is  the  Citulad  Imprrial,  the 
"  mother  of  cities,"  the  coronet  of  Spain  and  the  light  of  the  world,  as  it  was 
called  by  Juan  de  Padilla,  the  most  famous  of  its  sons.  Tradition  tells  us  that  it 
existed  long  before  Hercules  founded  Segovia,  and,  like  Rome,  it  stands  upon  seven 
hills.  Toledo,  with  its  gates,  towers,  Moorish  and  mediseval  buildings,  is  indeed  a 
beautiful  city,  and  its  cathedral  is  of  dazzling  richness.  But,  for  all  this,  Toledo  is 
a  decayed  place,  and  its  famous  armourers'  shops  have  been  swamped  by  a 
Government  manufactory. 

Talavera  de  la  Reyna,  below  Toledo,  on  the  Tajo,  still  possesses  some  of  its 
ancient  manufactures  of  silk  and  faience.  Puente  del  Arzobispo  and  the  other 
towns  on  the  Tajo  are  hardly  more  now  than  large  villages.  The  bridge  of  Almaraz 
crosses  the  river  far  away  from  any  populous  town,  and  the  old  Roman  bridge 
of  Alconetar  exists  no  longer.  Alcantara, — that  is,  the  bridge, — near  the  Por- 
tusuese  frontier,  still  remains  a  monument  of  the  architectural  skill  of  the 
Romans.  It  was  completed  in  the  year  105,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  and  its 
architect,  Lacer,  appears  to  have  been  a  Spaniard.  Its  centre  is  at  an  elevation 
of  160  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  the  Tajo,  the  floods  of  which  rise  occasionally 
to  the  extent  of  a  hundred  feet. 

All  the  great  towns  of  Estremadura  lie  at  some  distance  from  the  Tajo,  and 
its  great  volume  of  water  has  hitherto  hardly  been  utilised  for  purposes  of 
irrigation  or  navigation.  On  a  fertile  hill  nearly  twenty  miles  to  the  north  of 
this  river,  the  old  town  of  Plasencia  may  be  seen  bounded  in  the  distance  by 
mountains  frequently  covered  with  snow.  Caceres  is  about  the  same  distance 
to  the  south,  as  is  also  Trujillo,  which  received  such  vast  wealth  from  the  con- 
querors of  Peru,  but  is  now  dependent  upon  its  pigs  and  herds  of  cattle. 

The  position  of  those  towns  of  Estremadura  which  lie  on  the  banks  of  the 
Guadiuna  is  more  favourable.  Badajoz,  close  to  the  Spanish  frontier,  has  lost  its 
ancient  importance  as  a  fortress  since  it  became  a  place  of  commerce  on  the  only 
railway  which  as  yet  joins  Spain  to  Portugal.  Merida,  on  the  same  railway,  is 
richer  in  Roman  monuments  than  any  other  town  of  Spain,  for  there  are  a 
triumphal  arch,  the  remains  of  an  aqueduct,  an  amphitheatre,  a  naumachy,  baths, 
and  an  admirable  bridge  of  eighty  granite  arches,  2,600  feet  in  length ;  but  in 
population  it  is  far  inferior  to  Don  Benito,  a  town  hardly  mentioned  in  history, 
higher  up  the  Guadiana,  at  the  edge  of  the  vast  plain  of  La  Serena.  It  was  founded 
in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  together  with  its  neighbour, 
Tillanueva  de  la  Serena,  derives  its  wealth  from  the  fertility  of  the  surrounding 
countiy.  Its  fruits,  and  particularlj'  its  water-melons,  are  much  esteemed.  The 
plains  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadiana  abound  in  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is 
exported  to  France  and  England. 

The  towns  of  La  Mancha  are  of  no  historical  note,  and  the  province  owes 
its  celebrity  almost  exclusively  to  Cervantes'  creation,  the  incomparable  "  Don 
Quixote."  Ciudad  Real,  an  industrious  place  formerly  ;  Almagro,  known  for  its 
point-lace ;  Daimiel,  near  which  stood  the  principal  castle  of  the  military  order  of 
Calatrava;  Manzanares ;  and  other  towns  are  important  principally  because  of  their 


892 


SPAIN. 


trade  in  corn  and  wine  Almaden, — that  is,  "  the  mine," — in  a  valley  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  has  become  famous  through  its  cinnabar 
mines,  which  for  more  than  three  centuries  supplied  the  New  World  with 
mercury,  and  still  yield  about  1,'200  tons  annually. 


Fig.  14G. — JIadkii)  AM)  ITS  Knvikons. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


.  2  Miles. 


Eastern  Castile,  being  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  sea-level,  and 
having  a  rugged  surface,  cannot  support  a  population  more  dense  than  citlier  La 
Mancha  or  Estremadura.  There  are  but  few  towns  of  note,  and  even  the  capital, 
Cuenca,  is  hardly  more  than  a  third-rate  provincial  city.     Picturesquely  perched 


THE  CASTILES,  LEON,  AND  ESTEEMADUEA.  393 

upon  a  steep  rock  overhanging  the  deep  gorges  of  the  Huecar  and  Jucar,  it  merely 
lives  in  the  past.  The  only  other  towns  of  note  in  that  part  of  the  country  are 
Guadalajara,  with  a  Koman  acqueduct,  and  Alcala,  the  native  place  of  Cervantes 
and  seat  of  an  ancient  university,  which  at  one  time  saw  10,000  students  within  its 
walls.  Both  these  towns  are  situated  on  the  Henares,  a  tributary  of  the  Tajo, 
and  either  would  have  been  fit  to  become  the  capital  of  the  kingdom. 

Indeed,  at  the  first  glance,  it  almost  appears  as  if  Madrid  owed  its  existence  to 
the  cajjrice  of  a  king.  It  has  no  river,  for  the  Manzanares  is  merely  a  torrent,  its 
climate  is  abominable,  and  its  environs  present  fewer  advantages  than  those  of 
Toledo,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Romans  and  Visigoths.  But  once  having  been 
selected  as  the  capital,  Madrid  could  not  fail  to  rise  in  importance,  for  it  occupies  a 
central  position  with  respect  to  all  other  towns  outside  the  basin  of  the  Upper  Tajo. 
Pinto  (Piiiictinn),  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  Madrid,  is  popularly  supposed  to 
be  the  mathematical  centre  of  the  peninsula  ;  and  thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  plain 
bounded  in  the  north  by  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama  forms  the  natural  nucleus  of 
the  country,  and  is  traversed  by  its  great  natural  highways. 

Toledo  occupies  a  position  almost  equally  central.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
country  during  the  reign  of  the  Romans,  and  subsequently  became  the  capital  of 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  and  of  the  kings  of  the  Visigoths,  and  retained  that 
position  until  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Moors.  During  the  struggles  between 
Moors  and  Christians  the  latter  shifted  their  capital  from  place  to  place,  according 
to  the  varying  fortunes  of  the  war,  but  no  sooner  had  the  former  been  expelled 
from  Cdrdova  than  the  Christian  kings  again  established  themselves  in  the  plain 
to  the  south  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama.  They  had  then  to  choose  between  Toledo 
and  Madrid.  Toledo  no  doubt  offered  superior  advantages,  but  its  citizens  having 
joined  the  insurrection  of  the  comuneroH  against  Charles  V.,  the  Emperor-king  decided 
in  favour  of  Madrid.  Philip  III.  endeavoured  to  remove  the  capital  to  Valladolid, 
but  the  natural  attractions  of  Madrid  proved  too  strong  for  him,  and  the  schools, 
museums,  public  buildings,  and  manufactories  which  have  arisen  in  the  latter  since 
then  must  for  ever  insure  it  a  preponderating  position.  The  railways,  which  now 
join  Madrid  to  the  extremities  of  the  peninsula,  countervail  the  disadvantages 
of  its  immediate  neighbourhood  ;  and  although  the  purest  Castilian  is  spoken  at 
Toledo,  it  is  Madrid  which,  through  its  press,  has  insured  the  preponderance  of  that 
idiom  throughout  Spain.  Madrid  has  long  been  in  advance  of  all  other  cities  of  the 
peninsula  as  regards  political  activity,  industry,  and  commerce,  but  its  growth 
having  taken  place  during  a  period  devoid  of  art,  it  is  inferior  to  other  towns  with 
respect  to  the  character  of  its  public  buildings.  The  museums,  however,  are 
amongst  the  richest  in  Europe,  and  make  it  a  second  Florence.  Immediately 
outside  the  public  promenades  of  the  Prado  and  Buen  Retire  we  find  our- 
selves in  a  desolate  country  covered  with  flints,  and  this  must  be  crossed  by 
a  traveller  desirous  of  visiting  the  delightful  gardens  of  Aranjuez,  the  huge 
Escorial  built  by  Philip  II.,  or  the  villas  in  the  wooded  valleys  of  the  Sierra  de 
Guadarrama.  These  latter  supply  Madrid  with  water,  as  the  neighbouring  moun- 
tains do  with  ice.     Formerly  one  of  the  most   secluded  of  these  valleys  became 


894 


SPAIN. 


the  seat  of  a  mock-kingdom,  nominally  independent  of  the  Kings  of  Castile. 
During  the  Moorish  invasion  the  inhabitants  of  the  plain  of  Jarama  had  .sought 
shelter  in  the  mountains,  and  the  rest  of  the  world  forgot  all  about  them.  Thev 
called  themselves  Patones,  and  elected  an  hereditarj'  king.  About  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  last  of  the  line,  by  trade  a  carrier,  surrendered  his 
wand  of  authority  into  the  hands  of  a  royal  officer,  and  the  valley  was  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  authorities  at  Uceda.* 

III. — Andalusia.! 

Andalusia  embraces  the  whole  of  the  basin  of  the  Guadalquivir,  together  with 
some  adjoining  districts.    It  is  bounded  in  the  north  by  the  Sierra  Morena,  which 


Fig.  147. — AuANJUEZ. 

BciUo  1  :  7.').IHII1. 


1  MUe. 


in  the  direction  of  Portugal  becomes  a  rugged  mountain  district  of  crystalline 
formation  intersected  by  tortuous  ravines,  and  ri.sing  in  the  Sierra  de  Aracena, 
north  of  the  mining  region  of  the  Rio  Tinto,  to  a  height  of  5,500  feet.  Farther 
east  the  Sierra  Morena  ascends  in  terraces  above  the  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
and  on  its  reverse  slope  we  meet  with  districts,  such  as  that  of  Los  Pedroches 
(1,650  feet),  hardly  less  monotonous  of  aspect  than  the  plains  of  La  Mancha.     The 

•  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  C.istiles  (1870) : — Old  Cuatile :  Valladolid,  60,000;  Uurgos, 
14,000:  Salamanca.  13,500;  Palencia,  13,000:  Zamora,  9,000;  Sego^na,  7,000;  Leon,  7,000:  Avila,  6,000. 
AVif  Catti/e:  ll.adrid,  332,000;  Toledo,  17,500;  Almagro,  14,000;  Daimiol,  13.000;  Ciudad  Real, 
12,000;  Val  de  Pciias,  11,000;  Almaden,  9,000;  Manzanare-s,  9,000;  Cuenca,  7,000;  Talavera  dc  la 
Re>Tia,  7,500  ;  Guadalajara,  6,000.  Eslremarliira  :  Badajoz,  22,000  ;  Don  Benito,  15,000  ;  Ciceres,  12,000  ; 
Villanueva  de  la  Serena,  8,000  :  Plasencia,  6,000 ;  Jleriilu,  6,000. 

t  Area  of  the  basin  of  the  Guadalqui\-ir,  21,000  square  miles;  area  of  Andalusia,  28,370  square  miles  ; 
population  (1870),  2,749,629  ;  density,  91. 


ANDALUSIA. 


395 


Punta  de  Almenara  (o,920  feet),  in  the  Sierra  de  Alcaraz,  in  the  extreme  east,  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  culminating  point  of  this  sierra,  which  is  indebted  for  its 
name  of  "  Black  ilountain  "  to  the  sombre  pines  which  clothe  its  slopes. 

The  line  of  water-parting  does  not  pass  through  the  highest  summits  of 
this  range.  Most  of  the  rivers  rise  on  the  plateau,  and  take  their  course,  by 
picturesque  gorges,  right  through  the  heart  of  the  mountains.  The  most  famous 
of  these  gorges  is  that  of  Despefiaperros  (2,444  feet),  leading  from  the  dreary 
plains  of  La  Mancha  to  the  smiling  valley  of  Andalusia.  This  pass  has  played  a 
great  part  in  every  war.     At  its  foot  was  fought   in   1212   the  fearful  battle  of 


Fig.  148. — The  Basins  of  the  Guadiasa  and  Gcadalquitir. 
Scale  t :  3.000.000. 


'  50  Miles. 


Tfavas  de  Tolosa,  in  which  more  than  200,000  Mussulmans  are  said  to  have  been 
slaughtered. 

The  mountains  which  shut  in  the  basin  of  Andalusia  on  the  east  are  cut  up 
by  deep  river  gorges  into  several  distinct  masses  or  chains,  of  which  the  Calar 
del  Mundo  (o,437  feet),  Yelmo  de  Segura  (5,925  feet),  and  Sierra  Sagra  (7,G75 
feet)  are  the  principal.  The  southern  mountain  ranges  uniformly  extend  from  east 
to  west.  From  north  to  south  we  cross  in  succession  the  Sierras  de  Maria  (6,690 
feet),  de  las  Estancias,  and  de  los  Filabres  (6,283  feet),  so  famous  for  its  marbles. 
In  the  west  the  latter  two  ranges  join  the  Sierra  de  Baza  (6,236  feet),  itself  attached 
to  the  great  culminating  range  of  Iberia,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  by  a  saddle  of  incon- 
siderable height  (2,950  feet). 


806 


SPAIN. 


The  Sierra  Nevada  consists  maiuly  of  schists,  through  which  eruptions  of 
serpentine  and  porphyry  have  taken  place.  The  area  it  occupies  is  small,  but 
from  whatever  side  we  approach  it  rises  precipitously,  and  the  eye  can  trace  the 
succeeding  zones  of  vegetation  up  to  that  of  perennial  snows  pierced  by  the  peaks 
of  JIuluhacen  (11,661  feet),  Picacho  de  la  Veleta  (ll,;i86  feet),  and  Alcazaba 
(7,590  feet).  Vines  and  olive-trees  clothe  the  foot-hills;  to  these  succeed  walnut- 
trees,  then  oaks,  and  finally  a  pale  carpet  of  turf  hidden  beneath  snow  for  six 


Fig.  149. — The  Pass  or  DESi'ENArEURoa. 


months.  Masses  of  snow  accumulate  in  sheltered  hollows,  and  these  i-eiitisquvrus, 
tentiscas,  or  snow-drifts,  supply  Granada  with  ice.  In  the  Corral  de  la  Veleta  there 
even  exists  a  true  glacier,  which  gives  birth  to  the  river  Genii,  and  is  the  most 
southerly  in  all  Europe.  The  more  extensive  glaciers  of  a  former  age  have 
disappeared  long  ago.  To  the  purling  streams  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  sierra  the 
Vega  of  Granada  owes  its  rich  verdure,  its  flowers,  and  its  excellent  fruits,  and  the 
delightful  valley  of  Lecrin  its  epithet  of  "Paradise  of  the  Alpujarras." 


ANDALUSIA. 


397 


No  other  district  of  Spain  bo  forcibly  reminds  us  of  the  dominion  of  the  Moors. 
The  principal  summit  is  named  after  a  Moorish  prince.  On  the  Picacho  they  lit  a 
beacon  on  the  approach  of  a  Christian  army,  and  in  the  Alpujarras,  on  the 
southern  slope,  they  pastured  their  sheep.  The  Galician  and  Asturian  peasants, 
who  now  occupy  this  district,  are  superior  in  no  respect  to  the  converted  Moors 
who  were  permitted   to  remain  at  Ujijar,  the  capital  of  Alpujarras,  when  their 

FiR.  150. — The  Sierra  Nevada  as  seen  from  Baza. 


compatriots   were   driven   forth.      The   natural    riches  of  the  mountains  remain 
undeveloped,  and  they  are  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  dcspohlados. 

From  the  Pass  of  Alhedin  (3,300  feet),  between  Granada  and  Alpujarra,  we  look 
down  upon  one  of  the  most  charming  panoramas  of  the  world.  It  was  here  that 
Boabdil,  the  fugitive  Moorish  king,  beheld  for  the  last  time  the  smiling  plains  of 
his  kingdom,  and  hence  the  spot  is  known  as  the  "  Last  Sigh  of  the  Moor,"  or  the 
"  Hill  of  Tears."  From  the  highest  summits  of  the  sierra,  however,  the  prospect 
is  exceedingly  grand.  Standing  upon  the  Picacho  de  la  Yeleta,  we  see  Southern 
29 


398  SrAIN. 

Spain    spread  out  beneath    our  feet,  with  its   fertile  valleys,  ru^f»cd  rocks,  and 

russet-coloured  wilds.     Ijooking  south,  across  the  blue  waters  of  the  Mediterranean, 

the  mountains  of  Barbary  loom  out  in  the  distance,  and  sometimes  we  are  even  able 

to  hear  the  murmuring  of  the  waves  as  they  beat  against  the  coast. 

The  mountains  around  these  giants  of  Granada  are  very  inferior  to  them  in 

height.     The  country  in  the  north,  which  is  bounded  bj'  the  valleys  of  the  Genii, 

Guadiana  Menor,  and  Guadalquivir,  is  occupied  b)'  an  upland   intersected  by  deep 

ravines,  and  rising  now  and  then  into  distinct  mountain  chains,  such  as  the  Sierra 

Jlagina  (7,047  feet)    and  Sierra  de  Jabalcuz,  near  Jaen   (1,800   feet)  ;   the  chain 

Alta  Coloma,  farther  .south,  with  its  wild  puss,  Puerto  de  Arenas,  between  Jaen 

and  Granada  ;  and  the  Sierra  Susana,  close  to  Granada,  which  extends  westward 

to  the  mountain  mass  of  the  Parji^anda,  the  great  prophet  of  the  husbandmen  of 

the  Vega : — 

"  Cuando  Parapanda  so  pone  la  montera, 
Llucve,  aunque  Dios  no  lo  quisiora." 

("  \\'hcn  Parapanda  puts  on  his  cap  it  rains),  though  (lod  may  not  wish  it.") 

The  mountains  extending  along  the  coast  are  cut  up  by  transverse  valleys  into 
several  distinct  masses.  The  Sierra  de  Gata,  in  the  south-cast,  is  a  detached 
mountain  mass,  pierced  by  several  extinct  volcanoes.  Farther  west  rises  the 
Sierra  Alhamilla,  the  torrents  of  which  are  so  rich  in  garnets  that  the  huntsmen 
use  them  instead  of  shot.  Crossing  a  rivulet,  we  reach  the  superb  Sierra  de  Gador 
(7,620  feet),  consisting  of  schists. 

The  Contraviesa  (6,218  feet),  which  separates  the  Alpujarras  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, rises  so  steeply  from  the  coast  that  even  sheep  can  hardly  climb  it.  The 
Sierra  de  Almijara,  beyond  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Guadalfoo,  and  its  western 
continuation,  the  Sierra  de  Alhama  (7,003  feet),  present  similar  features.  The 
mountains  on  the  other  side  of  the  Pass  of  Alfarnate  or  de  los  Alazores  (2,723 
feet)  constitute  the  exterior  rampart  of  an  ancient  lake  bed,  bounded  in  the  north 
by  an  irregular  swelling  of  ground  known  as  Sierra  de  Yeguas.  The  road  from 
Malaga  to  Antequcra  crosses  that  rampart  in  the  famous  Pass  of  El  Torcal  (4,213 
feet),  the  fantastically  shaped  rocks  of  which  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  ruins 
of  an  extensive  city.  Archaeologists  have  discovered  there  some  of  the  most  curious 
jjrehistoric  remains  of  Iberia. 

To  the  west  of  the  basin  of  Malaga,  drained  by  the  Guadalhorcc,  the  emissary 
of  the  ancient  lake  referred  to  above,  the  mountains  again  increase  in  height,  and 
in  the  Sierra  de  Tolox  attain  an  elevation  of  6,430  feet.  Snows  remain  here 
throughout  the  winter.  From  the  Tolox  mountain  chains  ramify  in  all  directions. 
The  Sierra  Bermcja  (4,7d6  feet)  extends  to  the  south-west,  its  steep  promontories 
being  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  sea ;  the  wild  "  Serrania  "  de  Ronda  (5,08.5  feet) 
extends  westward,  and  is  continued  in  the  mountain  mass  of  San  Cristobal 
(5,627  feet),  which  sends  branches  southward  as  far  as  the  Capes  of  Trafalgar  and 
Tarifa.  The  rock  of  Gibraltar  (1,408  feet),  which  rises  so  proudly  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Mediterranean,  is  a  geological  outlier  attached  to  the  mainland  by  a  strip  of 
sand  thrown  up  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean. 


GORGE  DE  LOS  GAITANES,   DEFILE  OF  GUADALHOECE. 


ANDALUSIA. 


399 


Erosion  has  powerfully  affected  the  mountains  occupying  the  country  between 
the  basin  of  the  Guadalquivir  and  the  coast.  Amongst  the  numerous  river  gorges, 
that  of  the  Gaytanos,  through  which  the  Guadalhorce  flows  from  the  plateau  of 
Antequera  to  the  orange  groves  of  Alora,  is  one  of  the  -w-ildest  and  most  magnifi- 
cent in  all  Sj)ain.  Only  torrents  enter  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  of  the  rivers 
discharging  their  waters  into  the  Atlantic  there  is  but  one  which  is  of  some 
importance,  on  account  of  its  great  volume  and  the  facilities  it  offers  for  navigation. 
This  is  the  Guadalquivir,  which  rises  in  the  Sierra  Sagra,  at  an  elevation  of  5,900 
feet  above  the  sea-level.     Having  received  the   Guadalimar,  its  current  becomes 


Fig.  151. — The  Mouth  op  the  Gu.ujalquitih. 
Scale  1 :  200,000. 


1 


2  Miles. 


gentle,  and  it  flows  through  a  -wide  and  open  valley,  thus  difiering  essentially 
from  the  rivers  of  the  Castllcs,  which,  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  traverse  narrow 
sorges.  Its  volume  fairly  entitles  it  to  its  Arab  name  of  Wad-el-Kebir,  or  "  large 
river."  The  geological  work  performed  by  this  river  and  its  tributaries  has  been 
enormous.  Mountain  ramparts  have  been  broken  through,  lakes  drained,  and 
immense  quantities  of  soil  spread  over  the  valley.  Xowhere  can  this  work  be 
traced  more  advantageously  than  in  the  valley  of  the  Genii  of  Granada,  for  the 
fertile  district  of  La  Vega  was  covered  by  a  lake,  the  pent-up  waters  of  which 
opened  themselves  a  passage  near  Loja. 


400  SPAIN. 

The  estuary  of  the  river  has  been  gniduallj'  filled  up  by  sediment.  The  tide 
ascends  nearly  as  far  as  Seville,  where  the  river  is  about  :2'jO  j'urds  wide.  Below 
that  city  it  passes  through  an  alluvial  tract  known  as  the  marismas,  ordinarily  a 
dusty  plain  roamed  over  by  half-wild  cattle,  but  converted  by  the  least  rain  into  a 
quagmire.  Neither  villages  nor  homesteads  are  met  with  here,  but  the  sands 
farther  back  are  covered  with  dwarf  palms,  and  lower  down  a  few  hills  of  tertiary 
formation  approach  close  to  the  river,  their  vine-clad  slopes  affording  a  pleasing 
contrast  to  the  surrounding  solitude. 

A  contraction  of  the  alluvial  valley  marks  the  exterior  limit  of  the  ancient 
estuary  silted  up  by  the  Guadalquivir.  Sanlucar  de  Barrameda,  a  town  of 
oriental  aspect,  stands  on  the  left  bank,  whilst  a  range  of  dunes  intervenes 
between  the  sea  and  the  flat  country  on  the  right  baiik.  Tlie  mouth  of  the  river 
is  closed  by  a  bar,  so  that  only  vessels  of  small  draught  can  enter  it.  These 
Arenas  Gonlait,  or  "great  sands,"  are  for  the  most  part  covered  with  pines,  and, 
except  on  their  exterior  face,  they  have  remained  stable  since  the  historical  epoch. 

The  Guadalquivir  is  the  only  river  of  Spain  which  is  navigable  for  a  consider- 
able distance  above  its  mouth.  Vessels  of  200  tons  ascend  it  as  far  as  Seville,  a 
distance  of  sixty  miles.  Sanlucar  was  formerly  the  great  port  of  Spain,  and  its 
coasting  trade  is  still  considerable.  None  of  the  other  rivers  of  Andalusia  are 
navigable.  The  Guadalete,  which  enters  the  Bay  of  Cadiz,  is  a  shallow,  sluggish 
stream ;  the  Odiel  and  the  Rio  Tinto  are  rapid  torrents,  and  their  estuary,  below 
Iluelva,  has  been  choked  up  by  the  sediment  brought  down  b}-  them  ;  while  Palos, 
so  famous  as  the  port  from  which  Columbus  started  upon  his  great  voyage  of  dis- 
covery, has  dwindled  down  to  a  poor  fishing  village. 

But  what  are  these  changes  compared  with  the  great  revolution  which  joined 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic  ?  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  barrier  of 
mountains  separated  the  two  seas.  The  destructive  action  of  the  Atlantic  appears 
to  have  been  facilitated  not  only  by  the  cavernous  nature  of  the  rocks  on 
both  sides  of  the  strait,  but  also  by  the  fact  of  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean 
having  been  much  lower  at  that  time  than  that  of  the  Atlantic.  Even  now  the 
waters  of  the  latter  sometimes  rush  through  the  strait  with  astounding  velocity 
(see  Fig.  6,  p.  26).  AVe  cannot  tell  whether  the  strait  has  increased  in  width  during 
historical  times,  for  ancient  geographers  are  not  very  precise  in  their  measurements. 
Thus  much,  however,  is  certain,  that  the  general  features  of  the  strait  have  not 
changed,  and  the  two  pillars  of  Hercules,  Calpe  and  Abyla,  may  still  be  recog- 
nised in  modern  Gibraltar  and  Ceuta. 

The  rock  of  Gibraltar  does  not  form  the  southernmost  promontory  of  Iberia,  but, 
being  the  most  striking  object  along  the  strait,  it  has  given  its  name  to  it.  Mariners 
look  upon  it  as  the  true  boundary  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic, 
and  it  has  been  likened,  not  inaptly,  to  a  crouching  lion  guarding  the  gateway 
between  the  two  seas.  It  rises  almost  jjcrpcndicularly  on  the  east,  and  the  town, 
with  most  of  the  batteries,  has  been  constructed  on  the  western  slope,  which  is 
more  accessible.  The  famous  rock,  though  a  natural  dependency  of  Spain,  has 
become,  by  right  of  conquest,  one  of  the  great  strongholds  of  England,  and  its 


ANDALUSIA.  401 

importance  as  a  fortress  as  well  as  a  place  of  commerce  is  indisputable.  In  its 
caverns  have  been  discovered  stone  implements  and  the  skeletons  of  doliclio- 
cephalous  men. 

The  frequent  intercourse  between  Andalusia  and  the  Berber  countries  on  the 
other  side  of  the  strait  is  explained  by  vicinity  as  well  as  by  similarity  of  climate. 
Algarve,  Huelva,  and  the  lower  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir,  as  far  as  Seville  and 
Ecija,  that  " stewing-pan "  or  "furnace"  of  Spain, fomi  one  of  the  hottest  districts 
of  Europe,  and  the  coast,  from  Algeeiras  and  Gibraltar  to  Cartagena,  Alicante,  and 
the  Cabo  de  la  aSho,  is  hardly  inferior  to  it.  The  country  around  the  Bay  of 
Cadiz  and  the  hilly  districts  in  the  extreme  south,  which  are  freely  exposed  to  the 
virason,  or  sea  breeze,  enjoy  a  more  temperate  climate.  In  the  two  torrid  coast 
regions  delineated  above  frosts  are  hardly  known,  and  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  coolest  month  reaches  54°  F.  The  heat  is  greatest  around  the  bays  exposed 
to  the  full  influence  of  the  hot  African  winds,  and  least  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
where  westerly  breezes  moderate  it.  Contrary  atmospheric  currents  naturally 
meet  in  the  Strtiit  of  Gibraltar,  where  the  wind  is  generally  high,  and  tempests 
are  frequent  in  winter.  Westerly  winds  prevail  during  winter,  easterly  winds 
in  summer.  The  two  promontories  of  Europe  and  Africa  are  looked  upon  by 
mariners  as  trustworthy  signallers  of  the  weather :  when  they  are  wrapped  in 
clouds  or  mists  rain  and  easterly  winds  may  be  locked  for,  but  when  their  pro- 
files stand  out  clearly  against  the  blue  sky  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  fine  weather  and 
westerly  winds.* 

The  dry  and  semi-tropical  climateof  Lower  Andalusia  frequently  exercises  a  most 
depressing  influence  upon  2forthern  Europeans.  In  the  plain  and  along  the  coast 
it  hardly  ever  rains  during  summer,  and  the  heat  is  sometimes  stifling,  for  the 
trade  winds  of  the  tropics  are  unknown.  At  Cadiz  the  land  wind  blowing  from 
the  direction  of  Medina  Sidonia,  and  hence  known  as  medina,  is  suSbcating,  and 
quarrels  and  even  murders  are  said  to  occur  most  frequently  whilst  it  lasts.  But 
the  most  dreaded  wind  is  the  so/aiio  or  leiante,  which  is  hot  as  the  blast  from  a 
furnace.  A  curious  vapour,  known  as  calina,  then  appears  on  the  southern 
horizon,  the  air  is  filled  with  dust,  leaves  wither,  and  sometimes  birds  drop  in 
their  flight  as  if  suffocated. 

In  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe  summer  is  the  season  of  flowers  and  foliage, 
but  in  Andalusia  it  is  that  of  aridity  and  death.  Except  in  gardens  and  irrigated 
fields  all  vegetation  shrivels  up  and  assumes  a  greyish  tint  like  that  of  the  soil. 
But  when  the  equinoctial  autumn  rains  fall  in  the  lowlands,  and  snows  in  the 
mountains,  the  plants  recover  rapidly,  and  a  second  spring  begins.  In  February 
vegetation  is  most  luxuriant,  but  after  March  heat  and  dryness  again  become  the 
order  of  the  day.  Indeed,  Andalusia  suffers  from  a  want  of  moisture.  There  are 
steppes  without  water,  trees,  or  human  habitations,  the  most  extensive  being  on 


Metn  Annuil 
Temp. 

Year. 

Kainftll. 
Oct.— ilaich. 

Raintill. 
April— Sept, 

Granada    .     . 

.     .     6G'  F. 

48o  in. 

40-3  in. 

S-2  in. 

Se\'ille  . 

.     .     68'  „ 

261    „ 

231  „ 

30  „ 

Gibraltar  .     . 

.     .     70'  „ 

28-9  „ 

20-3  „ 

8G  „ 

402 


SPAIN. 


the  Lower  Genii,  where  the  depressions  are  occupied  by  salt  lakes,  as  in  Algeria 
or  Persia,  and  cultivation  is  impossible.  Another  steppe  of  some  extent  stretches 
to  the  east  of  Jaen,  and  is  known  as  that  of  Muncha  Real.  The  barren  tracts  on 
the  Mediterranean  slopes  are  relatively  even  of  greater  extent  than  those  in  the 
basin  of  the  Guadalquivir.  The  volcanic  region  of  the  Sierra  de  Gata  is  a  complete 
desert,  where  castles  and  towers  erected  for  purposes  of  defence  are  the  only 
buildings.    Elsewhere  the  coast  is  occupied  by  saline  plains,  which  support  a  vege- 


Fig.  152. — The  Steppes  op  Ecua. 
Sculo  1 :  750,000. 


loMileik 


tation  mainly  consisting  of  salsolaceac,  plumbaginenc,  and  cruciferac,  five  per  cent, 
of  the  species  of  which  are  African.  Barilla,  the  ashes  of  which  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soda,  grows  plentifully  there. 

In  the  popular  mind,  however,  Andalusia  has  at  all  times  been  associated  with 
fertility.  Its  name  recalls  the  oranges  of  Seville,  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the 
Vega  of  Granada,  the  "  Elysian  Fields,"  and  the  "  Garden  of  the  ITcsperides," 
which  the  ancients  identified  with  the  valley  of  the  B:etis.  The  indigenous  flora 
entitles  Andalusia  to  its  epithet  of  the  "  Indies  of  Spain,"  and,  in  addition  to 


ANDALUSIA. 


403 


the  tropical  plants  from  Asia  and  Africa  which  grow  there  spontaneously,  we  meet 
with  others  which  have  been  successfully  acclimatized.  Dates,  bananas,  and  bam- 
boos grow  side  by  side  with  caoutchouc-trees,  dragon's-blood  trees,  magnolias, 
chirimoyas,  erythrinas,  azedarachs  ;  ricinus  and  stramonium  shoot  up  into 
veritable  trees  ;  the  cochineal  cactus  of  the  Canaries  and  the  ground-nut  of  the 
Senegal  do  well ;  pweet  potatoes,  cotton,  and  coffee  are  cultivated  with  success ; 
and  the  sugar-cane  succeeds  in  sheltered  places.  The  coast  between  Motril  and 
Malaga  is  supposed  to  yield  annually  £20,000  worth  of  sugar. 

The  fauna  of  Andalusia  presents,  also,  some  African  features.  The  molluscs 
met  with  in  Morocco  exist  likewise  in  Andalusia  ;  the  ichneumon  may  bo  seen  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Lower  Guadalquivir  and  elsewhere ;  the  chameleon  is  plen- 
tiful ;  and  a  species  of  wild  goat  is  said  to  be  common  to  the  mountains  of  Morocco 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada.     Nor  should  we  forget  to  state  that  an  African  monkey 


Fig.  153. — Zones  of  Vegetation  on  the  Coast  of  Axdalvsia. 


••<woriw 


LiniU  of  Dale  "^ccs 


Lint'it    uf  Oran(fc   TK'cs  . 


(Liiiiis  fij/JvaniiH)   still  lives  on  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  but  whether  he  has  been 
imported  has  not  yet  been  determined. 


In  the  dawn  of  European  historj"-  Andalusia  was  probably  inhabited  by  an 
rberian  race  akin  to  that  of  the  Basques.  The  Bastula;,  Bastarn?p,  and  Bastesao, 
in  the  hills  facing  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Turdotani  and  Turduli  of  the  valley 
of  the  Biictis,  bore  Euskarian  names,  as  did  many  of  their  towns.  But  even  thus 
early  they  must  have  been  a  mixed  i-ace.  Celtic  tribes  held  the  hills  extending 
to  the  north-west  of  the  B;X!tis,  in  the  diiection  of  Lusitania  ;  the  Turdetaui, 
who  were  relatively  civilised,  for  they  possessed  written  laws,  permitted  Phoe- 
nicians, Carthaginians,  and  Greeks  to  settle  among.st  them,  and  in  the  end  became 
thoroughly  Latinised.  Municipal  charters  discovered  at  Malaga,  and  more  recently 
at  Osuna  {Cohnici  Julia  Geiiifirri),  prove  that  the  cities  of  this  province  enjoyed  a 
considerable  degi'ee  of  self-government. 

When  the  Roman  world  broke  down,  Southern  Spain  was  invaded  by  Vandals, 


404  SPAKI. 

Byzantines,  and  Visis:otbs,  to  whom  succeeded  Arabs,  Berbers,  and  Jews.  The 
inHuence  exercised  upon  the  country  by  the  Moors — that  is,  by  a  mixed  race 
of  Arabs  and  Berbers — has  been  more  abiding  tlian  tliat  of  their  Teutonic 
predecessors.  They  maintained  themselves  for  more  than  seven  centuries,  were 
numerous  in  the  towns,  and  cultivated  the  fields  conjointly  with  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  the  country.  AVhen  the  order  of  exile  went  forth  against  their 
whole  race,  Moorish  blood  circulated  in  the  veins  of  those  who  were  charged  with 
the  execution  of  this  harsh  measure.  In  certain  portions  of  Andalusia,  and  more 
especially  in  the  Alpujarras,  where  the  Moors  maintained  their  independence  until 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  mixture  betwc^cn  the  two  races  had  made 
such  progress  that  religious  profession,  and  not  the  colour  of  the  skin,  decided 
nationality.  Numerous  Arabic  words  and  phrases  have  found  their  way  into  the 
Andalusian  dialect,  and  the  geographical  nomenclature  of  many  districts  is  Arabic 
rather  than  Iberian  or  Latin.  Most  of  the  large  buihlings  in  the  towns  are  cilcdzarx, 
or  mosques,  and  even  the  style  of  modern  structures  is  Arabic,  modified  to  some 
extent  by  Roman  influences.  The  houses,  instead  of  looking  upon  the  street,  face 
an  interior  court,  or  pafio,  where  the  members  of  the  family  meet  b}'  the  side  of 
a,  cool  fountain.  No  further  ethnical  element  has  been  added  to  the  population 
since  the  epoch  of  the  Arabs,  for  the  few  German  colonists  who  settled  at  Carolina, 
Carlota,  and  elsewhere  did  not  prosper,  and  either  returned  to  their  native  country 
or  became  merged  in  the  general  pojiidation. 

The  Andalusians  have  frequently  been  called  the  Gascons  of  Spain.  They  are 
generally  of  graceful  and  supple  build,  of  seductive  manners,  and  full  of  eloquence, 
but  the  latter  is  too  frequently  wasted  upon  trifles.  Though  not  devoid  of  bravery, 
the  Andalusian  is  a  great  boaster,  and  his  vanitj'  often  causes  him  to  pass  the 
bounds  of  truth.  At  the  same  time  he  is  of*  contented  mind,  and  does  not  allow 
poverty  to  affect  his  spirit.  The  mountaineers  differ  in  some  respects  from  tho 
dwellers  in  the  plains.  They  are  more  reserved  in  their  manners,  and  the 
Jdi-fiiKOx,  or  mountaineers  of  Jacn,  are  known  as  the  Galicians  of  Andalusia. 
The  beauty  of  the  highland  women  is  of  a  more  severe  type,  and,  compared  with 
the  charming  Gaditanes  and  the  fascinating  majaa  of  Seville,  the  women  of 
Granada,  Guadix,  and  Baza  are  remarkable  for  an  air  of  haughty  nobleness. 

No  doubt  there  are  men  in  Birtica  who  woik,  but  as  a  ride  love  of  labour  is  not 
amongst  the  virtues  of  the  Andalusian.  The  country  might  become  the  great 
tropical  storehouse  of  Europe,  but  its  immense  resources  remain  undeveloped.  To 
some  extent  this  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  nearly  the  whole  country  is  owned 
by  great  landlords.  Many  estates,  which  formerly  were  carefully  cultivated,  have 
been  converted  into  sheep-walks,  and  for  miles  we  meet  neither  houses  nor  human 
beings.  The  highlands,  too,  belong  to  large  proprietors,  but  are  leased  to  small 
farmers,  who  pay  one-third  of  their  product  in  lieu  of  rent. 

The  magnificent  orange  groves  of  Seville,  Sanlucar,  and  other  towns,  the  olive 
groves,  vineyards,  and  orchards  of  Malaga,  supply  the  world  with  vast  quantities 
of  fruit ;  its  productive  corn-fields  have  made  Andalusia  one  of  the  great  granaries 
of  the  world  ;  but  it  is  mainlj'  its  wines  which  enable  it  to  take  a  share  in  inter- 


ANDALUSIA.  405 

national  commerce.  Immense  quantities  of  the  wine  known  as  sherry  are  grown  in 
the  vineyards  of  Jerez,  to  the  east  of  Cadiz.  Many  of  the  vineyards  belong  to 
Englishmen,  and  merchants  of  that  nation  are  busily  occupied  in  blending  and 
other  operations  peculiar  to  their  trade.  Several  wines,  however,  maintain  their 
superior  character  to  the  present  time.  Such  are  the  sweet  tintilla  of  Rota, 
manzanilla,  and  pnjarate,  made  from  dried  grapes.  In  spite  of  many  malpractices, 
this  branch  of  industry  has  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence  upon  the  character 
of  the  population.  Santa  Maria,  on  the  Bay  of  Cadiz,  is  one  of  the  great  wine 
ports  of  the  world,  and  Spain  has  become  a  formidable  rival  of  its  northern 
neighbour.* 

The  ancient  manufacturing  industry  of  the  country  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist 
any  longer,  but  mining  is  still  carried  on.  Strabo  exaggerates  the  mineial 
wealth  of  the  country,  which  is  nevertheless  very  great.  Nearly  all  the  pro- 
ductive mining  districts  of  Southern  Spain  are  in  the  hills.  The  Sierra  de 
Gador  is  said  to  contain  "  more  metal  than  rock."  Hundreds  of  argentiferous 
lead,  copper,  and  iron  mines  have  been  opened  there,  and  in  the  sierras  of 
Guadix,  Baza,  and  Almeria.  Near  Linares,  on  the  Upper  Guadalquivir,  there  are 
lead  mines  yielding  about  210,000  tons  annually.  The  silver  mines  of  Constantina 
and  Guadalcanal,  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  are  being  worked  only  at  intervals.  The 
coal  basins  of  Belmez  and  Espiel,  to  the  north  of  Cordova,  promise  to  become  of 
great  importance,  although  the  output  at  present  hardly  exceeds  200,000  tons  a 
year.     Deposits  of  iron  and  copper  exist  near  them. 

But  of  all  the  mines  of  Spain  those  situated  in  the  province  of  Huelva  are 
the  most  productive.  The  Silurian  rocks  there  are  wonderfully  rich  in  pyrites  of 
copper.  The  mines  of  Rio  Tinto  strike  the  beholder  by  their  stupendous  extent ; 
and  the  existence  of  ancient  galleries,  buildings,  and  inscriptions  proves  that  they 
have  been  worked  since  the  most  remote  time.  The  invasion  of  the  Vandals 
temporarily  put  a  stop  to  the  work,  which  was  only  resumed  in  1730.  Tlie  two 
principal  deposits  have  been  computed  to  contain  no  less  than  300,000,000  tons 
of  ore.  The  deposits  at  Tharsis  are  much  less  extensive,  but  within  easier  reach 
of  Huelva.  They  contain  14,000,000  tons  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  and  are 
worked  like  an  open  quarry.  The  deposit  is  no  less  than  450  feet  in  thickness, 
and  some  of  the  ores  yield  twenty  per  cent,  of  copper.  Immense  heaps  of  scoria; 
have  accumulated  near  the  mine,  where  they  are  bedded  in  regular  strata  dating 
back  to  the  time  of  the  Carthaginians.  The  sulphurous  vapours  rising  from 
hundreds  of  furnaces  poison  the  air  and  destroy  the  vegetation.  The  rivers  Odiel 
and  Rio  Tinto  run  with  ferruginous  water  which  kills  the  fish  ;  yellow  ochre 
is  thrown  up  along  their  banks ;  and  in  their  estuary  is  precipitated  a  blackish 
mud  consisting  of  the  metal  mixed  with  tlie  sulphur  of  decomposed  marine 
animals,  t 

*  Export  of  wine  from  Cadiz  and  Santa  Mar'.a  :— 1858,  3,.')97,000  gallons;  ISO'.',  5,115,000  gallons; 
1873,  10,446,480  gallons,  valued  at  £2,937,000. 

t  In  1873  600,000  tons  of  pyrites  were  exported  from  the  district  of  Huelva,  of  which  340,000  tons 
came  from  the  mine  of  Tharsis. 


406 


SPAIN. 


Andalusia,  though  a  desert  in  comparison  with  what  it  mij^ht  bo,  rivals  Italy 
in  tho  lame  and  beauty  of"  its  cities.  Tlie  names  of  Granada,  Cordova,  Seville, 
and  Cadiz  awaken  in  our  mind  the  most  pleasing  memories,  for  these  old  Moorish 
towns  have  become  identified  with  a  great  advance  in  arts  and  science. 


Fig.  151. — The  JIines  oi-  IUelva. 
Scale  1  :  ■1«7,300. 


Rv 


■S 


V, 


1 


.  5  Miles. 


Their  advantageous  geographical  position  accounts  for  their  prosperity,  past 
and  present.  Cordova  and  Seville  command  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
and  the  roads  crossing  the  gaps  of  the  neighbouring  mountains  converge  upon 
them ;  Granada  has  its  plentiful  supply  of  water  and  rich  fields ;  Iluolva,  Cadiz, 


.J 
o 
a 


4 
(» 
o 

§ 
o 

o 

QQ 

E-1 
iZ! 

<! 
00 

<! 


ANDALUSIA.  407 

Malaga,  and  Almeria  are  considerable  seaports  ;  and  Gibraltar  occupies  a  command- 
ing position  between  two  seas.  There  are  other  towns  less  populous,  but  of 
great  strategical  importance,  as  they  command  the  roads  joining  the  valleys  of  the 
Genii  and  Guadalquivir  to  the  sea. 

Amongst  the  smaller  towns  which  have  played  a  part  In  history  are  several  to 
the  east  of  Granada,  such  as  Velez  Rubio  and  Yelez  Blanco,  on  the  Mediterranean 
slope;  Cullar  de  Baza,  with  its  subterranean  houses  excavated  in  the  gypsum,  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Vertientes,  or  "  the  water-shed  ;  "  Huescar,  the  heir  of  an 
old  Carthaginian  city  ;  and  Baza,  environed  by  a  fertile  plain  known  as  Hoi/a, 
or  "  the  hollow." 

Granada,  though  it  celebrates  the  anniversary  of  the  entrance  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  Is  a  very  Inferior  place  to  wliat  It  was  as  the  capital  of  a  Moorish 
kingdom,  when  It  had  60,000  houses  and  400,000  Inhabitants,  and  was  the  busiest 
and  wealthiest  town  of  the  peninsula.  It  is  still  the  sixth  city  of  Spain,  but 
thousands  of  Its  ragged  Inhabitants  live  In  hideous  dens,  and  close  to  the  picturesque 
suburb  of  Albalcin  a  mob  largely  composed  of  gipsies  has  settled  down  in  nauseous 
caverns.  Remains  of  Moorish  buildings  are  met  with  only  In  the  suburb  named,  but 
at  some  distance  from  the  city  there  still  exist  edifices  which  bear  witness  to  the 
glorious  reign  of  its  ancient  masters.  The  Torres  Vcrmojus,  or  "  red  towers," 
occupy  a  hill  to  the  south ;  the  Generalife,  with  Its  delightful  gardens,  crowns 
another  hill  farther  east ;  and  between  them  rise  the  bastions  and  towers  of  the 
AUiamhra,  or  "red  palace,"  even  in  Its  present  dilapidated  condition  one  of 
the  masterpieces  of  architecture,  which  has  served  as  a  pattern  to  generations 
of  artists.  From  the  towers  of  this  magnificent  building  we  enjoy  a  prospect 
■which  indelibly  Impresses  Itself  upon  the  memory.  Granada,  with  its  towers, 
parks,  and  villas,  lies  beneath.  The  course  of  the  two  rivers.  Genii  and  Darro, 
can  be  traced  amidst  the  foliage,  whilst  naked  hills  bound  the  verdant  jilain 
of  La  Vega,  which  has  been  likened  to  an  "  emerald  enchased  In  a  sapphire." 
The  contrast  between  these  savage  mountains  and  the  fertile  plain,  between  the 
beautiful  city  and  precipitous  rocks,  struck  the  Moors  with  admiration,  for  they 
saw  reflected  In  them  their  own  nature — an  outward  impasslveness  and  a  hidden 
fire.  Granada,  to  them,  was  the  "  Queen  of  Cities,"  the  "  Damascus  of  the  West." 
Nor  are  the  modern  Spaniards  behind  them  In  their  admiration  of  Granada  and 
its  vicinity. 

There  are  other  beautiful  towns  In  the  basin  of  the  Genii,  but  none  can  com- 
pare with  Granada,  not  even  Loja,  a  "  flower  In  the  midst  of  thorns,"  an  oasis 
surrounded  by  rugged  rocks  and  savage  defiles.  Jaen,  however,  almost  rivals 
Granada.  It,  too,  was  the  seat  of  a  powerful  Jloorlsh  king,  the  hills  surround- 
ing It  are  still  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  fortifications  buried  beneath  luxuriant 
foliage,  and  the  aspect  of  the  town  remains  oriental  to  this  day. 

The  upper  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir  abounds  In  cities.  Baeza  had  more  than 
150,000  inhabitants  In  the  time  of  the  Moors,  but  wars  depopulated  it,  many  of 
the  people  removing  to  Granada.  Close  by  Is  Ubeda,  another  Moorish  town. 
Higher  up  in   the  hills  Is  the  mining   town  of  Linares,  hardly  large  enough  to 


40H 


Sl'Al.V. 


shelter  8,000  residents,  but  actually  iiiliuLitcd  by  40,000.  In  descending  tb.e 
river  we  puss  Andujar,  famous  on  account  of  its  ah-arrazan,  and  about  twenty  miles 
below  the  town  of  Montoro  we  reach  the  marble  bridge  of  Alcoloa,  celebrated 
for  the  many  battles  which  have  been  fought  for  its  possession. 

Cordova  dates  back  to  the  dawn  of  civilisation.  It  has  been  famous  and 
powerful  at  all  times,  and  the  Spanish  noblemen  are  proud  of  tracing  their 
origin  back  to  this  fountain-head  of  the  "  blue  blood  "  {mugre  aziil)  which  is  sup- 
posed to  flow  in  the  veins  of  Spanish  nobles.  It  was  under  the  Moors  that 
Cordova  reached  the  apogee  of  its  grandeur ;  from  the  ninth  century  to  the  close 

Fig.  155. — The  Aliiamiiua. 


of  the  twelfth  it  had  nearly  a  million  of  inhabitants ;  and  its  twenty-four  suburbs 
spread  far  and  wide  over  the  plain  and  along  the  lateral  valleys.  The  wealth  of 
its  mosques,  palaces,  and  private  houses  was  prodigious ;  but,  more  glorious  still, 
Cordova  could  boast  of  being  the  "  nursery  of  science,"  for  it  was  the  greatest 
university  of  the  world,  abounding  in  schools  and  libraries.  Civil  wars,  foreign 
invasions,  and  religious  fanaticism  led  to  the  dispersion  of  its  libraries,  and 
Cordova  can  no  longer  boast  of  being  the  first  city  of  Andalusia.  Most  of  the  old 
monuments  have  perished,  but  there  still  exists  the  marvellous  mrzquita,  or  mosque, 
built  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  century  by  Abderraliman  and  his  son.      The 


ANDALUSIA.  409 

interior  -was  fitted  up  in  the  most  lavish  manner,  the  floors  being  paved  with  silvei-, 
and  the  walls  covered  with  gold,  precious  stones,  ivory,  and  ebony,  but  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  building  has  been  pulled  down  to  make  room  for  a  Spanish 
cathedral. 

The  more  fertile  districts  of  the  province  of  Cordova  are  at  some  distance  from 
the  Guadalquivir,  in  the  hills  to  the  south.  Montilla,  one  of  the  towns  there,  is 
noted  for  its  wines,  as  are  Aguilar,  Baena,  Cabra,  and  Lucena,  the  latter  boasting 
likewise  of  some  manufactures.  Between  Cordova  and  Seville,  a  distance  of  over 
ninety  miles,  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  river,  we  do  not  meet  with  a  single 
town  of  note,  for  even  Palma  del  Eio,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Genii,  is  only  a  small 
place,  though  of  some  importance  as  the  outlet  of  Ecija,  a  large  town  higher  up  the 
Genii. 

Seville,  the  reigning  queen  of  Andalusia,  boasts  of  a  few  remarkable  buildings, 
including  the  alcazar,  a  gorgeous  cathedi-al,  and  the  palace  known  as  "  Pilate's 
House,"  in  which  the  Renaissance  is  admirably  wedded  with  the  Moorish  style. 
But  more  famous  than  either  of  these  is  Giralda's  Tower,  with  the  saint's  revolvinar 
statue  on  the  top,  like  a  weathercock.  But  neither  these  buildings  nor  Murillo's 
fine  paintings  have  won  Seville  its  epithet  of  "Enchantress."  For  this  it  is 
indebted  to  its  gaiety  and  to  a  succession  of  fetes,  amongst  which  bull-fights  figure 
prominently.  Seville  became  Spanish  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Its  citizens  valiantly  defended  their  municipal  liberties  against  the  King  of  Castile, 
but  they  were  defeated,  and  most  of  its  inhabitants  then  fled  to  Barbary.  The 
town  was  repeopled  by  Christian  emigrants.  Triana,  however,  a  suburb  with 
which  an  iron  bi'idge  connects  it,  is  inhabited  by  gipsies,  whose  secret  tribunal 
has  its  seat  there.  A  short  distance  to  the  north  of  Triana  are  the  ruins  of  the 
amphitheatre  of  Italica,  the  old  rival  of  Seville,  and  the  native  town  of  SiHus 
Italicus,  and  of  the  Emperors  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Theodosius.  Coria,  another 
Roman  city,  which  had  its  own  mint  during  the  Middle  Ages,  lies  below  Seville. 

Seville  has  numerous  potteries,  but  its  silks  and  stuflTs  interwoven  with  gold 
and  silver  have  ceased  to  command  the  markets  of  the  world.  The  larffest  manu- 
factory  of  the  place,  that  of  tobacco  and  cigars,  is  carried  on  by  Government,  and 
employs  several  thousand  workmen. 

Alcala  de  Guadaira,  to  the  south-east  of  Seville,  supplies  the  latter  with  bread, 
and  its  delicious  springs  feed  the  aqueduct  known  as  Arcos  de  Carmona,  thus 
called  because  it  runs  parallel  with  the  old  Roman  road  leading  to  Carmona 
(Carmo). 

The  towns  to  the  south  of  Seville  are  no  longer  of  importance.  Utrera,  the 
most  considerable  amongst  them,  is  a  great  railway  centre,  where  the  line  to 
the  marble  quarries  of  Moron,  and  that  passing  through  the  fertile  districts  of 
Marchena  and  Osuna,  branch  off  from  the  Andalusian  main  line.  The  town  is 
well  known  to  aficionados,  or  sportsmen,  on  account  of  the  wild  bulls  which  pasture 
in  the  neighbouring  marismas.  Lebrija,  with  its  fine  tower  imitated  from  that  of 
Giralda,  is  still  nearer  to  these  marshes,  which  extend  almost  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Guadalquivir. 


•Ill)  SPAIN. 

Sunlucar  tie  Burramcda,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guathiltiuivir,  with  its  wliite  and 
pink  houses  shaded  bj'  palms,  is  not  now  the  great  port  it  was  in  the  time  of  the 
Arabs.  It  may  justly  boast  of  having  sent  forth,  in  1519,  the  first  vessel  which 
circumnavigated  the  globe,  but  it  is  now  rather  a  pleasure  resort  than  a  place  of 
commerce.  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  in  the  basin  of  the  Guadalete,  is  the  busiest 
town  between  Seville  and  Cadiz.  It  is  a  neat  and  showy  place,  surrounded  by 
immense  bodegas,  or  wine  vaults,  in  which  are  stored  the  wines  grown  in  the  fertile 
valley  of  Guadalete,  and  known  as  sherry.  Near  Arcos  de  la  Frontera,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  vallcv,  is  pointed  out  tlio  site  upon  which  was  fought  the  finious 
battle  which  delivered  Spain  to  the  Mussulmans. 

The  Bay  of  C4diz,  so  well  sheltered  against  winds  and  waves  by  the  tongue  of 
Liiid  which  begins  at  the  island  of  Leon,  is  surrounded  by  numerous  towns, 
forming,  as  it  were,  but  a  single  city.  Rota,  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  bay,  is 
encircled  by  walls  of  cj'clopean  aspect.  It  is  the  resort  of  fishermen,  and  its 
vintners,  though  reputed  Boeotians,  produce  one  of  the  best  wines  of  Spain. 
Farther  south,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalete,  is  the  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria,  with 
its  wine  stores,  at  all  times  a  bustling  place.  Puerto  Real,  the  Poifiifi  Gai/it'iiiiix, 
lies  in  a  labyrinth  of  brackish  channels,  and  is  now  merely  a  landing-place.  The 
neighbouring  dockyard,  known  as  Trocadero,  and  the  arsenal  of  Carraca,  are  fre- 
quently inhabited  only  by  galley-slaves  and  their  gaolers.  The  salt-puns  near  that 
place  are  most  productive. 

San  Fernando  is  the  most  important  town  on  the  island  of  Leon,  to  the  south 
of  Cadiz.  The  initial  meridian  of  Spanish  mariners  is  drawn  through  its  observa- 
tory. Looking  across  the  navigable  channel  of  San  Pedro,  which  separates  the 
island  from  the  main,  we  perceive  the  villas  of  Chiclana,  famous  as  the  training- 
place  of  the  toreros,  or  bull-fighters,  of  Andalusia.  Turning  to  the  north,  we  reach 
the  narrow  ridge  of  the  Arrecife,  which  may  be  likened  to  a  stalk  with  Cadiz  as 
its  expanded  flower.  Boatmen  point  out  the  supposed  ruins  of  a  temple  of 
Hercules,  now  covered  by  the  sea  ;  and  thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  land  is  at 
present  subsiding,  though  this  subsidence  must  have  been  preceded  by  an  ujjheaval, 
as  the  peninsula  upon  which  Cadiz  has  been  built  rests  upon  a  foundation  of  shells, 
oysters,  and  molluscs. 

We  pass  several  forts,  cross  the  ramparts  of  the  Cortadura,  erected  in  LSII, 
and  at  length  find  ourselves  in  the  famous  city  of  Cadiz,  the  heir  of  the  Gadir  of 
the  Phosnicians,  called  Gadira  by  the  Greeks,  and  Gades  by  the  Romans.  Cadiz 
was  the  leading  city  of  Iberia  when  that  country  first  became  known.  Like  other 
cities,  it  has  known  periods  of  decay,  but  its  great  geographical  advantages  have 
always  enabled  it  to  recover  quickly.  It  is  the  natural  outlet  of  an  extensive  and 
fertile  region,  and  its  position  near  the  extremity  of  the  continent  enables  it  suc- 
cessfully to  compete  with  liisbon  for  the  trade  of  the  New  "World.  Palos  may 
boast  of  having  sent  forth  the  ei/rdre/a.s  which  discovered  the  "West  Indies,  but  it 
was  Cadiz  which  reaped  all  the  advantages  of  this  discovery,  more  especially 
since  the  Tribunal  of  the  Indies  was  transferred  to  it  from  Seville  (1720).  In 
1792   Cadiz    exported  merchandise  valued   at    £2,000,000   sterling    to    America, 


ANDALUSIA. 


411 


Fiff.  156. — Cadiz  and  its  Roadstead. 


Scale  of  1  .  itoooo. 


I ■■■"-''■'      I  ODVTtS. 


1MB  Salt-  foM. 


\£JJiJjiUadomt,  Vuu/ardi ,  Gtirdrnj^  6c 


412  SPALV. 

and  received  precious  mctuls  and  other  articles  of  a  value  of  £7,000,000  in 
return.  Soon  afterwards  Spain  paid  for  a  commercial  monopoly  maintained 
during  three  centuries  hy  the  sudden  loss  of  her  colonies,  and  Cadiz  found  itself 
dependent  upon  its  fisheries  and  salt-pans.  But  recently  fortune  has  again  smiled 
upon  the  city,  and  its  harbours  are  crowded  with  merchantmen.*  Cadiz,  with  the 
towns  surrounding  its  bay,  has  a  population  of  '200,000  souls.  The  site  of  the  city 
proper  is  limited  by  nature,  and  its  houses  have  been  built  to  a  height  of  five  and 
six  stories.  The  inhabitants  are  fond  of  pleasure,  vivacious,  and  quick  at  repartee. 
They  have  at  all  times  shown  themselves  to  be  good  patriots,  and  it  was  on  the 
island  of  Leon  that  the  Cortes  met  to  protest  against  the  occupation  of  the  country 
by  the  French. 

Alraoria,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Andalusia,  rivalled  Cadiz  in  importance 
as  long  as  it  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Moors,  but  prosperity  fled  the  place 
immediately  the  Spaniards  occupied  it.  Subsequently  the  town  suffered  greatly 
from  the  pirates  of  Barbary,  as  is  proved  by  the  fortress-like  cathedral  built  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  aspect  of  the  place,  with  its  narrow  streets  and  old  kasha, 
is  quite  oriental. 

The  towns  to  the  west  of  Almcria  have  a  tropical  climate  and  tropical  produc- 
tions. Dailas,  said  to  be  the  first  permanent  settlement  of  the  Arabs,  is  famous  for 
its  raisins ;  to  it  succeed  Adra,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  of  Alpujarra, 
Motril,  Yclez  Malaga,  and  Malaga,  embosomed  in  gardens  watered  by  the 
Guadalmedina. 

Malaga,  like  most  of  the  ports  on  that  coast,  is  of  Phoenician  origin,  and  the 
most  populous  town  of  Andalusia.  Less  rich  than  Granada,  Cordova,  and 
Seville  in  Moorish  monuments,  or  than  Cadiz  in  historical  traditions,  it  is  indebted 
to  its  port  and  to  the  fertile  countrj'  surrounding  it  for  its  commercial  pre- 
eminence. Its  exports,  consisting  of  raisins  (pasas),  almonds,  figs,  lemons,  oranges, 
wine,  olive  oil,  &c.,  are  the  product  of  the  immediate  vicinity.  There  are  foundries, 
sugar  refineries,  and  factories.  Seen  from  the  sea,  the  cathedral  appears  to  be 
almost  as  large  as  the  rest  of  the  town,  but  in  the  latter  must  be  included  not 
only  the  houses  standing  at  the  foot  of  the  citadel  of  Gibralfaro,  but  also  the 
numerous  villas  dotting  the  surrounding  hills.  Nay,  even  the  picturesque  towns 
and  watering-places  in  the  neighbouring  mountains,  such  as  Alora,  Alhaurin, 
Carratraca,  and  Alhama,  may  be  looked  upon  as  dependencies  of  the  city,  for 
scarcely  any  but  Makigiictios  resort  to  them. 

Antequera  and  Honda,  in  the  interior  of  the  countrj-,  belong  to  the  basin  of 
the  Mediterranean,  for  the  one  stands  on  the  Guadalhorce,  which  enters  the  sea 
near  Malaga,  whilst  the  other  occupies  a  position  in  the  upper  basin  of  the 
Guadiaro,  which  washes  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  San  Roque,  to  the  north,  of 
Gibraltar.  Antequera  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of  Spiiin,  and  acts  as  an 
intermediary  between  ilalaga  and  the  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir.  On  a  hill  near 
it  stands  a  curious  dolmen,  twenty  feet  in   height,  known  as   Ciicva  del  Mengal. 

•  In   1874  3,039  vessels,  of  616,000  tons  Imrden,  entered  ;  the  importii  liad  a  value  of  £633,700,  the 
exports  (consisting  for  the  most  part  of  wine)  of  £3,1 16,000. 


ANDALUSIA. 


Ui 


The  picturesque  iloorisli  town  of  Honda  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  gorge 
600  feet  in  depth,  120  to  300  feet  wide,  and  spanned  by  three  bridges,  one  Roman, 
one  Arab,  and    the  last  (built   1740- — 88)   Spanish.      Ronda  still  possesses  some 


Fig.  157. — Gibraltar. 

Scale  1  :  150,000. 


/  SjR.jtjue-^!; 


I'M-  ,r  ' 


./if;. 


1 


^'^^%-^- 


■jr,-  A  p':-f,- 


^^=**^ 


/><^t*..  O  (aoM  Path  ' 


■iJIiles. 


strategical  importance,  for  it  defends  the  road  leading  from  the  valley  of  the  Genii 
to  that  of  the  Guadiaro.  The  Eoiuhno>s  are  noted  for  the  skill  with  which  they 
train  horses  for  mountain  travel.     They  are  notorious  smugglers,  as  are  also  many 

30 


414  SPAIN. 

of  the  iiilialiitants  of  the  small  seaport  towns  of  Murbella,  Estcpona,  and  Algeciras, 
near  Gibraltar.* 

The  rock  of  Gibraltar,  of  which  the  English  obtained  possession  in  1704,  has 
not  only  been  converted  into  a  first-rate  fortress,  hut  is  likewise  a  busy  place  of  com- 
merce. Gibraltar  produces  nothing  except  a  little  fruit,  and  most  of  its  provisions, 
including  meat  and  corn,  are  imported  from  Tangicrs,  in  Morocco.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  town  are  dependent  for  their  support  upon  passing  vessels,  the  English 
garrison,  and  a  brisk  contraband  trade  with  Spain.  Gibraltar  affords  very  indif- 
ferent shelter,  and  only  one-fourth  of  the  vessels  passing  through  the  strait  call 
there,  and  even  these  generally  confine  themselves  to  rcplenisliing  their  stock  of 
coal.  Nor  is  a  residence  on  this  picturesque  rock  very  jileasuruble,  for  fevers 
prevail,  and  the  military  character  of  the  place  entails  numerous  restrictions. 
During  the  heat  of  summer  many  of  the  English  residents — facetiouslj'  called 
"  lizards  of  the  rock  " — seek  refuge  at  San  Roque,  a  village  to  the  north  of  the 
bay,  the  neighbourhood  of  which  affords  excellent  sport.t 

IV. — The  Mkditkukaxka.v  Si.opk  oi-  tiik  Gkeat  Pi.aieau. 
MuRciA  AND  Valencia.:!: 

In  a  few  hours  we  aie  able  to  travel  from  the  inhospitable  plateaux  to  the  hot 
valleys  and  plains  of  Murcia  and  Valencia  dcboucliing  upon  the  Jrediterrancaii. 

The  spurs  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  ajiproach  the  coast  to  the  north  of 
the  Cabo  de  Gata,  are  separated  by  rambhts,  or  torrent  beds,  and  grad\uilly  decrease 
in  height  as  we  proceed  north.  The  torrent  of  Almanzora  separates  the  Sierra  de 
los  Filabros  from  its  northern  continuation,  the  Sierra  de  Almenara,  which  for  a 
considerable  distance  runs  p:irallel  with  the  coast.  It  sends  out  a  spur  in  the 
direction  of  Cartagena,  which  terminates  in  Cibo  de  Palos.  The  inland  ranges 
run  almost  parallel  with  this  coast  range,  and  arc  separated  by  longitudinal  valleys 
opening  out  into  the  great  transverse  one  of  the  Segura.  These  ranges  are  the 
Sierra  de  Maria,  "cl  Gigante"  (4,918  feet),  with  the  Sierra  de  Espuna  (o,190  feet), 
the  Sierra  de  Taibilla,  the  Calar  del  Mundo  (•J,410  feet),  and  the  Sierra  de  Alcaraz 

•  Approximate  population  of  the  principal  towns  of  Amlahi«iii : — 

Cadiz,  62,000 ;  Jerez,  35,000 ;  Chiclana,  22,000 :  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria,  IS.OOO ;  San  Fernando, 
18,000;  Sanlficar  de  Barrameda,  17,000;  Puerto  Koal,  14,000;  Arcos  de  la  Frontera,  12,000;  Algeciriis, 
18,000  ;    Medina  Sidonia,  10,500. 

Huelva,  10,000. 

Seville  (Sevilla),  80,000  ;  Ecija,  24,000;  Carmona,  18,000;  Osuna.  16,000,  I'trira,  14,000;  LeLrija, 
12,000;  Marehcna,  12,000. 

C6rdova,  45,000;  Luccn.i,  16,000;  Montill.a,  15,500;  Montoro,  12,000:  Aguilar,  12,000;  Bacna, 
14,500;  Cabra,  11,500. 

Jucn,  18,000;  Linares,  40,000;  Ulieda,  15,000;  liaeza,  15,000:  .Mcal.'i  la  Uial,  11,500;  Andtijar, 
9,500. 

Granada,  6.5,000  ;  Loja,  15,000;  Mutril.  l.'?,500:  Paza,  13.500. 

JIalaga,  92,000  ;  Antcquora,  30,000  ;  Velez  Malaga,  1 5,UU0  :   Honda,  14,000. 

Almeria,  27,000;   Vclez  Ruliio,  13,000. 

+  Gibraltar  in  1871  had  16,454  inhabitants,  extlusive  of  the  military:    its  annual  revenue  exceeds 
XIO,000,  and  the  burden  of  the  vessels  which  enter  and  clear  annually  amounts  to  3,500,000  tons. 
X  Murcia    ....     10,450  square  miles.  060,040  inhabitiints,  or  63  to  a  si],  m. 

Valencia      .     .     .       8,890  „  1,401,833  „  158         „ 


a 

s 


<1 


ML'ECLi  AND  VALEXCIA.  415 

(5,910  feet).  The  ranges  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  Segura  must  be  looked  upon 
as  continuations  of  those  mentioned.  They  attain  their  greatest  altitude  in  the 
Moncabrcr  (4,543  feet),  and  their  spurs  form  several  notable  promontories,  amongst 
which  are  the  volcanic  I'efion  de  Ifach  and  the  Cabos  de  la  Xao  and  San  Antonio. 
Near  the  latter  rises  the  Mongo  (2,337  feet),  which  has  become  known  as  a  crucial 
trigonometrical  station. 

The  mountains  which  dominate  the  valley  of  the  Jucar  present  the  feature  of 
a  denuded  plateau,  above  which  rise  a  few  isolated  summits.  The  aspect  of  the 
basin  of  the  Guadalaviar  is  far  more  mountainous.  On  the  west  it  is  bounded 
by  the  sierras  having  their  nucleus  in  the  Muela  de  San  Juan  (5,280  feet),  and  to 
the  east  rise  the  imposing  mountain  masses  of  the  Javalambre  (6,569  feet)  and 
Pefia  Golosa  (5,942  feet).  The  summits  of  the  range  which  extends  from  the 
latter  to  the  great  bend  of  the  Lower  Ebro,  such  as  the  Muela  de  Ares  (4,332  feet), 
the  Tosal  de  Encanades  (4,565  feet),  and  Bosch  de  la  Espina  (3,868  feet),  bear 
Catalan  names.  A  range  of  inferior  heights  runs  parallel  with  it  along  the  coa.st, 
the  interval  between  the  two  forming  a  strath,  or  vale.  This  coast  range  termi- 
nates abruptly  in  the  Sierra  de  llontsia  (2,500  feet),  close  to  the  delta  of  the  Ebro, 
and  before  the  pent-up  waters  of  the  river  had  excavated  themselves  a  path  to  the 
sea  it  extended  right  to  the  Pyrenees. 

All  these  mountains  are  for  the  most  part  naked,  and  shru'  s  appear  like  black 
patches  upon  their  whitish  slopes.  They  stand  out  clearly  against  the  blue  and 
limpid  sky,  whose  transparency  has  won  Murcia  the  title  of  the  "  most  serene 
kingdom."  The  climate  in  the  valley  of  the  Segura  is  even  moie  African  in  its 
character  than  that  of  Andalusia.  There  are  only  two  seasons,  summer  and 
winter,  the  latter  lasting  from  October  to  January,  but  the  temperature  throughout 
the  year  is  equable,  owing  to  the  mistral  which  blows  from  the  cool  plateau 
and  the  sea  breezes. 

The  flora,  especially  along  the  coast  of  Murcia,  is  a  mixture  of  tropical  and 
temperate  plants.  There  are  trees  which  shed  their  leaves  in  winter,  others  which 
retain  their  foliage  throughout  the  year,  and  by  the  side  of  wheat,  rice,  maize, 
olives,  oranges,  and  grapes  are  grown  cotton,  sugar-cane,  sweet  potatoes,  nopals, 
agaves,  and  dates.  Tropical  diseases  have  found  a  congenial  soil  in  this  country. 
Yellow  fever  has  been  imported  occasionally  from  America.  The  putrefying 
substances  left  upon  the  fields  after  floods  poison  the  air,  and  the  brackish  waters 
of  the  lagoons,  or  allniffrm,  are  the  breeding-places  of  fever.  The  salt  lakes  to  the 
south  of  the  Segura,  however,  exercise  no  deleterious  influence  upon  the  climate. 

Nowhere  else  in  Spain  is  the  rainfall  so  inconsiderable.  Between  Almeria  and 
Cartagena  only  eight  inches  fall  during  the  year ;  in  the  environs  of  Alicante  and 
Elche  the  rains  are,  perhaps,  a  trifle  more  copious;  and  at  Murcia  and  Valencia,, 
which  lie  at  the  foot  of  mountains  that  intercept  the  moisturc-ladcn  winds,  they 
are  more  abundant  still,  though  even  there  they  do  not  exceed  eighteen  inches. 
Moreover,  most  of  the  rain  is  immediately  absorbed  by  the  thirsty  air,  and  only  a 
verj'  small  quantity  finds  its  waj' through  ;'ffMi///rt.s  to  the  sea.  The  quantity  is  alto- 
gether insufficient  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  rivers  the 


410 


SI 'ATX. 


country  would  be  a  desert.  Cultivation  is  carried  on  only  along  the  rivers  and  in  a 
lew  other  favoured  spots.  Veritable  steppes  extend  on  both  banks  of  t.hc  Segura. 
The  cainpos  between  Alinen'a  and  Villajoyosa,  for  a  distance  of  300  miles,  arc  sterile 


I'ii!;.  l.'iS. — Stf.I'I'Ks  of  Ml  iicia. 
Senile  1  :  UUJ.UOO. 


38' 


,...a,^^ 


'  y    '^MmJ/liliiiilli>'l\l\ 


10  Milcg. 


and  bare.  The  brine  and  magnesia  springs,  which  rise  at  the  foot  of  the 
suliferoiis  triassic  rocks,  fill  small  lakes,  which  dry  up  in  summer,  and  in  August 
the  lagoons  near  Orihuela  become  covered  with  a  thick  crust  of  salt. 


MUECIA  AND  VALENCIA.  417 

The  beneficent  rivers,  whose  waters  are  drunk  by  the  hucrim,  or  gardens,  near 
their  banks,  are  the  Segura,  Vinalapo,  Jucar,  Guadalaviar  (known  as  Turia  in  its 
lower  course),  Mijaros,  and  several  others.  They  all  resemble  each  other  as 
regards  the  ruggedness  of  their  upper  valleys  and  the  savageness  of  the  gorges 
through  which  they  pass.  The  Segura  forces  itself  a  passage  through  several 
mountain  defiles  before  it  reaches  the  plain  of  Murcia.  The  Jucar  and  Guadalaviar 
( Wad-el- Abiad,  or  "  white  river  ")  have  fewer  obstacles  to  overcome,  but  some  of 
the  gorges  through  which  they  pass  are  nevertheless  of  surpassing  beauty. 

The  volume  of  these  rivers  is  comparatively  small,  and  the  husbandmen  dwell- 
ing along  their  banks  economize  the  water  as  far  as  possible.  Reservoirs,  or 
pnntanos,  have  been  constructed  at  the  outlet  of  each  valley,  whence  the  water  is 
distributed  over  the  fields  by  means  of  innumerable  canals  of  irrigation.  The 
irrigated  huertas  contrast  most  favourably  with  the  cultivated  campos  in  their 
neighbourhood.  Irrigation  has  i^robably  been  practised  at  Valencia  since  the  time 
of  the  Romans,  but  the  Moors  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  construct  a  regular 
system  of  canals.  Eight  of  these,  ramifying  into  innumerable  acequias,  have 
converted  the  environs  of  Valencia  into  an  Eden.  Carefully  manured  as  they 
are,  these  fields  are  never  allowed  to  lie  fallow.  Stalks  of  maize  fifteen  and  even 
twenty-five  feet  in  height  may  be  seen  in  the  gardens,  the  mulberry-tree  yields 
three  or  four  harvests  annually,  four  or  five  crops  are  obtained  from  the  same 
field,  whilst  the  grass  is  mown  as  many  as  nine  or  ten  times.  This  luxuriant 
vegetation,  however,  is  said  to  be  watery,  and  hence  the  proverb,  "  In  Valencia 
meat  is  grass,  grass  is  water,  men  are  women,  and  women  nought." 

The  huertas  of  the  Jiicar,  though  less  famous  than  those  of  Valencia,  are  even 
more  productive.  Orange-trees  predominate,  and  around  Alcira  and  Carcagente 
alone  20,000,000  oranges  arc  picked  annually,  and  exported  to  Marseilles. 

The  oases  in  the  great  steppe  which  extends  from  Alcoy  to  Almeria  are  less 
fertile  than  those  on  the  Jucar  and  Guadalaviar.  That  of  Alicante  is  fertilised  by 
the  Castalla,  the  waters  of  which  are  collected  in  the  reservoir  of  Tibi.  The  huerta 
of  Elche,  on  the  Vinalapo,  is  chiefly  occupied  by  a  forest  of  palm-trees,  the 
principal  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  who  export  the  dates  to  France,  and  the  leaves 
to  Italy  and  the  interior  of  Spain. 

The  huerta  around  Orihuela,  on  the  Lower  Segura,  cannot  boast  of  a  palm  forest 
like  that  of  Elche,  but  is  more  productive.  The  inhabitants  of  Murcia,  higher  up  on 
the  same  river,  though  they  enjoy  similar  advantages,  have  failed  to  profit  by  them 
to  the  same  extent.  Their  huerta,  which  contains  a  third  of  the  total  population 
of  the  province,  is  fertile,  but  cannot  compare  with  that  of  their  neighbours.  Nor  do 
the  fields  of  Lorca  equal  them.  The}-  have  not  yet  recovered  from  the  bursting  of  a 
reservoir,  the  freed  waters  of  which  carried  destruction  as  far  as  Murcia  and  Orihuela. 

The  moral  and  physical  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  exhibiting 
such  great  contrasts  could  hardly  fail  to  present  corresponding  diflerences,  and, 
indeed,  wo  find  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  fertile  gardens  and  those  of  the  barren 
steppes  and  mountains  differ  essentially,  in  spite  of  their  common  origin. 


418 


SrAIN. 


Tlic  people  f)f  Murcia  cannot  be  said  to  have  issued  victoriously  from  the  struj;<jle 
against  barren  roeks,  desiecating  winds,  and  a  dry  atmosphere.  They  abandon 
themselves  to  a  fatalism  quite  oriental,  and  make  hardly  any  effort  at  improvement. 
Lazily  inclined,  they  take  their  siesta  in  and  out  of  time,  and  even  when  awake 
preserve  an  aspect  of  impassivcncss  as  if  they  pursued  a  reverie.  Thev  are  not 
much  given  to  gaiety,  and,  though  neighbours  of  Andalusia  and  I^a  ]\Iancha,  do 
not  dance.     They  are  full  of  rancour  and  savage  hatred  when  ofiended,  and  have 

Fig.  159. — The  Palm  Gkove  of  Elche. 


exercised  but  small  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  Spain.  Thej'  cannot  compare  in 
industry  with  Catalans,  Xavarrese,  and  Galicians,  nor  in  intelligence  with  natives 
of  any  other  part  of  Spain.  The  Valencians,  on  the  other  hand,  are  an  industrious 
race.  They  not  only  cultivate  their  plains,  but  scale  the  barren  slopes  of  the  rocks 
with  their  terraced  gardens.  They  are  a  gay  people,  famous  for  their  dances. 
Ferocious  instincts  are  asserted  to  underlie  this  outward  gaiety,  and  a  proverb  says 
that  "  the  paradise  of  La  Huerta  is  inhabited  by  demons."    Human  life  is  held  very 


PEASANTS  OF  LA   HUEETA,   AND   CIGAEEERA   OF   VALENCIA. 


MUECIA  AND  VALENCIA. 


419 


cheaply  in  Valencia.  Formerly  that  town  supplied  the  courtiers  of  Madrid  with 
hired  assassins,  and  the  numerous  crosses  in  and  around  it  are  evidence  of  so  many 
murders  committed  in  the  heat  of  passion.  In  Valencia,  however,  the  use  of  the 
knife  is  a  tradition  of  chivalry,  as  are  duels  in  some  other  parts  of  Europe.  The 
conscience  of  the  murderer  is  perfectly  at  ease ;  he  wipes  the  blood-stained  knife 
upon  his  girdle,  and  immediatel}'  afterwards  cuts  his  bread  with  it.  The  dress  of 
the  Valencians  consists  of  loose  drawers  confined  round  the  waist  by  a  red  or  violet 
scarf,  velvet  waistcoats  with  jiieces  of  silver,  white  linen  gaiters  leaving  the  knees 
and  ankles  bare,  a  bright  kerchief  wrapped  round  the  shaved  head,  and  a  low  hat 


Fig.  IGO. — The  Palm  Grove  of  Elche  and  the  Huertas  of  Orihvela. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


''i'lll:,''',!'.!!^-.—-' :zl. 


with  brim  turned  up  and  ornamented  with  ribbons.  A  many-coloured  cloak  with 
a  broad  fringe  completes  this  costume,  and,  draped  in  it,  even  the  meanest  beggar 
possesses  an  air  of  distinction.  In  their  customs  and  modes  of  thought  the 
Valencians  differ  equally  from  their  neighbours.  They  speak  a  Provencal  dialect, 
mixed  with  many  Arabic  words,  but  more  closely  related  to  the  language  of  the 
troubadours  than  the  dialect  of  the  Catalans. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  pursuit  of  Valencia  and  Murcia,  and  a  few  branches 
of  industry  are  carried  on.  Many  hands  are  occupied  in  making  the  white  wines 
of  Alicante  and  the  red  ones  of  Vinaroz  and  Benicarl6  ;  the  grapes  of  the  vine- 
yards of  Denia,  Javea,  and  Gandia,  to  the  north  of  Cabo  de  la  Nao,  are  converted 


420 


SPAIN. 


by  a  complicated  process  into  raisins;  and  the I'sjmrto  f/r<i>!K  growinj^  abundantly  on 
the  sunny  slopes  of  Albacete  and  Murcia  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  mats, 
baskets,  sandals,  and  a  variety  of  other  objects.*  There  are  hundreds  of  metal- 
liferous lodes,  but  only  the  lead  mines  in  the  hills  of  Ilerrerias,  to  the  east  of 
Cartagena,  are  being  worked  on  a  large  scale,  and  that  by  foreigners.  Zinc  has 
been  worked  since  18G1,  and  mines  of  copper,  lead,  silver,  mercury,  and  rock-salt 


Fig.  ICl. — lltiNs  OF  THE  Dyke  of  the  Ricseuvoiu  ahove  Lohca. 


abound  at  some  distance  from  the  coast ;  but,  from  want  of  means  of  communication, 
their  exploitation  would  not  pay. 

Valencia  is  the  more  industrial  province  of  the  two.  Albacete  manufactures 
the  dreaded  navajas,  or  long  knives ;  Murcia  has  silk-mills  ;  Cartagena  rope-walks 
and  other  cstablisliments  connected  with  shipping;  Jiitiva  has  a  few  paper-mills; 
but  ^'alencia  and  Alcoy  are  now  the  great  centres  of  industry.    The  former  manu- 

•  82,000  tons  of  esparto  gr.assaieettimaUd  lo  h;ive  been  coUccled  iu  1873,  of  which  C7,000  (ouuwere 
exported  lo  England. 


MUECIA  AND  VALENCIA.  421 

factures  the  plaids   worn  by  the  peasantry,  silks  and  linens,   earthenware  and 

Fig.  162. — Peasants  of  Mubcia. 


glazed  tiles.     Alcoy  supplies  most  of  the  paper  for  making  Spanish  cigarettes. 


422  SPAIN. 

The  towns  of  Albacctc  and  Almansa  arc  important,  as  lying  on  tlic  groat  liigh- 
roatl  which  connects  the  plateau  of  I^a  ^[anclia  with  the  Mediterranean  seaboard- 
Eut  they  cannot  vie  in  wealth  and  population  with  the  towns  situated  on  the  coast, 
or  within  twenty-five  miles  of  it.  Lorca,  the  southernmost  of  these  towns,  lies 
picturesquely  on  the  slopes  and  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  crowned  by  a  ^loorish  citadel. 
The  old  town,  with  narrow  tortuous  streets  and  the  remains  of  Arab  palaces,  has 
been  given  up  to  Gitanos,  and  a  new  town  with  wide  and  straight  streets  built 
in  the  fertile  plain  irrigated  by  the  Guadalentin.  A  fine  road  joins  Lorca  to  the 
small  harbour  of  Aguilas,  twenty  miles  to  the  south. 

In  descending  the  valley  of  the  Guadalentin  we  pass  Totana,  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Gitanos  of  the  country,  and  Alhama,  well  known  on  account  of  its  hot 
springs,  and  finally  enter  the  mulberry  and  orange  groves  which  surround  the 
capital  of  the  province.  ^lurcia,  though  an  extensive  citj',  hardly  looks  like  it,  for 
its  streets  arc  deserted,  its  houses  without  beauty,  and  the  only  objects  of  interest 
are  the  cathedral,  the  shady  walks  along  the  banks  of  the  Segura,  and  the  canals 
irrigating  the  terrace  gardens.  Far  more  interesting  is  the  neighbouring  Carta- 
gena, which  was  destined  by  its  Punic  founders  to  become  a  second  Carthage 
in  truth,  and  its  magnificent  harbour  certainly  affords  great  advantages  for  com- 
mercial and  military  purposes.  The  discovery  of  the  rich  lead  and  silver  mines 
near  the  town  contributed  much  towards  its  prosperity.  Successive  Spanish 
Governments  have  attempted  to  restore  to  Cartagena  its  ancient  strategical  impor- 
tance. They  have  constructed  docks  and  arsenals,  and  erected  impregnable 
fortifications,  but,  in  spite  of  this,  the  population  of  the  town  is  hardly  a  third  of 
what  it  was  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  character  of  its 
commerce  is  almost  local,  notwithstanding  its  excellent  port,  and  esparto  grass, 
mats,  fruits,  and  ore  constitute  the  leading  articles  of  export. 

Alicante,  though  far  less  favoured  by  nature,  is  a  much  busier  place,  thanks  to 
the  fertility  of  the  huertas  of  Elche,  Orihuela,  and  Alcoy,  and  the  railway  which 
connects  it  with  Madrid.  Only  small  vessels  can  approach  the  qua}\s  and  piers  of 
the  town,  nestling  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  rock  crowned  by  a  dismantled  citadel. 
Larger  vessels  are  compelled  to  anchor  in  an  open  roadstead.  Other  coast  towns 
of  Valencia,  such  as  Denia  and  Cullera,  offer  still  less  shelter,  but  are  nevertheless 
much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels.  Formerly  vessels  which  entered  the  Bay 
of  Valencia  during  winter  were  bound  to  exercise  the  greatest  caution,  owing  to 
violent  easterly  and  north-north-easterlj'  winds  and  fogs,  for  there  existed  not 
a  single  port  of  refuge.  This  want  has  now  been  supplied  by  the  construction 
of  a  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalaviar,  known  as  El  Grao  (strand)  de  Valencia. 

Valencia,  the  fourth  city  of  Spain  in  population,  is  the  natural  centre  of  the 
most  fertile  huertas.  The  "  City  of  the  Cid  "  still  preserves  its  crenellated  walls, 
turrets,  gates,  narrow  and  tortuous  streets,  balconied  houses,  the  windows  of  which 
are  shaded  by  blinds,  and  awnings  spread  over  the  streets  to  protect  passers-by 
from  the  raj's  of  the  sun.  Amongst  its  numerous  buildings  there  is  but  one  which 
is  really  curious  :  this  is  the  Lovja  de  Seda,  or  silk  exchange,  a  graceful  structure 
of  the  fifteenth  centurv.     Gardens  constitute  the  real  delight  of  Valencia,  and 


MUECIA  AND  VALEXCIA. 


423 


the  Alamed:!,  wliich  extends  along  the  banks  of  the  Guaddlaviar,  is,  perhaps,  the 
finest  citj-  promenade  in  Europe.  The  commerce  of  Valencia  rivals  that  of  Cadiz.* 
To  the  north  of  Valencia  the  cultivable  country  along  the  coast  is  narrow,  and 
incapable  of  supporting  large  towns.  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  at  the  moutli  of  the 
Mijaros,  has  attained  a  certain  importance,  but  farther  north  we  only  meet  with 
small  places  inhabited  by  fishermen  and  vine-growers.  Formerly  the  coast  road 
was  defended  by  castles,  chief  among  which  was  Saguntum,  famous  for  its  glorious 

Fig.  163. — The  Harbour  of  C.^rtagexa. 
Scale  1 :  54,000. 


o^:>K'  w  '.r  cr 


'i ;.-... 


LfseaDoV**"^^ 


'  1  Mile. 


defence  against  Hannibal.     Its  site  is  occupied  by  the  modern  town  of  ilurviedro, 
i.e.  "old  walls,"  and  its  ruins  are  not  very  imposing.f 


V. — The  Balearic  Islands. 
The  Balearic  Islands  are   attached  to  the  mainland  of  Spain  by  a  submarine 

•  Value  of  exports  and  imports  in  1867,  £2,707,000. 

t  Population  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Mediterranean  slope  between  Calio  de  Gata  and  the 
Ehro :— Valencia,  108,000;  JIurcia,  5.3,000;  Lorca,  40,000;  Alicante,  31,000:  Cartagena,  25.000;  Ori- 
hnela,  21,000 ;  Castellon  de  la  Plana.  20,000;  Alcoy,  16,000;  Albaeete,  15.000;  Jativa,  13,000;  ^Ucira, 
13,000  ;  Almansa,  9,000. 


424 


SPAIN. 


plateau,  and  arc  geographically  us  well  as  historically  a  dependency  of  Valencia 
and  Catalonia.  The  ranges  of  hills  traversing  these  islands  have  the  same  direction 
as  those  of  Murcia  and  Valencia.  On  the  other  hand,  the  peninsula  of  La  Bafia, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  extends  beneath  the  sea  in  the  direction  of  Ibiza,  and 
from  this  submarine  tongue  of  land  rises  a  group  of  volcanic  rocks.  These  are  the 
Colinnbretes,  from  the  Latin  coliihrarid,  signifying  "  serpents'  islets." 

The  Baleares  are  small  in  area,  but  favoured  by  climate,  productiveness,  and 
natural  beauty.  They  are  the  "  Happy  Islands  "  of  the  ancients,  and,  compared 
with  many  of  the  const  lands,  are  indeed  a  favoured  region.     "War  and  pestilence 

I"ig.  164. — El  Ghao  ds  Valencia. 
Scale  1  :  18,000. 


500  Yards. 


have  been  no  strangers  to  them,  but  continual  troubles  have  not  interfered  with 
their  development. 

The  islands  consist  of  two  groups,  the  Pityuses  and  the  Baleares  proper.  The 
name  of  the  latter  is  said  to  refer  to  the  expertness  of  the  natives  as  slingers  ;  and, 
■when  Q.  Metcllus  prepared  to  land  upon  them,  he  took  care  to  shelter  his  men 
beneath  an  awning  of  hides.  The  climate  is  moister  and  more  equable  than  that 
of  neighbouring  Spain.     Violent  storms  occur  frequently. 

The  structures  called  laliiijots  (watch-towers)  prove  that  the  islands  were 
inhabited  before  the  historic  epoch.  These  were  built  probabh'  by  the  same  race 
to  whom  thcnuraghi  of  Sardinia  owe  their  existence;  but  the  present  population  is 
a  very  mixed  one,  for  every  nation  of  antiquity  has  successively  invaded  the  island. 


WOMEN  OF  IBIZA,  BALEARIC  ISLES. 


THE  B-ILEAEIC  ISLANDS.  425 

The  language  spoken  is  a  Catalan  dialect  resembling  that  of  Limousin.  The 
Majorcans  are  generally  small  of  stature,  but  well  proportioned,  and  the  women  of 
some  of  the  districts  are  famed  for  their  beauty  and  expressive  features.  The 
peasantry  are  suspicious  and  thrifty,  but  honest  and  hospitable ;  and  their  dress, 
consisting  of  loose  breeches,  a  belt,  a  bright-coloured  vest,  and  a  goatskin  cloak,  is 
picturesque.    Dancing  to  the  music  of  a  guitar  or  flute  is  their  favourite  amusement. 

Ibiza  (Iviza),  the  largest  island  of  the  Pityuses,  is  hardly  more  than  fifty  miles 
from  Cabo  de  la  Nao.  Its  surface  is  hilly  and  intersected  by  numerous  torrent  beds. 
Puerto  Magno  (Pormany,  or  Grand  Port)  lies  on  the  west  side,  and  a  similar  bay, 
the  trysting-place  of  numerous  fishing-smacks,  on  the  south  side.  On  its  shore 
stands  the  capital  of  the  island,  an  ancient  Carthaginian  colony.  A  chain  of  islets 
and  rocks,  similar  to  the  Adam's  Bridge  of  Ceylon,  joins  the  southernmost  cape  of 
Ibiza  to  Formentera  Island.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  so  salubrious  that  neither 
serpents  nor  other  noxious  reptiles  can  bear  it.  The  population  is  small,  in  spite  of 
the  fertility  of  the  island.  Watch-towers  and  castles  of  refuge  near  every  village 
recall  the  time  when  the  inhabitants  suffered  from  Moorish  pirates.  The  islanders 
are  happy,  for  the  central  Government  leaves  them  pretty  much  to  themselves. 

JIallorca,  or  Majorca,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  the  only  one  which  can 
boast  of  a  regular  range  of  mountains,  rising  precipitously  along  the  north-western 
coast,  and  culminating  in  the  twin  peaks  of  Silla  de  Torrella  (-1,940  feet)  and 
Puig  Mayor  (4,920  feet).  These  mountains  are  amongst  the  most  picturesque  in 
all  Europe,  and  from  their  summits  may  be  enjoj'ed  a  magnificent  prospect.  The 
moufHon  is  said  still  to  haunt  their  pine  woods  and  recesses.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  island  consists  of  a  plain  lying  at  an  elevation  of  150  feet  above  the  sea- 
level,  and  dotted  over  with  isolated  pnigs,  or  conical  peaks,  surmounted  in  man)' 
instances  by  an  old  church  or  castle.  The  eastern  extremity  of  the  island  is  hilly, 
and  the  Bee  de  Farruch  (1,863  feet)  still  bears  its  old  Arabic  name.  Near  it  are 
the  wonderful  stalactite  caverns  of  Arta,  which  extend  beneath  the  sea.  The 
extremities  of  the  most  depressed  portion  of  the  island  open  out  towards  two  great 
bays,  one  in  the  north-east,  the  other  in  the  south-west.  Palma,  the  capital  of  the 
island,  lies  on  the  former  of  these,  though  the  other,  known  as  Puerto  de  Alcudia, 
would  offer  greater  advantages  were  it  not  for  the  pestilential  swamps  which 
surround  it.  On  the  iron-bound  northern  coast  there  are  no  harbours,  but  coast- 
ing vessels  frequent  the  creek  of  Seller,  whence  the}'  export  oranges. 

The  peasants,  or  pafjcses,  of  Majorca  have  the  reputation  of  being  good  agricul- 
turists, but  much  of  the  progress  made  is  due  to  Catalan  immigrants.  The  island 
produces  delicious  wines  (Benisalem),  olive  oil,  oranges,  vegetables,  and  pigs,  all 
of  which  find  a  market  at  Barcelona  or  in  France.  The  corn  grown  is  not, 
however,  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  population,  and  Majorcans  as  well  as 
"  Mahonian  "  gardeners  are  met  with  in  every  town  of  the  Mediterranean.  Bay- 
salt  is  made  at  Cape  Salinas.  Shoes,  cottons,  linens,  baskets,  and  porous  vases  are 
produced  ;  but  the  manufacture  of  majoUca  has  ceased.  Palma  is  a  busy  place  of 
40,000  inhabitants,  and  its  bastioned  walls,  castle,  cathedral,  and  amphitheatrically 
built  houses  present  a  fine  appearance  from  the  sea.     The  inhabitants  are  proud  of 


420 


SI 'A  IN'. 


their  public  buildings,  and  assert  that  their  loiija  is  superior  to  that  of  Valencia. 
The  Chiivtds,  or  converted  Jews,  are  a  curious  element  of  the  population.  They 
occupy  a  separate  quarter,  marry  amongst  themselves,  and  have  preserved  their 
race  distinctions  and  mercantile  genius.  A  large  portion  of  the  landed  property 
of  the  island  has  passed  into  their  hands.  A  railway  traversing  the  rich  districts 
of  Santa  Maria  and  Benisalcni,  to  the  south  of  the  populous  towns  of  Mauacor 
and  Fulanitx,  connects  Palinii  with  Alcudia.* 

Menorc.'V,  or  Mi.NoucA,  twenty-four  miles  to  the  east  of  Majorca,  is  generally 


Fig.  1G5. — The  Ualeaiuc  Isl.vnds. 
Scile  1  :  3,700,000. 


■4  »■ 


y. 


i[,rolanibiTtr,^ 


Ihiy.n 


i  ililistf.s 


f   '^{ 


H. 


^ 


Depth  !»■<■»  thiui 


J 


o\'t-i  II"'-'  K" 


60  MUes. 


level,  its  culminating  point,  Monte  Toro,  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  only  attaining 
a  height  of  1,171  feet.  The  strong  northerly  winds  which  sweep  over  its  plains 
cause  the  trees  to  turn  their  branches  in  the  direction  of  Africa,  and  orango-trees 
find  shelter  only  in  the  Imrraucas,  or  ravines,  which  intersect  them.  The  climate  is 
less  pleasant  than  that  of  the  neighliouring  island,  and  the  soil  less  fertile,  for, 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  limestone,  it  rapidly  absorbs  the  rain.  There  are 
two  ports  and  two  cities,  one  at  each  extremity  of  the  island,  whicli  from  time 

•  Towns  of  Maj' rca  :— Palma,  40,000;    Maiincor,  1.5,000;    Ftlanitx,  IC.^OO;    Mmlimnyor,   8,800; 
PoUiDza,  8,000  ;  Iiica,  8,000  ;  Seller,  8,000  ;    Santai'iia,  8,000. 


ARAOON  AND  CATALONIA. 


427 


Imiiieinorial  have  claimed  precedence.  Ciudadela  (7,500  inhabitants)  enjo3's  the 
advantage  of  closer  proximity  to  IMajorca,  but  its  harbour  is  bad.  Tort  Mahon 
(15,000  inhabitants),  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  an  admirable  port,  and  Andreas 
Doria  saj-s  with  reference  to  it  that  "  June,  J  uly,  and  Mahon  are  the  best  ports 
of  the  Mediterranean."  The  English  made  Mahon  a  wealthy  city,  but  its  trade 
fell  off  immediately  when  they  abandoned  it  in  1802. 

Fisr.  IGC. — View  of  Ibiza. 


VI. — The  Vai.i.ky  of  the  Euro.     Aragox  and  Catalonia. 

The  central  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Ebro  is  as  distinctly  separated  from  the 
remainder  of  Spain  as  is  that  of  the  Guadalquivir.  It  forms  a  vast  depression, 
bounded  by  the  midland  plateau  of  Spain  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  if  the  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean  were  to  rise  1,000  feet,  this  ancient  lake,  which  existed  until 
its  pent-up  waters  had  forced  themselves  a  passage  through   the  mountains   of 


428 


SPAIN. 


Catiilonia,  would  be  converted  into  a  gulf  of  the  sea.  The  Pyrenees  in  the  north, 
the  barren  slopes  of  the  plateaux  to  the  south  and  south-west,  form  well-defined 
boundaries,  but  in  the  norlh-we.st  the  plain  of  the  Ebro  extends  beyond  Aragon, 
into  a  country  inhabited  by  men  of  a  different  race. 


Fig.  167.— Thb  PiTvxjshg. 

S(ule  \  •■  400,000. 


-"I-''" 


^^^^— ^—  5  Miles. 

Ilistorically  and  geographically,  Aragon  and  Catalonia  form  one  of  the  great 
natural  divisions  of  Spain,  less  extensive  than  the  Castile.s,  but  hardly  less  impor- 
tant, and  far  more  dcnselj'  populated.*  The  political  destinies  of  Aragon  and 
Catalonia  have  been  the  same  for  more  than  seven  centuries,  but,  in  spite  of  this, 

•  Cat.-iloni.i,  12,4S3  square  miles,  1,778;-108  inhaliltanis:  Aragon,  17,G76  square  miles,  92S,718 
inh.ibitunts. 


AEAGOX  AND  CATALONIA.  429 

there  exist  great  contrasts,  which  have  not  been  without  their  influence  upon  the 
character  of  the  population.  Aragon,  a  countrj*  of  plains  surrounded  by  moun- 
tains, is  an  inland  province,  and  its  inhabitants  have  remained  for  the  most  part 
herdsmen,  agriculturists,  and  soldiers.  Catalonia,  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  an 
admirable  seaboard.  Its  natural  wealth,  joined  to  favourable  geographical  position, 
has  developed  commerce  with  neighbouring  countries,  and  more  especially  with 
Roussillon  and  Languedoc.  Indeed,  seven  or  eight  centuries  ago,  the  Catalans 
were  Provencals  rather  than  Spaniards,  and  in  their  language  and  customs  they 
were  closely  related  to  the  people  to  the  north  of  the  Pyrenees. 

In  the  course  of  the  great  political  revolution,  the  most  terrible  feature  of 
which  was  the  war  of  the  Albigenses,  Catalonia  became  a  prey  to  the  Castilians. 
As  long  as  the  Provencal  world  maintained  its  natural  centre  between  Aries  and 
Toulouse,  the  populations  of  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  as  far  as  the  I-'bro,  Yalencia, 
and  the  Baleares,  were  attracted  towards  it  as  to  their  common  focus.  Those 
Christian  populations  who  found  themselves  placed  between  Provence  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  Arab  kingdoms  on  the  other,  naturally  gravitated  towards  the 
former,  with  whom  they  possessed  community  of  race,  religion,  and  language. 
Hence  the  wide  range  of  the  idiom  known  as  Limousin,  and  its  flourishing 
literature.  But  when  an  implacable  war  had  converted  several  towns  of  the 
Albigenses  into  deserts ;  when  the  barbarians  of  the  North  had  destroyed  the 
civilisation  of  the  South,  and  the  southern  slopes  of  theCevennes  had  been  reduced 
by  violence  to  the  positicn  of  a  political  dependency  of  the  valley  of  the  Seine, 
Catalonia  was  forced  to  look  elsewhere  for  natural  allies.  The  centre  of  gravity 
was  shifted  from  the  north  to  the  south,  from  Southern  France  to  the  peninsula  of 
the  Pyrenees,  and  Castile  secured  what  Provence  had  lost. 

The  plateau  to  the  south  of  the  Ebro  has  been  cut  up,  through  the  erosive 
action  of  rivers,  into  elongated  sierras  and  isolated  muelas  (molars),  and  its  edge  is 
marked  by  numerous  notches,  through  which  these  rivers  debouch  upon  the  plain. 
The  Sierra  de  San  Just  (4,967  feet),  now  separated  from  that  of  Giidar  by  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Guadalupe,  is  a  remnant  of  this  ancient  plateau,  as  are  the 
Sierras  de  Cucalon  (4,284  feet),  de  Vicor,  and  de  la  Yirgen,  which  join  it  to 
the  superb  mass  of  the  Jloncayo,  in  the  north-west ;  and  the  same  applies  to  the 
Sierra  de  Almenara  (4,687  feet),  which  rises  to  the  west  of  them. 

The  granitic  mountain  mass  of  the  Moncayo  (7,705  feet)  has  offered  greater 
resistance  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  waters  than  have  the  cretaceous  rocks  of  the 
])lateau  to  the  east  of  it.  The  Moncayo  is  the  storm-breeder  of  the  plains  of 
Aragon,  and  from  its  summit  the  Castilian  can  look  down  upon  the  wide  valley  of 
the  Ebro.  To  the  Aragonese  the  plateau  is  accessible  only  througli  the  valleys  of  the 
Guadalupe,  Martin,  and  Jiloca,  and  it  is  these  which  have  enabled  them  to  obtain 
possession  of  the  upland  of  Teruel,  which  is  of  such  strategical  importance,  from 
its  commanding  position  between  the  basins  of  the  Guadalaviar,  Jiicar,  and  Tajo. 

To  the  north  of  the  Ebro  rises  the  snow-clad  range  of  the  Pyrenees,  which 
separates  Spain  from  the  rest  of  Europe.     Several  sjjurs  descend  from  this  master 
range  into  Aragon.     But  there  are  also  independent  ranges,  one  of  which,  that  of 
31 


480 


SPAIN. 


the  Riirdoiias,  rises  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Ebro,  right  opposite  to  the 
gigantic  Moncayo.  The  parallel  ridges  of  the  Castellar  and  of  the  "  district  of  the 
Five  Towns"  form  a  continuation  of  these  hillocks  to  the  east  of  the  Arba,  and 
then,  crossing  the  valley  of  the  Gallego,  we  reach  the  barren  terraces  of  the 
Monegros,  upon  which  rises  the  insular  Sierra  de  Alcubierra,  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  ancient  lake  of  Aragon.  A  saddle,  elevated  only  1,247  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  connects  the  latter  with  the  mountains  of  Huesca  in  the  north. 

Several  mountain  masses  of  considerable  height  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
country,  and  separate  these  riverine  hills  from  the  main  range  of  the  Pyrenees. 
They   consist  for  the  most  part  of  chalk,  through    which   the  bounteous  rivers 

Fig.  168.— Port  JIahojj. 
Scale  1  :  50,000 


7\. 


(.'/••--•vi  '■•'■■■.  ■  1  -■-    - 


■1. 1  Tnrco    jr> 


descending  from  the  Pyrenees  have  excavated  their  beds.  These  channels,  with 
their  precipices,  defiles,  and  cascades,  form  one  of  the  most  picturesque  mountain 
districts  of  Spain.  The  most  famous  of  these  Pyrenean  foot-hills  is  the  Sierra  de 
la  Pefia,  which  is  separated  from  the  Pyrenees  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Aragon. 
At  the  eastern  extremity  of  this  chain,  high  above  the  ancient  city  of  Jaca,  rises 
the  pyramidal  sandstone  mass  of  the  Peila  de  Oroel  (5,804  feet),  from  which  we 
are  able  to  embrace  an  immense  horizon,  extending  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Moncayo.  The  wild  district  which  occupies  the  centre  of  this  magnificent  pano- 
rama is  the  famous  country  of  Sobrarbe,  held  in  high  veneration  by  patriotic 
Spaniards,  for  it  was  there  they  commenced  their  struggles  against  the  Moors. 


AEAGON  AXD  CATALONIA.  431 

An  elevated  saddle  connects  the  Sierra  de  la  Pefia  with  the  irregular  mountain 
mass  of  the  Sierra  de  Santo  Domingo,  to  the  south  of  it,  whose  spurs  descend  in 
terraces  into  the  rugged  plain  of  the  Five  Towns.  It  is  separated  by  a  narrow 
cleft,  through  which  passes  the  Gallego  from  the  Sierra  de  Guara,  which  extends 
to  the  river  Cinca  in  the  east,  and  several  minor  chains  run  parallel  with  it.  This 
parallelism  in  the  mountain  ranges  may  be  traced,  likewise,  as  far  as  the  river  Segre. 

The  Monsech,  thus  called  from  its  arid  calcareous  ravines,  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  an  unbroken  rampart  from  the  south,  but  is  intersected  at  right  angles  by 
the  gorges  of  two  ]\'ogueras — the  Ribagorzana  and  Pallaresa.  The  Pefia  de  San 
Gervas  and  the  Sierra  de  Boumort,  which  rise  to  the  north  of  it,  are  much  less 
regular  in  their  contours,  but  exceed  it  in  height. 

The  Pyrenees  terminate  with  the  gigantic  mountains  surrounding  the  valley  of 
Andorra,  and  with  the  Peak  of  Carlitte  (9,583  feet).  The  Sierra  del  Cadi  (8,322 
feet)  belongs  to  a  detached  chain  hardly  inferior  to  them  in  height,  and  culminat- 
ing on  French  soil  in  the  superb  pyramid  of  the  Canigou  (9,140  feet).  Xumcrous 
spurs  extend  from  this  sierra  towards  the  sea. 

In  this  rugged  mountain  region  we  meet  with  geological  formations  of  every 
age,  from  the  Silurian  to  the  cretaceous.  Iron,  copper,  and  even  gold  abound, 
and  might  be  woj-kcd  with  great  profit  if  roads  and  railways  penetrated  into  the 
upper  valleys.  A  coal-field  on  the  Upper  Ter,  near  San  Juan  de  las  Abadesas, 
is  being  worked  very  sluggishl}-,  and  others  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cadi 
have  not  even  been  touched.  The  famous  rocks  of  salt  at  Solsona  and  Cardona  lie 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  del  Cadi,  and  that  of  Cardona  alone,  though  it  has  been 
worked  for  centuries,  is  estimated  to  contain  nearly  400,000,000  cubic  yards. 

The  abvmdance  of  mineral  veins  is  due,  perhaps,  to  the  existence  of  subter- 
ranean lava  lakes.  The  only  volcanic  hills  in  the  north  of  Spain  are  those  near 
Olot  and  Santa  Pau,  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Fluvia.  Immense  sheets  of  basaltic 
lava  have  been  ejected  there  during  the  tertiary  age  from  fourteen  craters,  one  of 
them,  upon  which  stands  the  old  town  of  Castelfollit,  forming  a  huge  rampart  of 
picturesque  aspect.  Jets  of  steam  issue  even  now  from  many  fissures  in  the 
rocks. 

The  mountains  along  the  coast  of  Catalonia  resemble  in  every  respect  those  of 
Valencia,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  the  gorge  of  the  Ebro.  >'ear  the 
mouths  of  that  river  the  rugged  and  mountainous  region  extends  about  thirty  miles 
inland,  as  far  as  the  Llanos  del  Urgel ;  but  farther  north  it  widens,  until  it  finally 
merges  in  the  spurs  descending  from  the  Pyrenees.  The  principal  summits  are 
the  Mont  Sant  (0,.j13  feet),  the  Puig  de  Montagut  (2,756  feet),  the  Monserrat 
(4,057  feet),  and  :Monseny  (5,276  feet).  The  best-known  passes  are  at  the  head 
of  the  Francoli,  through  which  runs  the  railway  from  Tarragona  to  Lerida,  the 
pass  at  the  head  of  the  Jso3'a,  and  the  Pass  of  Calaf. 

Of  the  last-named  mountains  that  of  Monserrat  is  the  most  famous,  for 
suspended  upon  one  of  its  flanks  hang  the  remains  of  the  celebrated  monastery 
in  which  Loyola  deposited  his  sword.  Monserrat  has  lost  its  prestige  as  a  holy 
place,  but  still   remains  one   of  the  most    interesting   subjects  for  the  study  ot 


482  Sl'AlN. 

geologists.  It  consists  of  conglomerate,  and  has  been  worn  by  atmospheric 
agencies  into  innumerable  pillars,  pinnacles,  and  earth  pyramids  surmounted  by 
huge  boulders.  Hermitages  and  the  ruins  of  castles  abound,  and  the  prospect 
from  the  highest  summit  extends  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Ualcaric  Isles. 

Crossing  the  valleys  of  the  Llobregat  and  Ter,  we  reach  the  swampj'  plain  of 
Ampurdan,  an  old  gulf  of  the  sea,  and  with  it  the  north-eastern  extremity  of 
Spain,  separated  from  France  by  the  Alberes  Mountains.  The  surrounding  hills 
abound  in  the  remains  of  ecclesiastical  buildings.  One  of  these,  near  Cabo  de 
Crcus,  the  easternmost  promontory  of  Spain,  and  the  Aphrodision  of  the  ancients, 
marks  the  site  of  a  temple  of  Venus. 

The  basin  of  the  Ebro  forms  a  huge  triangle,  the  mountains  of  Catalonia  being 
the  base,  whilst  its  apex  lies  in  the  hills  of  Cantabria,  close  to  the  Atlantic.  Tlie 
surrounding  hills  differ  much  in  height,  but  the  nucleus  of  all  consists  of  granite, 
upon  which  have  been  deposited  sedimentary  strata,  the  silent  witnesses  of  the 
gradual  filling  up  of  the  old  inland  lake.  The  river  itself  traverses  the  very  centre 
of  this  triangle,  at  right  angles  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  only  when  it  reaches  the 
mountain  barrier  separating  it  from  the  sea  does  it  wind  about  in  search  of  an  outlet. 

The  Fontibro,  or  "fountain  of  the  Ebro,"  gives  birtli  at  once  to  a  considerable 
stream,  which,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Peila  Labra,  rushes  with  great  impetuosity 
past  Reinosa  (2,687  feet),  then  passes  through  a  succession  of  defiles,  and  finally, 
having  received  the  Ega  and  Aragon  with  the  Argo  from  the  north,  emerges  from 
Is'avarra  a  great  river.  Below  Tudela  (800  feet)  it  is  large  enough  to  feed  two 
canals,  viz.  that  of  Tauste,  which  carries  fertility  into  the  once-sterile  tracts  at 
the  foot  of  Bardenas,  and  the  navigable  Imperial  Canal,  which  follows  the  valley 
down  to  Ziiragoza.  The  ordinary  volume  of  the  latter  amounts  to  no  less  than  494 
cubic  feet  per  second,  but  much  of  this  water  is  sucked  up  by  the  calcareous  soil. 

The  tributary  rivers  which  enter  the  Ebro  in  the  plains  of  Aragon  compensate 
for  the  loss  sustained  through  canals  of  irrigation.  The  Jalon,  Huerva,  Martin, 
and  Guadalupe  join  on  the  right ;  the  Arba,  Gallego,  and  Segrc  on  the  left.  This 
last  is  the  most  important  of  all,  for  it  drains  the  whole  of  the  Pyrenean  slope 
from  Mont  Perdu  to  the  Carlitte. 

The  Ebro,  after  its  junction  with  the  Segre,  immediately  plunges  into  the 
coast  ranges  of  Catalonia,  and  though  the  fall  thence  to  the  sea  amounts  to 
183  feet  in  O-j  miles,  no  rapids  or  cataracts  are  met  with.  The  suspended  matter 
brought  down  by  the  river  has  been  deposited  in  the  shape  of  a  delta  which  juts 
out  fifteen  miles  into  the  Mediterranean,  covers  an  area  of  150  square  miles,  and 
abounds  in  salt  marshes,  lagoons,  and  dead  river  arms.  A  canal,  twenty-two  miles 
in  length,  connects  the  harbour  of  refuge  at  Alfaques  with  the  Ebro,  but  is  not 
available  for  ships  of  great  draught,  owing  to  the  bar  which  closes  its  mouth. 
The  other  embouchures  of  the  river  are  likewise  closed  by  bars. 

The  volume  of  the  Ebro*  decreases  annually,  on   account  of  the   increasing 

•  Area  of  the  basin  of  the  Ebro,  2-5,100  square  miles;  discharge  during  floods,  17-5,000  cubic  feet, 
average,  7,100  cubic  feet ;  during  summer,  1,750  cubic  feet ;  annual  raiiifull,  18  inches ;  surface  drainage, 
1-4  inches;  proportion  between  the  two,  13  :  1. 


AEAGON  AND  CATALONIA.  433 

quantities  of  water  which  it  is  called  upon  to  furnish  for  purposes  of  irrigation, 
and  sooner  or  later  it  will  be  reduced  to  the  condition  of  the  rivers  of  Valencia. 

The  productiveness  of  the  irrigated  fields  of  Aragon  and  Catalonia  hears 
witness  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Even  saline  tracts  have  been  converted  into 
gardens.  Tropical  plants,  agaves,  cacti,  and  a  few  feathery  palms  on  the  coast  to 
the  south  of  Barcelona  recall  the  beautiful  landscapes  of  Southern  Spain.  The 
valley  of  the  Ebro  holds  an  intermediate  position  between  Murcia  and  Valencia 
and  the  bleak  plateau  and  mountains  of  the  interior ;  but  water,  except  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  rivers,  is  nowhere  abundant.  On  some  of  the 
hill-tops  may  be  seen  houses  the  walls  of  which  are  dyed  red,  because  it  was  found 
more  economical  to  mix  the  mortar  with  wine  than  to  convey  thither  water  for  that 
purpose.  This  deficiency  of  moisture  is  a  great  drawback  to  certain  districts  in 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Ebro.  The  greater  portion  of  Bardenas,  the  Monegros,  and 
the  terraces  of  Calanda  are  treeless  steppes.  Cold  and  heat  alternate  abruptly, 
without  reference  to  seasons,  and  the  climate,  in  spite  of  the  proximity  of  the  sea,  i.s 
quite  continental  in  its  character.  The  hot  winds,  so  much  dreaded  on  the  coast 
of  Catalonia,  do  not  blow  from  Africa,  but  from  the  parched  plains  of  Aragon. 

The  climate  of  Catalonia,  owing  to  the  breezes  blowing  from  the  Mediterranean, 
is  far  more  equable  than  that  of  Aragon,  and  to  this  circumstance,  no  less  than  to 
differences  of  race  and  greater  facilities  for  commerce,  this  province  is  indebted 
for  its  distinct  individuality.* 

Catalonia,  being  open  to  invasions  from  the  sea  as  well  as  by  land,  has  a  much 
more  mixed  population  than  its  neighbour  Aragon.  On  the  other  hand,  a  con- 
queror once  in  possession  of  the  latter  had  but  little  to  fear  expulsion  at  the 
hands  of  new-comers,  and  the  Moors  maintained  themselves  in  Aragon  three 
hundred  years  after  they  had  been  expelled  from  Barcelona. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  the  Ebro  are  ofiensively  haughty,  of  sluggish 
minds,  given  to  old  customs  and  superstitions,  but  they  are  at  the  same  time 
singularly  persistent,  and  their  bravery  does  credit  to  their  Celtiberian  ancestors. 
These  fine  broad-shouldered  men,  who  follow  their  donkeys  along  the  high-roads, 
the  head  enveloped  in  a  silken  kerchief,  and  the  waist  confined  by  a  violet-coloured 
belt,  are  at  all  times  ready  for  a  fight.  Up  to  the  close  of  last  century  it  was 
customary  to  get  up  fights  between  villages  in  mere  wantonness,  and  the  rondallas, 
a  term  now  employed  for  open-air  concerts,  scarcely  ever  terminated  without 
bloodshed.  In  trifles  the  Aragonese  are  as  stubborn  as  in  matters  of  importance, 
and  they  are  said  to  "  drive  in  nails  with  their  head."  For  several  centuries  thr 
Aragonese  struggled  with  the  Moors,  and  the  kings,  dependent  as  they  were  upon 
the  support  of  the  people,  felt  constrained  to  submit  to  a  considerable  limitation 
of  their  power.  It  was  Philip  II.  of  Castile  who  suppressed  these  ancient  pro- 
vincial privileges,  and  condemned  Aragon  to  lead  a  life  of  intellectual  stagnation. 

The  Catalans  are  as  self-opinionated  as  their  neighbours  the  Aragonese  ;  noisy 
quarrels  frequently  take  place  amongst  them;  but  they  rarely  come  to  blows.    They 

*  Zaragoza  : — Xreaii  temporaturo,  Ul°;  extremes,  106"  ami  iV :  difference,  S.i';  I'ainfall,  13-0  inches. 
Jiarcelona  : — Mean  temperatiue,  63° ;  extremes,  88"  and  32° ;  difference,  5(j° ;  rainfall,  15 •  7  inches. 


484  SrAIN. 

are  said  to  be  less  firm  of  character  than  the  Aragoncsc,  yet  tlicy  succeeded  in 
maintaining  their  provincial  independence  much  longer.  Few  towns  have  stood 
more  sieges  than  Barcelona,  and  fewer  still  have  offered  a  more  valiant  defence. 
The  Catalans  are  undoubtedly  industrious.  They  have  not  only  converted  the 
irrigable  valleys  facing  the  sea  into  gardens,  but  have  likewise  attacked  the  arid 
mountains,  and,  by  triturating  the  rocks  and  carrying  thither  soil  from  the  plain, 
have  made  them  produce  grapes,  olives,  and  corn.  Hence  the  proverb,  "  A 
Catalan  can  turn  stones  into  bread."  Agriculture,  however,  does  not  wholly 
supply  the  wants  of  so  dense  a  population,  and  Barcelona  with  its  suburbs  has 
become  a  huge  manufacturing  centre,  where  cottons,  woollens,  and  other  textile 
fabrics,  hardware,  chemical  preparations,  glass,  paper,  and  various  articles  are  pro- 
duced. The  province  of  Barcelona  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  cotton  industry  in  Spain, 
and  fully  deserves  to  be  called  the  Spanish  Lancashire.*  The  Catalans  are  a 
migratory  race.  They  are  met  with  not  only  in  every  other  province  of  Spain,  but 
in  all  the  Spanish  colonies.  Everywhere  they  are  reputed  for  llieir  thrift,  and  in 
Cuba  are  hated  as  rivals  or  masters  by  Creoles  and  blacks. 

The  towns  of  Aragon  and  Catalonia  present  the  same  contrasts  as  do  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  two  provinces.  Those  of  the  former  are  of  solemn  and  even  gloomy 
aspect,  whilst  the  picturesque  cities  of  the  maritime  province  are  full  of  bustle 
and  mirth.     The  former  represent  the  Middle  Age,  the  latter  our  modern  era. 

Zaragoza  (Saragossa)  is  most  favourably  situated  in  the  very  centre  of  tlie  plain 
of  Aragon.  It  has  its  JNIoorish  alcilzar  {the  Aljal'eria),  now  used  as  a  barrack; 
a  curious  leaning  tower  similar  to  that  of  I'isa ;  and  fine  promenades,  including 
the  Coso  and  shaded  walks.  But  prouder  than  of  all  these  attractions  are  the 
inhabitants  of  the  epithet  "  heroic,"  which  was  bestowed  upon  their  city  in  con- 
sequence of  the  valiant  resistance  it  offered  in  1808  and  ISO!),  when  they  not 
only  defended  their  homes,  but  also  their  patron  saint,  the  Virgen  del  Pilar. 

At  Zaragoza  a  few  wide  avenues  have  been  cut  through  the  labryinth  of  tor- 
tuous streets,  but  the  other  towns  of  the  province  have  preserved  their  physiognomy 
of  former  days.  Jaca,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Aragon,  between  the  Pyrenees 
and  the  Sierra  de  la  Pena,  with  its  grey  houses,  still  retains  its  turreted  walls  and 
ancient  citadel.  It  is  the  old  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Sobrarbe,  but  would  hardly 
be  mentioned  now  if  it  were  not  for  its  position  at  the  foot  of  the  Pass  of  Canfranc, 
and  the  neighbouring  monastery  of  La  Pefia.  ITuesca,  at  the  base  of  the  hills,  the 
Osca  of  the  Romans,  recalls  the  dominion  of  the  Ausks,  or  Euskarians.  Standing  in 
the  midst  of  an  irrigated  plain,  it  still  enjoys  a  certain  importance.  It  boasts  of  a 
richly  decorated  cathedral,  deserted  monasteries,  an  old  royal  palace  now  occupied 
by  the  university,  and  the  remains  of  a  turreted  wall.  Barbastro,  near  the  river 
Cinca,  occuj)ies  a  position  similar  to  that  of  Iluesca.  The  carriage  road  over  the 
Somport  connects  it  with  France. 

The  Arab  city  of  Calatayud,  on  the  river  Jalon,  is  commercially  the  second 
city  of  Aragon,  and  replaces  Bilbilis  of  the  Iberians,  which  stood  on  a  hill  near  it. 

•  In  1873  there  were  700  cotton-mills,  with  104,000  hands  and  1,400,000  spindles,  consuming  67,200,000 
lbs.  of  cotton. 


AEAGON  AlU)  CATALOXIA. 


435 


One  of  its  most  nauseous  suburbs  is  wholly  inhabited  by  mendicants.     Teruel,  on ' 
the  Guadalaviar,  the  chief  town  of  the  Maeztrazgo,  with  its  crenellated  walls  and 
turrets,  resembles  a  mediaeval  fortress.    The  Arab  tower  of  its  church  is  one  of  the 
curiosities  of  "  untrodden  "  Spain,  and  its  aqueduct,  which  crosses  a  valley  on  140 
arches,  is  a  remarkable  work  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Several  towns  of  the  interior  of  Catalonia  are  equally  venerable  in  their  aspect. 
"  Proud "  Puigcerda  (Puycerda),  close  to  the  French  frontier,  on  the  Upper  Se- 
gre,  is  hardly  more  than  a  collection  of  hovels  surrounded  by  a  rampart.     Seo  de 


Fig.  169. — The  Delta  of  the  Ebko. 
Si-ile  1  :  3-5,000. 


'  5  Miles. 


Urgel,  in  a  fertile  portion  of  the  same  valley,  is  no  doubt  of  some  importance  as  a 
fortress,  but  its  streets  are  dirty,  its  houses  mean,  and  its  mud  ^^■alls  dilapidated. 

Still  lower  down  the  Segre  we  meet  with  the  ancient  city  of  Lerida,  whose 
origin  dates  back  to  prehistoric  times,  and  which,  owing  to  its  strategical  position, 
has  at  all  times  played  a  prominent  part  in  military  history.  The  gardens  of 
Lerida  supply  much  produce  for  exportation,  but  the  place  cannot  rise  into  impor- 
tance until  the  Franco-Spanish  coast  railway  shall  have  been  completed. 

Tortosa,  a  picturesque  city  just  above  the  delta  of  the  Ebro,  and  formerly 
the  capital  of  an  Arab  kingdom,  commands  one  of  the  passages  over  the  Ebro, 


436 


SPAIN. 


and  its  coinmerco  would  increase  if  the  rJAcr  offered  greater  facilities  for  ii;ivi- 
gatioii. 

Tarragona  in  the  time  of  the  TIoiikiiis  was  the  great  maritime  outlet  of  tlic 
valley  of  the  Ebro.  The  city  was  then  nearly  forty  miles  in  circumference,  with 
arenas,  amphitheatres,  palaces,  temples,  and  aipieducts,  and  a  population  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands.  The  ruins  of  this  ancient  Tarraco  have  been  made  use  of  in 
the  construction  of  the  modern  city,  with  its  clumsy  cathedral,  towers,  decayed 
ramparts,  and  Roman  aqueduct  intersecting  the  suburban  orange  groves.  The 
manufacturing  town  of  Reus  may  almost  be  looked  upon  as  a  suburb  of  it,  and  is 
rapidly  increasing  in  population.  Near  it  is  the  monastery  of  I'oblet,  in  which 
are  deposited  the  remains  of  the  Kings  of  Aragon. 

Kig.  170. — TiiK  SxKrpEs  of  Aiiaoon-. 
Arcordiiig  to  Willkomm.     Scale  1  :  S.OyO.tOO. 


25  Miles. 


The  country  between  Tarragona  and  IJarcelona  is  densely  populated.  We  pass 
through  the  fertile  district  of  El  Panades,  the  equally  fertile  valley  irrigated  by 
the  reddish  waters  of  the  Llobrcgat,  with  towns  and  villages  in  rapid  succession, 
until  we  reach  the  suburbs  of  Barcelona.  The  city  proper  lies  on  the  sea,  at  the 
foot  of  the  fortifications  crowning  the  steep  heights  of  Monjuich.  There  is 
another  citadel  of  immense  size  to  the  east  of  the  city,  yet  this  latter  reposes  gaily 
beneath  its  batteries,  which  could  easily  reduce  it  to  ashes.  Barcelona  boasts  of 
being  the  great  pleasure  town  of  Spain.  Its  population  is  less  than  that  of 
Madrid,  but  there  are  more  theatres  and  concert  halls.  The  dramatic  performances 
are  of  a  superior  class,  and  the  taste  of  the  people  is  more  refined.  Tlie  public 
promenades,  such  as  the  Rambla,  occupying  the  bed  of  an  ancient  torrent,  the 


2i 

O 

a 


E- 


-J 


2! 

3 


AEAGON  AND  CATALONIA.  -137 

cea-walls,  and  the  avenues  of  trees  which  separate  Barcelona  from  the  citadel  and 
the  suburb  of  Barceloneta,  are  crowded  on  tine  evenings.  Barcelona  is  no  doubt 
the  "  unique  citj' "  of  Cers'antes,  and  perhaps  "  the  home  of  courtes)'  and  of  valiant 
men ; "  but  we  doubt  its  being  the  "  common  centre  of  all  sincere  friendships." 
Barcelona  exceeds  all  other  towns  of  Spain  by  its  commerce.*  The  harbour  is 
exposed  to  southerly  winds,  and  somewhat  difficult  of  access.  Barcelona  is  ever 
renewing  itself.  There  are  broad  streets  of  uniformly  built  houses,  and  some 
quarters,  as  that  of  Barceloneta,  on  a  tongue  of  land  to  the  east  of  the  port,  are 
laid  out  with  all  the  regularity  of  an  American  city.  The  only  architectural 
monuments  of  note  are  a  Gothic  cathedral  and  the  old  palace  of  the  Inquisition. 
But  all  around  the  town,  beyond  the  suburbs  with  their  factories  and  workmen's 
dwellings,  we  meet  with  numerous  villas,  occupying  delightful  nooks  in  verdant 
valleys  or  the  steep  hill-slopes.  Xo  more  charming  district  exists  in  Spain  than 
that  to  the  north  of  Barcelona  and  Badalona,  extending  as  far  as  Masnou,  JIataro, 
and  the  river  Tordera.  Promontories  covered  with  vines,  pines,  and  cork-oaks, 
and  sometimes  crowned  by  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  project  into  the  sea  ;  the  valleys 
are  laid  out  in  gardens  enclosed  with  aloe  hedges ;  towns  and  villages  follow  in 
rapid  succession ;  and  the  boats  and  nets  of  fishermen  are  seen  on  the  beaches. 

ilost  towns  of  the  pro-vince  of  Barcelona  emulate  the  manufacturing  industry 
of  the  capital.  Igualada,  at  the  foot  of  the  Monserrat;  Sabadell,  in  a  valley, 
full  of  factories ;  Tarrasa,  the  old  Roman  city,  near  which  are  the  famous  baths 
of  La  Puda ;  Manresa,  on  the  Gardener  rivulet ;  Yich,  the  old  primatial  city  of 
Catalonia  ;  and  JIataro,  on  the  coast,  are  all  distinguished  for  the  manufacture 
of  cloth,  linens,  silks,  cotton  stuffs,  ribbons,  lace,  leather,  hats,  faience,  glass,  or 
paper.  Manufacturing  industry  has  likewise  spread  into  the  neighbouring  proAnnce 
of  Gerona,  and  notably  to  the  city  of  Olot ;  but  the  vicinity  of  the  French  frontier, 
the  practice  of  smuggling,  and  the  presence  of  large  garrisons  in  the  fortresses 
of  Gerona  and  Figueras  have  hindered  its  development.  Gerona  has  sustained 
many  a  siege,  and  Figueras,  in  spite  of  its  huge  citadel,  has  been  repeatedly  captured. 
The  walls  of  Rosas  are  crumbling  to  pieces,  and  every  vestige  of  the  Greek  city 
of  Emporion  has  been  buried  beneath  the  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  river 
Fluvia,  but  it  stiU  lives  in  the  name  of  the  surrounding  district  of  Ampurdan.f 

The  crest  of  the  Pyrenees  constitutes  for  the  most  part  the  political  boundary 
between  France  and  Spain,  but  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  At  the  western 
extremity  of  the  chain  Spain  enjoys  the  advantage,  for  the  valley  of  the  Bidassoa, 
on  the  French  slopes,  belongs  to  it ;  but  France  is  compensated  in  the  east  by  the 
possession  of  Mount  Canigou  and  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Segre.  As  a  rule, 
however.  Spam  has  the  best  of  the  bargain,  and  this  is  only  natural,  as  the  Pyrenees 
are  most  accessible  from  the  south,  and  the  population  there  is  more  dense.     The 

*  Value  of  exports  and  imports  in  1S67,  £10,691,000. 

t  Population  of  the  principal  towns  : — Iragon  :  Zaragoza,  56.000  :  Calatarud,  12,000:  Huesca,  10,000: 
Tempi,  7,000.  Catalonia  (Cat.iluna) :  Barcelona,  1 80,000 :  Reus,  2.5,000 ;  Tortosa,  22,000  :  Mataro,  17,000  : 
Sab.idcll,  1.5,000;  Manres.i,  14,000;  Tan-agona,  13,000;  Lerida,  12,000;  Yith,  12,000  ;  Badaluua,  11,000 
Igualada,  10,-500  ;  Olot,  10,000  ;  Tarrasa,  9,000  ;  Gerona,  8,000  ;  Figueras,  S.OOO. 


488  SPAIN. 

herdsraeii  of  Araj^on  and  the  Basque  provinces  never  missed  an  opportunity  of 
takinj,'  pcssessiou  of  pastures  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  mountains,  and  these 
encroachments  were  subsequently  ratified  by  international  treaties. 

The  valley  of  Aran,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Pyrenees,  is  one  of  these  bloodless 
concpiests  of  .Sp:iin.  The  French  Garonne  rises  in  that  valley,  but  the  defile 
through  which  it  leaves  it  is  very  narrow  and  easily  obstructed.  Up  to  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Aranese  enjoyed  virtual  independence;  and  as  the)'  are  shut 
off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  mountains  covered  with  snow  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  these  21,000  mountaineers  would  appear  to  possess  more  claim  to 
constitute  themselves  an  independent  republic  than  any  other  people  in  Europe. 

Farther  east  there  is  another  mountain  valley  which,  nominally  at  least,  forms 
an  independent  republic.  This  is  Andorra,  a  territory  of  230  square  miles,  with 
6,000  inhabitants.  A  few  pastures  on  the  French  slope  excepted,  the  whole  of 
this  valley  is  drained  by  the  beautiful  stream  of  Embalira,  or  Valira,  which  joins 
the  Segre  in  the  smiling  plain  of  Seo  de  tlrgel.  Most  of  the  mountains  of 
Andorra  have  been  robbed  of  their  trees,  and  the  destruction  of  the  few  remainin? 
forests  is  still  going  on.  The  vegetable  soil  is  being  rapidly  washed  away,  and 
the  moraines  of  ancient  glaciers  gradually  slide  down  the  mountain  slopes. 

The  republic  of  Andorra  is  said  to  owe  its  existence  to  a  defeat  of  the  Saracens 
by  Charlemagne  or  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  but  in  reality  up  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion the  valley  enjoyed  no  sovereign  rights  whatever.  It  was  a  barony  of  the 
Counts  of  Urgel  and  of  Aragon.  In  r278  it  was  decided  that  Andorra  should  be 
held  jointly  by  the  Bishops  of  Urgel  and  the  Counts  of  Foix.  In  1793  the  French 
republic  declined  to  receive  the  customary  tribute,  and  in  1810  the  Spanish 
Cortes  abolished  the  feudal  regime.  Andorra  thus  became  an  independent  state. 
The  inhabitants,  however,  continue  to  govern  themselves  in  accordance  with  old 
feudal  customs,  which  are  not  at  all  reconcilable  with  the  principles  of  modern 
republics.  The  land  belongs  to  a  few  families.  There  is  a  law  of  entail,  and 
younger  brothers  become  the  servants  of  the  head  of  the  family,  whose  hospitality 
they  enjoy  onlj'  on  condition  of  their  working  for  him.  The  tithes  were  only 
abolished  in  1842.  The  "liberty"  of  these  mountaineers  consists  merely  in  exemp- 
tion from  the  Spanish  conscription  and  impunity  in  smuggling;  and,  to  increase 
tlu'ir  revenues,  they  have  recently  established  a  gambling-table.  Their  legitimate 
business  consists  in  cattle-breeding,  and  there  are  a  few  forges  and  a  woollen  factory. 

The  republic  of  Andorra  recognises  two  suzerains,  viz.  the  Bishop  of  Urgel, 
who  receives  an  annual  tribute  of  £25,  and  the  French  Government,  to  whom 
double  that  sum  is  paid.  Spain  and  France  are  represented  by  two  provosts,  the 
commandant  of  Seo  de  Urgel  exercising  the  functions  of  viceroy.  The  provosts 
command  the  militia  and  appoint  the  bailiffs,  or  judges.  They,  together  with  a 
judge  of  appeal,  alternately  appointed  by  France  and  Spain,  and  two  rahonadores, 
or  defenders  of  Andorran  privileges,  form  the  Cortes.  Each  parish  is  governed  by 
a  consul,  a  vice-consul,  and  twelve  councillors  elected  by  the  liuads  of  families.  A 
General  Council,  of  which  the  consuls  and  delegates  of  the  parishes  are  members, 
meets  at  the  village  of  Andorra.     But  in  spite  of  these  fictions  Andorra  is  an 


BASQUE  PROVINCES,  NAVAEfiA,  AND  LOGEONO.  439 

integral  part  of  Spain,  and  the  carabineers  never  hesitate  to  cross  the  frontiers  of 
this  sham  republic.  By  language,  manners,  and  customs  the  Andorrans  are 
Catalans.  Exemption  from  vrar  has  enabled  them  to  grow  comparatively  rich. 
They  are  intelligent  and  cunning,  and  well  know  how  to  assume  an  air  of  astonish- 
ment when  their  interests  are  at  stake.  Acting  the  fool,  in  order  to  take  some 
one  in  or  avoid  being  ensnared,  is  called  by  their  neighbours  "  playing  the 
Andorran."  Andorra,  a  neat  village,  is  the  capital  of  the  territory,  but  San  Julia 
de  Loria  is  the  most  important  place,  and  the  head-quarters  of  the  smugglers. 

VII. — Basque  Provinces,  Navarra,  and  Logroxo.* 

The  Basque  provinces  (Vascnngadas)  and  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Navarra,  though 
scarcelv  a  thirtieth  part  of  Spain,  constitute  a  separate  region,  not  only  on  account 
of  geographical  position,  but  also  because  they  are  inhabited  for  the  most  part  by 
a  distinct  race,  having  its  own  language,  manners,  and  political  institutions. 

Looked  at  from  a  commanding  position,  the  hills  connecting  the  Pyrenees 
with  the  Castilian  plateau  resemble  a  sea  lashed  by  contrary  winds,  for  there  are  no 
prominent  mountain  ranges.  Even  the  Pyrenees  have  sunk  down  to  a  mean  height 
of  3,000  feet,  and  the  Lohihulz  (3,973  feet),  where  they  cease  to  form  the  frontier, 
scarcely  deserves  to  be  called  a  mountain.  They  extend  thence  to  the  Pass  of 
Azpiroz  (1,860  feet),  where  they  terminate.  The  vague  range  beyond  is  known  as 
Sierra  de  Aralar  (4,330  feet),  and  still  farther  west  by  a  variety  of  local  names. 
These  mountains  are  traversed  by  several  low  passes,  facilitating  communication 
with  the  valley  of  the  Ebro,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Pass  of  Orduna 
(2,134  feet),  which  is  crossed  by  the  railway  from  Bilbao  to  Miranda,  and  dominated 
by  the  Pefia  Gorbea  (5,042  feet)  and  the  Sierra  Salvada  (4,120  feet). 

The  spurs  which  descend  from  these  mountains  towards  the  Bay  of  Biscay  are 
likewise  very  irregular  in  their  features.  Most  of  them  are  connected  by  trans- 
versal chains,  through  which  the  rivers  have  only  with  difficulty  forced  for  them- 
selves an  outlet  towards  the  sea.  The  Bidassoa,  for  instance,  sweeps  far  to  the 
south,  through  the  valley  of  Bastan,  before  it  takes  its  course  to  the  northward,  in 
the  direction  of  its  estuary  at  Fuenterrabia.  Within  its  huge  bend  it  encloses  a 
detached  portion  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  principal  summit  of  which  is  the  famous 
Mont  La  Rhune  (2,954  feet),  on  the  French  frontier.  Equallj-  isolated  is  the 
Jaizquibel  (1,912  feet),  which  rises  from  the  plains  of  Irun,  close  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Bidassoa,  and  from  whose  summit  there  is  a  view  of  incomparable  beaut}'. 
It  terminates  in  Cape  Higuer,  or  Figuer,  the  northernmost  point  of  Cantabria. 

The  maritime  slope  of  the  Basque  countries  presents  a  great  variet}'  of  geolo- 
gical formations,  including  Jurassic  limestones  and  chalk,  granites  and  porphyries. 
The  mineral  resources  are  immense  ;  copper  and  lead  abound,  but  the  great  wealth 
consists  in  iron.  The  mines  of  Mondragon,  in  Guipuzcoa,  have  long  been  famous, 
but  the  most  productive  mining  district  is  Somorrostro,  to  the  west  of  Bilbao. 

*  Navarra  and  Basque  provinces,  G, 828  square  miles,  790,676  inhabitants;  Logroiio,  1,945  square  mUea, 
182,941  inhabitants. 


440 


SPAIN. 


The  sierras  of  Aragon  running  parallel  with  the  Pyrenees  extend  also  into 
Nttvarra  and  the  Vascougadas,  and  are  frecjuentiy  eonnected  with  the  main  range  by 
lateral  branehes.  To  the  west  of  Pamplona  they  spread  out  into  a  rugged  plateau, 
surmounted  by  the  Sierra  de  Andia  (4,769  feet),  the  labyrinthine  ramifications  of 


Fig.  171. — Thk  Ksvironb  of  Bauiklona. 

Scale  I  :  lOO.noo. 


2  Miles. 


which  occupy  the  district  of  Amezcuas,  a  region  offering  great  advantages  to  partisan 
warfare.  The  southern  chain,  not  so  well  defined,  bounds  the  Carra.scal,  or  "  country 
of  evergreen  oaks,"  in  the  south.  This  region,  too,  has  frequeutly  been  the  scene  of 
civil  war.     Farther  west  the  famous  defile  of  Pancorbo  leads  through  the  Montes 


o 
o 

z 


o 

o 


BASQUE  PROYIXCES,  NAYAEEA,  AND  LOGRONO. 


441 


Obarenes  (4,150  feet)  to  the  plateau  of  Castile.  The  saddle  of  Alsasua  (1,955  feet), 
over  which  passes  the  railway  from  Yitoria  (1,684  feet)  to  Pamplona  (1,378  feet), 
connects  the  Pyrenees  with  the  Sierra  de  Andia,  whilst  as  to  the  mountains  of  the 
province  of  Logrono,  they  are  spurs  of  the  mountain  masses  forming  the  northern 
edge  of  that  plateau,  viz.  the  Sierra  de  la  Demanda  in  the  west,  and  the  Sierra  do 
Cebollera  in  the  east,  the  latter  giving  birth  to  the  Sierras  de  Camero. 

Several  of  the  mountain  districts  are  quite  Castilian  in  their  asperity  and 
nakedness,  for  the  forests  have  been  cut  down  to  feed  the  iron  furnaces.  In  Southern 
Navarra  we  meet  with  veritable  deserts.  But  in  the  Basque  countries  and  Western 
Navarra,  where  it  rains  copiously,  the  hills  are  clad  with  forests,  the  valleys  with 
turf,  and  rixiilets  wind  amongst  groves  of  elder-trees.    Naked  precipices  of  sand  or 

Fig.  172. — The  Sand-banks  of  Mataro. 
Scale  1  :  126,000. 


l°l3tF,    pr  CrfCT. 


2  Miles. 


limestone  contrast  well  with  this  verdure,  from  which  peep  out  the  .small  white 
houses  of  Aallages  embosomed  in  orchards,  and  scattered  in  the  valleys  and  hill-sides. 
Moist  north-westerly  winds  are  frequent  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  account  for 
the  equable  temperature  of  the  country.  It  rains  abundantly,  and  in  all  seasons. 
The  climate  resembles  that  of  Ireland,  and,  though  damp,  it  is  healthy  and  most 
conducive  to  the  growth  of  vegetation.  The  country  is  rich  in  corn,  wine,  oil, 
and  cattle ;  the  northern  .slopes  are  covered  with  fruit  trees  of  every  kind,  and 
sagardna,  or  cider,  is  a  favourite  drink ;  and  in  the  more  remote  valleys  of  the 
Pyrenees  we  meet  with  some  of  the  most  magnificent  forests  in  Spain.  That  of  Val 
Carlos  (valley  of  Charlemagne),  near  the  famous  Pass  of  Roncevaux,  or  Roncesvalles, 
though  none  of  the  largest,  is  reputed  for  its  beauty  and  legendary  associations. 


442  SPAIN. 

VHio  are  the  Basques,  whose  braverj'  is  traditional  ?  "What  is  their  origin  ? 
"What  their  relutiousliip  to  the  other  peoples  of  Europe  ?  All  these  questions  it  is 
impossible  to  answer.  The  Basques  are  a  mysterious  race,  and  can  claim  kinship 
with  no  other  nation.  It  is  not  even  certain  whether  all  those  who  pass  by  that 
name  are  of  the  same  race.  There  is  no  typical  Basque.  No  doubt  most  of  the 
inliabifauts  of  the  country  are  distinguished  by  finely  chiselled  features,  bright 
and  firm  eyes,  and  well-poised  bodies,  but  the  ditferences  in  stature,  form  of  skull, 
and  features  are  very  considerable.  Between  Basque  and  Basque  the  differences 
are  as  great  as  between  Spaniards,  Frenchmen,  and  Italians.  There  are  tall  men 
and  short,  brown  and  fair,  long  skulls  and  broad,  and  almost  every  district  has  its 
distinct  type.  The  solution  of  this  problem  is  daily  becoming  more  difficult,  for, 
owing  to  a  continual  intermixture  with  their  neighbours,  the  original  tj^e,  if  there 
really  existed  one,  is  gradually  being  obliterated.  It  is  possible  that  at  some  remote 
time  the  remnants  of  various  races  occupied  this  country,  and  adopted  the  language 
of  the  most  civilised  among  them.     Instances  of  this  kind  abound  in  every  people. 

Leaving  out  of  sight  the  differences  existing  between  the  Basques  of  Sj^ain  and 
those  of  French  Navarra,  the  Basques  maybe  described  as  having  broad  fcn-ehcads, 
straight  noses,  finely  shaped  mouths  and  chins,  and  well-proportioned  figures. 
Their  features  are  exceedingly  mobile,  and  every  sentiment  is  reflected  upon  them 
by  a  lighting  up  of  the  eyes,  a  movement  of  the  eyebrows,  or  a  trembling  of  the 
lips.  The  women  especially  are  distinguished  by  the  purity  of  their  features;  their 
large  eyes,  smiling  lips,  and  small  waists  are  universally  admired.  Even  in  the 
towns,  where  the  race  is  least  pure,  most  of  them  are  strikingly  beautiful  and  full 
of  grace.  There  are  districts  where  obesity  is  a  veritable  phenomenon.  Men  and 
women  carry  themselves  nobly;  they  arc  polite  to  strangers,  but  always  dignified. 

The  Basques  call  themselves  Euskaldunac,  or  Euskarians,  and  their  language 
Euskara,  or  Eskuara.  The  exact  meaning  of  these  terms  is  not  known,  but  in  all 
probability  it  is  "  speech."  This  speech  of  the  Basques  differs  in  its  words  and 
structure  from  every  other  language  of  the  world  ;  but  many  words  have  been 
borrowed  from  neighbouring  languages.  Everything  with  which  the}-  became 
acquainted  through  foreigners,  all  ideas  imported  since  prehistoric  times,  are 
designated  by  words  not  forming  part  of  the  original  stock  of  the  language.  Even 
the  names  of  domestic  animals  and  metals  are  of  foreign  origin.  The  Ian- 
guage  may,  perhaps,  be  classed  with  the  polysynthetic  languages  of  the  American 
Indians,  or  with  the  agglutinaut  idioms  of  the  Altai,  and  belongs,  consequently,  to 
the  most  remote  period  of  human  history.  As  to  the  Basques  themselves,  they 
declare  their  speech  to  be  superior  to  every  other,  and  according  to  some  it  was 
in  Euskara  that  man  first  saluted  the  sun. 

For  the  present  we  are  compelled  to  look  upon  the  Basques  as  the  last 
remnant  of  an  ancient  race.  There  are  not  wanting  proofs  that  the  Euskaldunac 
formerly  occupied  a  far  wider  territory.  Xo  monuments,  no  inscriptions,  nor  even 
legends  give  a  clue  to  this ;  but  we  find  it,  after  thousands  of  years,  in  the  names  of 
mountains,  rivers,  and  towns.  Euskarian  names  abound  in  the  Pyrenean  valleys 
of  Aran,  Bastan,  Andorra,  and  Querol,  and  in  the  plain  to  the  north  of  them. 


BASQUE  PEOVLNTCES,  NAVAKEA,  AND  LOGEONO. 


443 


Most  writers  on  Spain  identify  these  Euskarians  with  the  Iberians  of  the 
ancients,  and  they  have  been  credited  with  being  the  authors  of  various  inscriptions 
iipon  coins  written  in  unknown  characters  which  have  been  discovered  in  Spain 


Fig.  173. — The  Valley  of  Andokka. 

Scale  1  :  37.5.000. 


l°':io'  E-ofGr 


P  "fiii  Com  rcJT<o,<!f 


■'         betivpen  Spam  &  fiance 

- ..        .  ^^   Carriage  roads 


6  Miles. 


and  Southern  France,  and  which  M.  Eoudard  has  shown  to  bo  really  in  Euskarian. 
They  must  thus  have  occupied  tlie  whole  of  the  peninsula  and  Southern  France, 
and  even  in  Africa  traces  of  their  presence  have  been  discovered. 


444  SPAIN. 

Tlic  extent  of  territory  occupied  by  Basque-speaking  populations  in  the  time 
of  the  Konians  is  not  known,  but  probably  it  was  not  any  j^reater  than  it  is 
now,  for  the  Euskarians  have  ever  since  maintained  their  independence,  and 
nothing  compelled  them  to  adopt  the  language  of  their  despised  neighbours. 
Bilbao  has  almost  become  Spanish,  as  have  also  the  towns  in  the  plain  of  Alava. 
Pampeluna,  the  Irun  of  the  Iberians,  is  Euskarian  merely  by  historical  tradition, 
whilst  farther  east  Basque  is  only  spoken  in  the  upper  valleys  of  Roncevaux, 
Orbaiceta,  Ochagavia,  and  Roncal.  The  Peak  of  Anie  marks  the  extreme  limit  of 
Basque  on  both  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees.  Out  of  four  Euskarian  provinces  there  is 
onh"  one — viz.  Guipiizcoa — where  Basque  predominates  ;  but  even  in  that  province 
the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  of  St.  Sebastian  and  Irun  speak  Castilian.  In  the  south 
of  Navarra  and  of  the  so-called  Basque  provinces  the  inhabitants  have  spoken  a  Latin 
dialect  from  time  immemorial.  Spanish  and  French  are  slowly  but  surely  supersed- 
ing the  Basque,  and  the  time  when  it  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past  is  not  very  distant.* 

Strabo  speaks  of  the  Cantabrians,  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  Basques,  with  an 
admiration  akin  to  horror.  Their  bravery,  love  of  freedom,  and  contempt  of  life  he 
looked  upon  as  superhuman  qualities.  In  their  wars  against  the  Romans  they  killed 
each  other  to  escape  captivity,  mothers  strangled  their  children  to  spare  them  the 
indignities  of  slavery,  and  prisoners  nailed  to  the  cross  burst  into  a  chant  of  victory. 
The  Basques  have  never  been  wanting  in  courage.  History  shows  that  thej'  were 
superior  to  the  surrounding  nations  in  uprightness,  generosity,  love  of  independence, 
and  respect  for  personal  liberty.  The  serfs  of  the  neighbouring  provinces  looked 
upon  them  as  nobles,  for  in  their  abject  condition  they  fancied  that  personal  liberty 
was  a  privilege  of  nobility.  This  equality,  however,  existed  only  in  Guipiizcoa  and 
Biscay,  whilst  in  Alava  and  Navarra,  where  the  Moors  gained  a  footing,  and  Castilian 
influences  made  themselves  felt  later  on,  there  otiginatcd  a  feudal  nobility,  with 
its  usual  train  of  vassals  and  serfs.  However,  all  the  provinces  have  jealou.sly 
watched  over  their  local  privileges.  At  a  period  when  European  history  was 
one  continual  series  of  wars,  the  Basques  lived  in  peace.  Their  small  common- 
wealths were  united  into  a  fraternal  confederation,  and  enabled  to  resist  invaders. 
They  were  bound  to  sacrifice  life  and  property  in  the  defence  of  their  common 
fatherland,  and  their  standards  were  emblazoned  with  three  hands  joined,  and 
the  motto,  Iriinik  hut,  i.e.  "  The  three  (provinces)  are  but  one." 

Nothing  exhibits  more  strikingly  the  comparative  civilisation  of  these  Euska- 
rians than  their  respect  for  per.sonal  liberty.  The  house  of  a  Basque  was 
inviolable,  and  he  could  not  be  deprived  of  his  horse  or  his  arms.  At  their 
national  meetings  all  voted,  and  in  some  of  the  valleys  even  the  women  were 
permitted  to  take  part  in  the  discussions.  It  was  not,  however,  customary  for  the 
women  to  sit  down  at  the  same  table  with  the  ftcheco-jauna,  or  master  of  the 
house,  and  his  sons ;  they  took  their  meals  separately  by  the  side  of  the  heartli. 
This  old  custom  is  still  observed  in  country  districts  ;  and  so  strong  is  the  force 
of  tradition,  that  the  wife  would  almost  consider  it  a  disgrace  to  be  seen  sitting  by 

•  In  18(5  Basque  was  spokrn  liy  006,000  injividimls,  viz.  by  116,000  in  France,  by  310,000  in  the 
three  Basque  provinces  of  Spain,  and  by  100,000  in  Navarra. 


B.VSQUE  PEO^^XCES,  NAYAEEA,  AND  LOGEONO. 


445 


the  side  of  her  hushand  on  any  other  occasion  than  her  wedding-daj-.  On  fete- 
days  the  women  keep  apart ;  they  dance  amongst  themselves,  allowing  the  men 
to  engage  in  ruder  sports.  If  a  nation  may  be  judged  from  its  pastimes,  ihe 
Basques  deserve  to  rank  high  in  our  estimation.  They  are  fond  of  athletic  sports, 
and  mysteries  and  pastoral  pieces  are  still  performed  in  the  open  air. 

Fig'.  IT't. — Jaizquibel. 

Scale  I  :  200,000. 


1'   liWofOr 


Miles. 


But  the  Basques  have  their  faults.  Anxious  to  retain  their  ancient  privileges, 
or  fiirrox,  they  have  become  the  champions  of  despotism.  These  fueros  date  from 
1332,  when  deputies  from  the  provinces  went  to  Burgos,  and  offered  the  title  of 
Lord  to  AJfonso  the  Judge,  King  of  Castile.     In  accordance  with  the  treaty  then 


32 


446  SPAIN. 

concluded,  the  sovereign  is  prohibited  from  possessing  any  fortress,  villuge,  or 
even  house  within  the  territory  of  the  J'-uskarians.  The  Basques  arc  exempt  from 
the  conscription,  and  their  militiamen,  or  iiilqucMcs,  remain  within  the  provinces 
except  in  time  of  war.  The  taxes  can  only  be  levied  with  the  consent  of  tlic  pro- 
vincial juntas,  and  must  be  expended  within  tlic  provinces,  except  what  may  be 
granted  as  a  "gift."  Commerce  is  not  subjected  to  tlie  same  restrictions  as  in  the 
rest  of  Spain,  and  there  are  no  monopolies.  The  municipalities  enjoy  absolute  .self- 
government,  carried  on  by  an  alcalde,  an  ai/ioifamicnto,  or  town  council,  and  parientcs 
mai/orcs,  or  elders.  In  appearance  this  organization  is  quite  democratic,  but  in 
reality  there  exist  many  feudal  usages.  In  some  places  the  town  councils  are  self- 
elected  ;  in  others  they  are  elected  by  persons  paying  a  speciKed  amount  in  taxes, 
or  by  nobles  of  a  certain  categorj-;  in  others,  again,  they  are  appointed  by  the  lord 
of  the  manor.  The  provincial  juntas  are  elected  in  most  diverse  ways.  Tho 
franchise,  far  from  being  universal,  is  a  privilege,  and  its  exercise  is  attended  with 
puerile  formalities.     The  laws  of  precedence  arc  rigidly  adhered  to. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  the  exceptional  position  of  the  Basque  provinces  cannot 
be  maintained.  Navarra  was  assimilated  with  the  rest  of  Spain  in  1839,  and  this 
process  is  progressing  irresistibly  in  the  other  provinces.  If  the  descendants  of  the 
Euskarians  decline  to  share  free  institutions  witli  the  rest  of  Spain,  they  can  never 
maintain  them  on  their  own  boliulf  Twice  already  have  they  been  defeated  on  an 
appeal  to  arms;  but  more  powerful  than  war  is  the  influence  exercised  by  industry, 
commerce,  and  increased  facilities  for  intercommunication.  This  fusion  is  being 
hastened  by  emigration  and  migration,  for  the  Bascjues  not  only  seek  work  during 
winter  in  tlie  more  hospitable  lowland  districts,  but  they  also  cmigrati^  in  thousands. 
They  are  very  clannish,  and  at  Madrid  and  elsewhere  have  founded  "  Patriotic 
Societies,"  but  in  spite  of  these  they  soon  become  merged  witli  the  rest  of  the 
population.  The  few  towns  are  principally  inliabited  by  strangers,  for  the  Basques 
prefer  a  country  life.  Their  homesteads  are  scattered  over  hill-slopes  and  through 
the  valleys,  and  beneath  the  oaks  in  front  of  them  the  inmates  meet  after  the 
day's  labour  to  pass  their  time  in  music  and  dancing. 

Bilbao,  the  largest  town  of  the  Basque  provinces,  has  at  all  times  proved  a 
rival  of  Valencia,  Santander,  and  Cadiz.  Its  exports  consist  principally  of  iron 
ores  from  neighbouring  mines.  Most  of  its  inhabitants  are  Spaniards,  and  during 
the  Carlist  wars  the  environs  of  the  town  were  frccjuently  stained  with  blood.  It 
was  under  its  walls  that  Zumalacarregny,  the  Carlist  leader,  received  his  deadly 
wound.     The  river  Nervion  connects  Bilbao  with  its  harbour  at  Portugalete. 

St.  Sebastian,  the  largest  city  of  Guipiizcoa,  is  likewise  Spanish.  A  seaport 
and  fortress  defended  by  a  Castilian  garrison,  it  resembles  in  aspect  and  language 
the  towns  of  the  interior  of  the  peninsula.  Monte  Orgullo  (475  feet),  crowned  bj' 
the  Castle  de  la  Mota,  and  bristling  with  fortifications  ;  the  beautiful  Bay  of  La 
Concha,  to  the  west  of  the  town,  with  its  fine  beach  ;  the  river  Urumea,  which 
flows  to  the  east  of  the  citadel,  and  struggles  at  its  mouth  with  the  foam  of  tlie 
sea;  shady  walks  and  an  amphitheatre  of  verdant  hills  dotted  with  villages,  render 
St.  Sebastian  a  delightful  spot,  the  favourite  resort  of  worn-out  and  idle  cosmo- 


BASQUE  PROVINCES,  NAYAEEA,  AND  LOGRONO. 


447 


politans.  The  town  itself  is  devoid  of  interest,  for  since  its  destruction  by  the 
English  in  1813  it  has  been  rebuilt  with  monotonous  regularity.  Its  harbour, 
though  frequented  by  coasting  vessels,  is  shallow  and  insecure.  The  magnificent 
Bay  of  Pasages,  to  the  east  of  the  town,  might  have  been  converted  into  a  splendid 
harbour,  but  its  great  advantages  have  never  been  appreciated,  and  its  mouth 
is  now  closed  by  a  bar  of  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  Oyarzun. 

Delightful  Fuenterrabia  (Fontarabie),  with  its  escutcheoned  houses,  is  likewise 
shut  off  from  the  sea  by  a  bar,  and  is  indebted  for  such  importance  as  it  possesses 
to  its  sea  baths  and  the  vicinity  of  France,  which  is  visible  from  its  battered 
walls.  Irun,  the  terminal  station  of  the  Spanish  railways,  close  to  the  French 
frontier,  is  an  imjjortant  strategical  position ;  and  Tolosa,  with  its  factories,  is  the 
capital  of  Guipiizcoa.  Zarauz,  Guetaria  (on  the  neck  of  a  peninsula),  and  Lequeitio 
are  seaside  resorts.     Zumaya,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Urola  valley,  has  quarries  of 


-AZCOITIA    AND    AZPEITIA. 

Scale  1 :  50,000. 


*-...^ 


1  3IUe. 


gypsum,  which  furnish  excellent  cement.  Near  Yergara  are  ferruginous  springs, 
and  a  famous  college  founded  in  1776  by  the  Basque  Society.  The  convention 
which  put  a  stop  to  the  first  Carlist  war  in  1839  was  signed  hero.  Durango,  like- 
wise, has  frequently  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  civil  wars  carried  on 
in  the  north  of  Spain.  Guernica,  in  Biscay,  boasts  of  a  palace  of  justice  and  an 
old  oak  beneath  which  the  legislature  is  in  the  habit  of  meeting ;  but,  like  all 
other  Basque  towns,  it  is  hardly  more  than  a  village. 

The  centres  of  popvdation  are  not  more  numerous  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Pyrenees.  Vitoria,  the  capital  of  Alava,  on  the  railway  connecting  Madrid  with 
Paris,  is  a  commercial  and  manufacturing  town.  Pamplona,  or  Panipeluna,  recalls 
the  name  of  Pompey,  who  rebuilt  it.  It  is  a  fortress,  often  besieged  and  captured. 
Its  cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Spain.  Tafalla,  ki  ffor  dc  Navarra,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  kingdom,  has  the  ruins  of  a  palace,  which  Carlos  the  Noble,  who 


448  SPAIN. 

built  it,  desired  to  unite  by  means  of  a  covered  gallery  with  the  palace  of  Olite, 
three  miles  lower  down  in  the  same  valley.  I'uente  lu  Ileina  is  celebrated  for  its 
wines.  Estella,  one  of  the  most  charming  towns  of  Navarra,  commands  several  roads 
leading  to  Castile  and  Aragon,  and  its  strategical  importance  is  consequently  consider- 
able. The  Carlists,  during  the  late  war,  transformed  it  into  a  formidable  fortress. 
Tudela,  abounding  in  wines,  Calahorra,  and  Logrono,  all  in  the  adjoining  province 
of  Logrono,  arc  likewise  of  some  value  from  a  military  point  of  view,  for  they  com- 
mand the  passages  over  the  Ebro.  Calahorra,  with  its  proud  motto,  "  I  have  prevailed 
over  Carthage  and  Rome,"  was  the  great  bulwark  of  defence  when  Sertorius  fought 
Pompey,  but  was  made  to  pay  dearly  for  its  heroism.  Besieged  by  the  Konians,  its 
defenders,  constrained  by  hunger,  fed  upon  tlicir  women  and  children,  and  most  of 
them  perished.  Though  situated  in  the  fertile  district  of  Rioja,  beyond  the  frontiers 
of  the  Euskurian  language,  the  history  of  Calahorra  is  intimately  connected  with  that 
of  the  Basque  provinces,  for  upon  its  ancient  laws  were  modelled  the  fueros  of  Alava.* 

VIII. — Sant.\nder,  the  AsTrRi.\s,  a.nd  G.^licia. 

The  Atlantic  slope  of  the  Cantabrian  Pyrenees  is  a  region  completely  distinct  from 
the  rest  of  Spain.  Mountains,  hills,  valleys,  and  running  waters  succeed  each  other 
in  infinite  variety,  and  the  coast  throughout  is  steep,  with  bold  promontories  and 
deep  inlets,  into  which  flow  rapid  torrents.  The  climate  is  moist  and  salubrious. 
The  Celto-Iberian  inhabitants  of  the  country  have  in  most  instances  escaped  the 
commotions  which  devastated  the  other  provinces  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  popu- 
lation, in  proi)ortion  to  the  cultivable  area,  is  more  dense  than  elsewhere.  This 
region,  being  very  narrow  compared  with  its  length,  has  been  split  up  into  several 
political  divisions,  in  spite  of  similarity  of  physical  features.  The  old  kingdom 
of  Galicia  occupies  the  west,  the  Asturias  the  centre,  and  Santander  the  east.t 

The  mountain  region  of  Santander  begins  immediately  to  the  east  of  the 
Sierra  Salvada  and  the  depression  known  as  Valle  de  Mcna.  The  Cantabrian 
Mountains  slope  down  steeply  there  towards  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  whilst  their 
height  above  the  upland,  through  which  the  Ebro  has  excavated  its  bed,  is  but 
trifling.  The  Puerto  del  Escudo  attains  an  elevation  of  3,241  feet  above  Santander, 
its  southern  descent  to  the  valley  of  the  Yirga  hardly  exceeding  500  feet.  The  Pass 
of  Reinosa  (2,778  feet),  farther  west,  through  which  runs  the  railway  from  Madrid 
to  Santander,  is  even  more  characteristic.  An  almost  imperceptible  height  of 
land  there  separates  the  plateau  from  the  steep  declivity  which  leads  down  to  the 
coast,  and  by  means  of  a  canal  sixty  feet  deep,  and  a  mile  in  length,  the  waters 
of  the  Ebro  might  be  diverted  into  the  river  Bcsaya,  which  enters  the  Atlantic 
at  San  Martin  de  Suances.      This   height   of  land  forms  the  natural  outlet  of 

•  Population   of  principal   towns  (approximately) : — Biscay  (Vizcaja)  :  Bilbao,  30,000.     Guipu:coa- 

St.  Sebastian,  15,000;  Tolosa,  8,000.  Alava:  Vitoria,  12,500.  A'atarra  :  Pamplona,  22,000;  Estella, 
6,000.     loi/rono  :   Logrono,  12,000 ;  Calahorra,  7,000. 

t  Santander    ....    2,113  sq.m.         241,581  inhabitants  IHtoasq.  m. 

Asturias       ....    4,091     „  610,883         „  152         „ 

Galicia  ....  11,344     „  1,989,281         „  176         „ 


SANTANDEE,  THE  ASTUEIAS,  AND  GALICIA. 


449 


the  Castiles  to  the  sea,  and  its  possession  is  as  important  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
plateau  as  is  that  of  the  mouth  of  a  river  to  a  people  dwelling  on  its  upper  course. 
Immediately  to  the  east  of  this  pass  the  aspect  of  the  mountains  changes.    They 
rise   to  a  great  height,  piercing  the  zone  of  perennial  snow,  and  their  southern 
escarpments  are  of  great  steepness.      The  Pefia  Labra  (8,295  feet)   dominates  the 


Fig.  176. — The  Environs  of  Bilbao. 

Scale  1  :  200,000. 


i  Miles. 


first  of  these  mountain  masses.  Eivers  descend  from  it  in  all  directions  :  the  Ebro 
in  the  east,  the  Pisuerga  in  the  south,  and  the  Nansa,  or  Tinamenor,  in  the  north- 
west. Farther  west  the  Pefia  Prieta  rises  to  a  height  of  8,295  feet,  its  snows 
feeding  the  Carrion  and  E.sla.  It  is  joined  in  the  north  to  a  mountain  mass  even 
more  considerable,  which  bears  the  curious  name  of  Peiias  de  Europa,  or  "  rocks 


460 


SPAIN. 


of  Europe,"  and  culminates  in  the  Torre  fie  Cerredo  (8,784  feet),  covered  with 
snow  tliroujiliout  the  yeiii-,  i;ud  boasting  even  of  a  few  glaciers,  due  to  the  excessive 
amount  of  precipitation. 

The  valley  of  La  Liebana,  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Pefias  de  Europa,  resembles 
a  vast  caldron  of  extraordinary  depth.  Shut  in  on  the  west,  south,  and  ea.st  by 
huge  precipices  rising  to  a  height  of  i),-'iOO  feet,  it  is  closed  in  on  the  north  by  a 
transversal  chain,  through  which  the  waters  of  the  Liebana  have  excavated  for 
themselves  u  narrow  passage.  The  village  of  Potes,  in  the  centre  of  this  valley, 
lies  at  an  elevation  of  only  981  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Li  Santander  and 
the  Asturias,  even  more  frequently  than  in  the  Ba.sque  countrv,  we  meet  with 
secondary  chains  running  parallel  with  the  coast.     These  are  composed  of  triassic, 

Fig.  17". — St.  Skbastian. 
Scale  1  :  30,000. 


rlW.ufCr 


}  MUe. 


Jurassic,  and  cretaceous  rocks,  and  rise  like  advanced  wjills  of  defence  in  front  of 
the  main  range  of  the  mountains,  which  consi.st  of  Silurian  slates  upheaved  by 
granite.  It  results  from  this  tliat  the  course  of  the  rivers  is  most  erratic.  On 
leaving  their  upper  valleys,  where  they  frequently  form  ca.scades,  their  farther 
progress  is  arrested  by  these  parallel  ranges,  and  they  twist  about  to  the  cast  and 
west  until  they  find  an  outlet  through  which  they  may  escape. 

The  two  funnel-shaped  valleys  of  Valdeon  (l,o29  feet)  and  Sajamltre  are 
enclosed  between  spurs  of  the  Pefias  de  Europa.  Their  torrents  drain  into  the 
Baj'  of  Biscay,  but  they  are  most  readily  accessible  from  the  plateau.  Farther 
west  the  mountains  decrease  in  height,  and  their  main  crest  gradually  recedes 
from  the  coast.  They  are  crossed  here  by  the  Pass  of  Pajares  (1,471  feet), 
which  connects  Leon  with  Oviedo. 


SANTANDER,  THE  ASTURIAS,  AND  G ALICIA. 


451 


The  Asturian  Mountains  are  objects  of  veneration  to  everj^  palriotic  Spaniard. 
Beautiful  as  they  are,  their  lower  slopes  being;  covered  with  chestnut-trees,  walnut- 
trees,  and  oaks,  whilst  higher  up  forests  of  beeches  and  hazel  alternate  with 
meadows,  their  beauty  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  of  their  having  afforded  a  refuge  to 
the  Christians  whilst  the  Moors  held  the  rest  of  the  country.  Mount  Anscna 
sheltered  St.  Pelagius  and  his  flock,  and  at  Covadonga  he  built  himself  an  abbey. 
These  "  illustrious  mountains  "  do  not,  however,  merely  boast  of  historical  associa- 

Fig.  178. — St.  Sebastian. 


tions,  delightful  villages,  herds,  and  pastures;  they  hide  within  their  bowels  a  rich 
store  of  coal,  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  wealth  to  the  Asturias. 

Galicia  is  separated  from  the  Castilian  plateau  by  a  continuation  of  the  Can- 
labrian  Pyrenees,  which  here  swerve  to  the  south,  and  through  which  the  Sil  has 
excavated  its  bed.  To  the  north  of  that  river  they  culminate  in  the  Pico  de 
Miravalles  (G,3G2  feet),  and  are  crossed  by  the  Pass  of  Predrafita  (3,600  feet), 
throuffh  which  runs  the  main  road  from  Leon  to  Galicia. 

In  Galicia    the  hills   rarelv  form  well-defined   chains,   and   mostlv  consist  of 


462 


SPAIN. 


priniitivo  rocks  or  small  talilo-laiids,  with  poaks  or  siimniits  rising  a  few  linndred 
feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  country.      The  disposition  of  the  small  ranges 


•Fig.    179.  — GlETAKIA. 
Sdilc  1  :  8,000. 


|2°i;  Wol-  Or 


V     I-     V    XT    I   c 


.BAY 


?">»      I 


.  Khj  Kec-t. 


generally  corresponds  with  that  of  the  coast.    The  Sierra  de  Rafiadoiro  (3,612  feet), 
a  spur  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  forms  the  natural  boundary  between  the 


SAXTANDER,  THE  ASTUELVS,  AXD  GALICIA. 


453 


Asturias  and  Galicia.  West  of  it,  the  Sierra  de  Meira  (2,982  feel)  runs  in  the  same 
direction,  but  the  chains  which  terminate  in  Capes  Estaca  de  Vares  and  Ortegal 
(i.e.  Xortegal,  "north  cape")  run  from  east  to  west,  and  are  dominated  by  the 
pyramid  of  Monte  Cuadramon  (3,342  feet).    The  Lills  to  the  west  of  the  river  Mifio 


Fig.  ISO.— Glerxica. 
Scale  I  :  100,000. 


2  Miles. 


(Minho)   terminate  in  the  famous  promontories  of  Torinana  and   Finisterre,  or 
"  land's-end."     This  latter,  a  steep  cliff  rising  boldly  above  the  waters  to  the  west 
of  the  wide  Bay  of  Corcubion,  formerly  bore  a  temple  of  the  ancient  gods,  since 
replaced  by  a  church  dedicated  to  the  Virgin. 
33 


454 


SPAIN. 


The  coast  of  the  Asturias  abounds  in  small  bays,  or  rias,  bounded  by  steep  cliflFs. 
In  Galifia  these  rias  assume  vast  proportions,  and  are  of  great  depth.  They  may 
fitly  be  likened  to  the  fiords  of  Northern  Europe,  and  their  origin  appears  to  be 
the  same.  The  marine  fauna  of  these  Galician  rias  is  Britannic  rather  than  Lusi- 
taniun,  for  amongst  two  hundred  species  of  testaeea  collected  by  Mr.  MacAndrew 
there  are  only  twenty-five  which  were  not  also  found  on  the  coasts  of  Britain. 
Moreover,  the  flora  of  the  Asturian  Mountains  is  very  much  like  that  of  Ireland  ; 


Fig.  181. — Pass  of  Keinosa. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


5  Miles, 


and  these  facts  go  far  in  support  of  the  hypothesis,  started  by  Forbes,  that  the 
Azores,  Ireland,  and  Galicia,  anterior  to  the  glacial  epoch,  were  connected  by  land. 
The  climate,  too,  resembles  that  of  Great  Britain.  The  rainfall  on  the  exterior 
slopes  of  the  mountains  is  abundant,  whilst  to  the  south  of  them,  in  the  arid  plains 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  it  hardly  rains  at  all.  There  are  localities  in  the  Asturias 
where  the  rainfall  amounts  to  more  than  six  feet  annually,  a  quantity  only  again 
met  with  on  the  western  mountain  slopes  of  Scotland  and  Isorway,  and  on  the 
southern  declivities  of  the  Swiss  Alps.      There  is  no  season  without   rain,  and 


SANTANDER,  THE  ASTUEIAS,  AND  GALICIA.  455 

droughts  are  exceedingly  rare.  Equinoctial  storms  are  frequent  m  autumn,  and 
render  the  Bay  of  Biscay  dangerous  to  mariners.  The  temi^erature  is  equable, 
and  fogs,  locally  known  as  bretimas,  are  as  frequent  as  in  the  British  Islands. 
These  fogs  exercise  a  strong  influence  upon  the  superstitious  minds  of  the  Galicians, 
who  fancy  they  see  magicians,  or  nureiros,  ride  upon  the  clouds,  expand  into  mists, 
and  shrink  back  into  cloudlets.  They  also  believe  that  the  bodies  of  the  dead  are 
conveyed  by  the  mists  from  cemetery  to  cemetery,  these  fearful  nocturnal  proces- 
sions being  known  to  them  as  estadeas,  or  estadhinas* 

In  spite  of  an  abundance  of  running  water,  the  Cantabrian  jDrovinces  cannot 
boast  of  a  single  navigable  river.  In  the  Asturias  the  littoral  zone  is  too  narrow, 
and  the  slope  too  considerable,  to  admit  of  torrents  becoming  tranquil  rivers.  Nor 
are  the  Tambre  and  Ulla,  in  Galicia,  of  any  importance  ;  and  the  only  true  river  of 
the  country  is  the  Mifio,  called  Minho  by  the  Portuguese  on  its  lower  course,  where 
it  forms  the  boundary  between  the  two  states  of  Iberia.  The  Miiio  is  fed  from 
both  slopes  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  the  Mino  proper  rising  on  the  western 
slope,  whilst  the  Sil  comes  from  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  latter  is  the 
main  branch.  "  The  Mifio  has  the  reputation,"  say  the  Sjjaniards,  "but  the  Sil 
has  the  water."  The  Sil,  before  leaving  the  province  of  Leon,  passes  through  the 
ancient  lake  basin  of  the  Vierzo,  now  shrunk  to  a  small  sheet  of  water  known  as 
the  Lago  de  Carrocedo.  It  then  passes  in  succession  through  a  wild  gorge,  a 
second  lake  basin,  the  tunnel  of  Monte  Furado  ("pierced  mountains"),  excavated  by 
the  Eomans  to  facilitate  their  mining  oj)erations,  and  finally  rushes  through  a 
gorge  intersecting  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  and  one  of  the  wildest  in  all  Spain, 
with  precipitous  walls  more  than  1,000  feet  in  height.  Immediatel)'  below  the 
confluence  with  the  Mino  a  second  gorge  has  to  be  passed,  but  then  the  waters  of 
the  river  expand,  and  flow  into  the  sea  through  a  wide  estuary.  Below  Tuy,  for  a 
distance  of  about  twenty  miles,  the  river  is  navigable.  But  though  of  small  service 
to  navigation,  the  Mino  is  nevertheless  one  of  the  eight  great  rivers  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula,  and  proportionately  to  the  extent  of  its  basin  it  is  the  most  copious.! 

The  water  of  this  and  other  rivers  is  not  needed  for  agricultui'al  purposes,  for  it 
rains  abundantly  in  Galicia  and  the  Asturias,  and  the  emerald  meadows  of  these 
provinces  are  as  famous  as  those  of  England.     The  flora,  however,  is  upon   the 

•  Climate  in  1858  : — Oiiedo  :  750  feet  above  the  sea-level,  mean  temperature, 49-46°  F. ;  extremes,  23-9° 
and  82";  rainfall,  81-3  inches.  Santiago  :  720  feet  above  seA-level,  mean  temperature,  O9-07'' ;  extremes,  28° 
and  95' ;   rainfall,  42'7  inches. 

Area  of  I-en^hoj  Awrairp  Avorao-P  Surface  Drainage 

Catchment  Main  eJS?^  Dischailre  in  Proportion  to 

Basin.  Bnmch.  Itainlau.  UiscUai-ge.  EainfaU. 

Sq.  m.  Miles.  Inches.  Cub. ft.persec.  Percent, 

t  Miiio  (and  SU)      .     .       9,650  190  47  17,700  50 

Duero 38,610  507  20  22,950  40 

Tajo  (Tagus)    .     .     .      28,960  556  16  11,600  33 

CTuadiana(andZimcara)23,170  553  14  6,680  25 

Guadalqui\-ir   .     .     .      21,240  348  19  9,220  30 

Segura         ....        8,500  217  12  710  10 

Jficar 5.800  318  13  880  15 

Ebro        25,100  466  18  7,100  20 

Total    .     .   161,030  16  75,810  33 


453 


SPAIN. 


whole  more  southerly  in  its  features  than  that  of  the  countries  to  the  north  of  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  The  orchards  produce  not  only  apples,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts, 
but  also  oranges,  and  in  a  garden  at  Oviedo  dates  ripen  in  the  open  air.  The 
great  moisture,  however,  prevents  certain  plants  from  attaining  the  commercial 
importance  they  would  otherwise  possess.  The  mulberry  flourishes,  but  the  culture 
of  silk-worms  has  onlj-  yielded  inditfereiit  results,  and  even  the  grapes,  except  in 
a  few  favoured  localities,  yield  but  sour  wine  of  disagreeable  flavour.  Cider,  on 
the  other  hand,  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  is  even  exported  to  America. 

Fig.  182. — Thb  Penas  de  Eurufa. 

saJe  1  :  (580,000. 


1(1  llUes. 


The  Asturian  boasts  of  having  never  submitted  to  the  yoke  of  Mussulmans. 
Some  of  the  mountain  districts  preserved  their  independence  throughout,  and 
nowhere  could  the  Arabs  maintain  themselves  for  any  length  of  time.  Oviedo 
was  called  the  "  city  of  bishops,"  from  the  great  number  of  prelates  who  found  a 
refuge  there.  The  Galicians  were  equally  successful  in  their  resistance  to  the 
Moors,  and  the  blood  of  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  these  remote  provinces  is  thus 
purer  than  anywhere  else  in  Spain. 

In   some  districts    the  customs  are  said  to  have  remained  unchanged   since 


SAXTAXDEE,  THE  ASTUEIAS,  AND  GALICLl.  457 

tlie  time  of  the  Romans.  The  herdsmen,  or  raqueros,  of  Leitariegos,  on  the  Upper 
JVarcea,  form  almost  a  distinct  tribe.  They  keep  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  Astu- 
rians,  and  always  marry  amongst  themselves.  Old  dialects  maintain  their  ground. 
The  peasants  on  the  coast  of  Cantabria  talk  their  bable,  and  in  Galicia  the  dialects 
differ  even  from  village  to  village.  The  fjallego,  especially  as  spoken  near  the 
Mifio,  is  Portuguese  rather  than  Spanish,  but  a  Lusitanian  is  nevertheless  unable 
to  understand  a  GaKcian,  owing  to  the  curious  sing-song  intonation  of  the  latter. 

The  country  supports  a  dense  population,  but  there  are  few  towns.  Many  of 
these  consist  merely  of  a  church,  a  town-hall,  and  an  inn.  The  homesteads  are 
scattered  over  the  whole  country.  This  may  be  due  to  an  innate  love  of  nature, 
or  perhaps,  as  in  the  Basque  provinces,  to  the  security  which  the  country  has 
enjoyed  during  centuries.  Foreign  and  civil  wars  have  scarcely  ever  affected  these 
outlying  provinces  of  Spain.  The  manners  are  gentle,  and  the  bloodthirsty  bull- 
faghts  of  the  Custilians  unknown.  The  isolation  and  peace  in  which  the  Cantabrians 
were  permitted  to  exist  did  not,  however,  prove  of  advantage  in  all  respects. 
Elsewhere  in  Europe,  nobles,  priests,  citizens,  and  the  peasantry,  when  threatened 
by  danger,  felt  constrained  to  make  concessions  to  each  other.  Not  so  in  the 
Asturias,  where  the  peasants  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  serfs,  and  sold  with 
the  land.  At  the  commencement  of  this  century  nearly  the  whole  of  the  land  in 
the  two  Asturias  was  in  the  hands  of  twenty-four  proprietors,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
ing Galicia  the  conditions  were  not  much  more  favourable.  Matters  have  changed 
since  then.  The  lords  have  grown  poor,  the  monasteries  have  been  suppressed, 
and  the  industrious  Asturians  and  Galicians  have  invested  their  hard-earned  savings 
in  land.  Formerly  the  feudal  lords  leased  the  land  to  the  cultivators,  who  rendered 
homage  and  paid  a  quit-rent,  the  lease  remaining  in  force  during  the  reign  of  two  or 
three  kings,  for  a  hundred  years,  or  even  for  three  hundred  and  twenty-nine  years, 
according  to  the  custom  of  different  districts.  These  leases,  however,  frequently 
led  to  disputes ;  the  leaseholders,  on  the  expiration  of  their  leases,  often  refused  to 
surrender  possession,  and  in  numerous  instances  the  law  courts  sustained  them 
in  this  refusal. 

The  Galicians  on  the  coast  divide  their  time  between  the  cultivation  of  the 
land  and  fishing.  During  the  season  no  less  than  20,000  men,  with  3,000  or  4,000 
boats,  spread  their  nets  in  the  Bays  of  La  Corufia,  Arosa,  Pontevedra,  and  Vigo, 
where  tunny-fish  and  sardines  abound.  The  local  consumption  of  sardines  is  enor- 
mous, and  La  Corufia  alone  exports  about  17,000  tons  annually  to  America.  These 
pursuits,  however,  are  not  capable  of  supporting  an  increasing  population,  and 
thousands  of  Galicians  emigrate  annually.  Thrifty  and  clannish,  they  usually 
succeed  in  amassing  a  small  competency,  and  those  among  them  who  return  exercise 
a  civilising  influence  upon  their  less-cultivated  countrymen.  Ignorance  and  poverty, 
with  all  their  attendant  evils,  are  great  in  Galicia,  and  leprosy  and  elephantiasis 
are  common  diseases. 

One  great  hindrance  to  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country  consists 
in  the  paucity  of  roads  and  railways.  A  beginning  has  been  made,  but,  looking 
to  the  financial  condition  of  Spain,  progress  will  hardly  be  rapid. 


468 


SPAIN. 


Most  of  the  towns  of  the  Asturias  are  close  to  the  coast.  Castro-Urdiales, 
Laredo,  and  Santona,  immediately  to  the  west  of  the  Basque  provinces,  have 
frequently  served  as  naval  stations.  The  roadstead  of  Santona  is  one  of  the  most 
coramodious  and  best  sheltered  of  the  peninsula,  and  when  Napoleon  gave  Spain 
to  his  brother  Joseph  he  retained  possession  of  that  place,  and  began  fortifications 
which  would  have  converted  it  into  a  French  (jril)raltar. 

The  great  commercial  port  of  the  country  is  Santander,  with  its  excellent 
harbour,  quays,  docks,  and  warehouses,  built  upon  land  won  from  the  sea.  San- 
tander is  the  natural  outlet  of  the  Castiles,  and  exports  the  flour  of  Valladolid  and 

Fig.  183. — EiAs  OF  La  CoruSa  a>d  Feuiioi.. 
Scale  1  :  210,400. 


2  jriles. 


Palencia,  as  well  as  the  woollen  stuffs  kno\vn  as  norianan  and  hone^an  from  the 
places  where  they  are  manufactured.  It  supplies  the  interior  with  the  colonial 
produce  of  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico,  and  its  merchants  keep  up  regular  intercourse 
with  France,  England,  Hamburg,  and  Scandina\'ia.*  The  ship-building  yards 
at  the  head  of  the  bay  have  lost  their  former  importance,  and  the  manufacture  of 
cigars  is  now  the  great  industry  of  the  country.  Sardinero,  a  bathing- place 
to  the  north  of  the  town,  and  the  hot  springs  of  Alcedo,  Ontaneda,  Las  Caldas 
de  Besaya,  in  the  hills  to  the  south,  are  favourite  places  of  resort. 

Along  the  coast  to  the  west  of  Santander,  as  far  as   Gijon,  we  only  meet  with. 

•  Imports  (1873),  £2,348,720;  exports,  £2,341,360. 


SANTANDEE,  THE  ASTUEIAS,  AND  GALICIA.  459 

villages,  such  as  San  Martin  de  la  Arena  (the  port  of  the  decayed  town  of  Santillana), 
San  Vicente  de  la  Barquera,  Llanes,  Rivadesella,  and  Lastres.  Nor  is  Gijon,  with 
its  huge  tobacco  factory,  a  place  of  importance,  though  formerly  it  was  the  capital 
of  all  Astiirias.  It  exports,  however,  the  coal  brought  by  rail  from  Sarna  (Langres), 
and  with  Aviles,  on  the  other  side  of  the  elevated  Cabo  de  Pefias,  enjoys  the 
advantage  of  being  the  port  of  Oviedo,  situated  in  a  tributary  valley  of  the  Nalon, 
fifteen  miles  in  the  interior.  Oviedo  has  flourishing  iron- works,  a  university,  and  a 
fine  Gothic  cathedral,  said  to  be  richer  in  relics  than  any  other  church  in  the 
world.  The  mountain  of  Naronca  shelters  the  town  against  northerly  winds,  and 
its  climate  is  delicious.  The  environs  abound  in  delightful  spots.  At  Cangas  de 
Onis,  which  was  the  first  capital  of  the  kingdom,  founded  by  St.  Pelagius,  but 
now  merely  a  village  in  a  charming  valley,  are  the  caverns  of  Covadonga,  in  which 
the  ashes  of  the  saint  have  found  a  last  resting-place,  and  which  are  consequently 
objects  of  the  highest  veneration  to  patriotic  Spaniards.  Trubia,  the  Government 
gun  and  small-arms  factory,  lies  seven  miles  to  the  west  of  Oviedo. 

Cudillero,  Luarca,  Navia  (a  place  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Ham,  the 
son  of  Noah),  Castropol,  and  Galician  Rivadeo  are  mere  fishing  villages,  and  only 
when  we  reach  the  magnificent  rias  opening  out  into  the  Atlantic  do  we  again 
meet  with  real  towns.  The  first  of  these  is  Ferrol,  which  was  only  a  village 
up  to  the  middle  of  last  century,  but  has  since  been  converted  into  a  great  naval 
station  and  fortress,  bristling  with  guns,  and  containing  dockj^ards  and  arsenals. 

La  Coruna,  the  Groj'ne  of  English  sailors,  depends  rather  upon  commerce,  manu- 
factures, and  fishing  than  upon  its  military  establishments  and  fortifications.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  towns  of  Spain,  and  its  favourable  geographical 
position  will  enable  it,  on  the  comjjletion  of  the  railway  now  building,  consider- 
ably to  extend  its  commerce,  which  at  present  is  almost  confined  to  England.* 
On  a  small  island  near  it  stands  the  Tower  of  Hercules,  the  foundations  of 
which  date  back  to  the  Romans,  if  not  PhcEuicians.  It  was  from  the  ria  of  Coruila 
that  the  "  Invincible  Armada  "  set  out  upon  its  disastrous  expedition. 

Each  of  the  rias  of  Southern  Galicia  has  its  port  or  ports.  That  of  Corcubion 
is  sheltered  by  the  Cape  of  Finisterre  ;  on  the  ria  of  Noya  are  the  small  towns  of 
Noya  and  Muros ;  that  of  Arosa  is  frequented  by  vessels  which  convey  emigrants 
from  the  ports  of  Padron  and  Carril  to  La  Plata ;  the  ria  of  Pontevedra  extends 
to  the  town  after  which  it  is  named  ;  and  farther  south  still,  the  towns  of  Vigo 
and  Bayona  rise  on  the  shore  of  a  magnificent  bay,  protected  by  a  group  of 
islands  known  to  the  ancients  as  "  Isles  of  the  Gods."  Vigo,  with  its  excellent 
harbour,  has  become  the  great  commercial  port  of  the  country, t  but  is,  perhaj)s, 
better  known  on  account  of  the  galleons  sunk  by  Dutch  and  English  privateers.- 

Three  of  the  principal  inland  towns  of  Galicia — viz.  Lugo,  Orense,  and  Tuy — 
rise  on  the  banks  of  the  Mifio.  The  old  Roman  city  of  Lugo  (Lucus  Augusti) 
is  enclosed  within  mediaeval  walls,  and  has  warm  sulphur  springs.  Orense,  with  its 
superb  old  bridge,  is  likewise  celebrated  for  its  hot  springs,  or  hiinjas,  which  are 

*  Imports  (1873),  £310,227;  exports,  £210,532. 
t  Imports  (1873),  £873,286;  exports,  £381,036. 


460 


SPAIN. 


said  to  raise  sensibly  the  temperature  of  the  phiin  iu  winter,  and  supply  the  whole 
town  with  water  for  domestic  purposes.  Tuy,  opposite  the  Portuguese  town  of 
Valenra  do  Minho,  is  important  only  as  a  frontier  fortress.  Santiago  de  Com- 
postela,  the  famous  old  capital  of  Galicia,  on  a  hill  near  the  winding  banks  of  the 
Saria,  is  the  most  populous  town  of  Xorth-westcrn  Spain.  It  was  here  the  grave  of 
St.  James  the  apostle  was  discovered  in  the  ninth  century.  The  attraction  which 
it  formerly  exercised  upon  pilgrims  was  immense.* 

IX. — The  Prksent  and  Fitlkk  of  Spain. 

Contemporaneous  Spain  is  full  of  disorder.  The  political,  financial,  and  social 
machinery  is  out  of  joint,  and  civil  war,  active  or  latent,  is  carried  on  almost  in 
every  province.    The  ruin  wrought  by  these  incessant  domestic  wars  is  incalculable. 


Fig.  184. — Saxtosa  anp  Santanuer. 

Scale  1  :  SGO.OOO. 


oMik 


Successive  (jrovemments  have  had  recourse  to  miserable  expedients  without  being 
able  to  disguise  the  bankrupt  condition  of  the  country.  The  creditors  of  the  State, 
no  less  than  the  Government  officials,  remained  unpaid,  and  even  schools  had  to 
be  closed  because  the  pittance  due  to  the  schoolmaster  was  not  forthcoming. 

But  in  spite  of  this  apparent  ruin  real  progress  has  been  made.  In  order  to 
fairly  judge  Spain  we  must  remember  that  the  period  when  the  Inquisition  was 
permitted  to  commit  its  judicial  murders  is  not  very  remote.  In  1780  a  woman 
of  Seville  was  burnt  at  the  stake  for  "  sorcery  and  witchcraft."  At  that  time  the 
greater  part  of  Spain  was  held  in  mortmain,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  remainder 

♦  Population  of  towns:— Santander,  21,000;   Ovicdo,  9,000  ;  Gijon,  6,000;  Santiago  de  Composteia, 
29,000 ;  La  Coruna,  20,000  ;  Ferrol,  17,000 ;  Lugo,  8,000  :  Vigo,  6,000 ;  Orense,  5,000  ;  Pontevedra,  4,200. 


THE  PEESEXT  AND  FUTUEE  OF  SPAIN.  461 

was  very  in  differently  attended  to.  Ignorance  was  universal,  more  especially  at 
the  universities,  where  science  was  held  in  derision. 

The  great  events  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  roused  the 
Spaniards  from  their  torpor,  and  the  country,  in  spite  of  temporary  checks,  has 
increased  in  population  and  wealth.  Labour  is  more  highl}-  respected  now  than  it 
was  formerly,  and  whilst  monasteries  and  convents  have  been  emptied,  the  factories 
are  crowded  with  workmen.  For  much  of  this  progress  Spain  is  indebted  to 
foreigners.  Millions  have  been  invested  by  them,  and,  though  the  expected  profits 
have  scarcely  ever  been  realised,  the  country  at  large  has  permanently  profited  from 
this  inflow  of  capital.  The  English  have  given  an  immense  impetus  to  agriculture 
by  buying  the  wines  of  Andalusia,  the  corn  and  flour  of  the  Castilians,  and  the 
cattle  of  the  Galicians.  They  have  likewise  developed  the  mining  industry  of 
Huelva,  Linares,  Cartagena,  and  SomoiTostro.  The  French  have  vastly  aided 
the  manufacturing  industry.  Foreign  capitalists  and  engineers  have  establi.shed 
steamboat  lines  and  railways.  The  small  towns  of  the  interior  are  awakening 
from  their  lethargy,  and  modern  life  is  beginning  to  pulsate  through  their  veins.* 

In  intellectual  matters  Spain  has  made  even  greater  progress.  Ignorance  is 
still  a  great  power,  especially  in  the  Castiles,  where  schoolmasters  are  little 
respected,  populous  towns  are  without  libraries,  and  catechisms  and  almanacs  are 
the  only  literature  of  the  peasantry.  But  the  position  which  Spain  now  holds  in 
literature  and  the  arts  sufiiciently  proves  that  the  country  of  Cervantes  and 
Velasquez  is  about  to  resume  its  place  amongst  the  other  countries  of  Europe.  In 
science,  however,  Spain  lags  far  behind,  and  Michael  Servetus  is  the  onlj'^  Chris- 
tian Spaniard  whose  works  mark  an  epoch  in  the  progress  of  human  knowledge. 
But  the  spirit  of  inquiry  at  one  time  alive  amongst  the  Moors  of  Andalusia  may 
possibly  revive  amongst  their  descendants. 

It  is  very  much  to  be  desired  that  intellectual  progress  should  mollify  the 
manners  of  the  people. t  It  is  a  scandal  that  the  "  noble  science  of  bull-baiting" 
should  still  meet  with  so  large  a  measure  of  support  in  Spain.  These  bull-fights,  as 
well  as  the  cock-fights  so  popular  in  Andalusia,  are  sjjorts  unworthy  a  great  nation, 
and  should  be  put  down,  just  as  i\eautosdafe  have  been  put  down. 

Since  a  generation  or  two  Spain  has  got  rid  of  most- of  her  colonies,  which  only 

•  Of  the  total  area  26-1  per  cent,  consists  of  arable  land,  28  of  vineyards,  1"  of  olive  plantation,  13-7 
of  meadows  and  pasture,  16-3  per  cent,  of  -woods  ;  39-4  per  cent,  are  uncultivated.  The  total  value  of 
agricultural  produce  is  estimated  at  £80,000,000. 

The  produce  of  the  mines  i  i  1871  represented  a  value  of  £6,271,000. 

In  186,5  there  were  enumerated  680,373  horses,  1,020,.512  mules,  1,298,334  asses,  2,967,303  heads  of 
horned  cattle,  22,468,969  sheep,  4,531,736  goats,  4,.531.228  pigs,  and  3,104  camels. 

The  products  of  manufactures  are  estimated  by  Garrido  at  £63,480,000.  Imports  (1871),  £22,780,000, 
(1874)  £1.5,280,000  ;  exports  (1871),  £17,688,000.  (1874)  £16,120,000. 

Conunenial  marine  (1874),  2,836  sea-going  vessels  (inclusive  of  212  steamers),  of  625,184  tons,  besides 
6,498  lighters  (26,000  tons)  and  12,000  fishing-boats. 

Eailways,  3,602  miles  in  1876. 

t  Educational  statistics  (1870)  : — 

Men.  Women.  Total. 

Able  to  read  and  write     ....     2,414,000  716,000  3,130,000 

Able  to  read  onlv 317,000  389,000  706,000 

lUiterate   .     .     '. 5,035,000  6,803,000  11,838,000 


462 


SPAIN. 


biudered   ber   moral  and  material  progress.      The  metropolis  is  no  longer   called 


Fig.    185.— OVIEDO    AND    GlJON. 

Scale  1  :  300,000. 


■  5  Kilee. 


upon   to    uphold    slavery,  the    Inquisition,    commercial  monopolies,    and    similar 
institutions,  "devised  to  insure  the  happy  government  of  these  colonies."     These 


THE  PRESENT  AND  FUTUEE  OF  SPAIN.  463 

latter  certainly  have  had  their  revolutions  and  counter-revolutions,  but  they  have 

Fig.  186. — TowKR  OF  Hercules  (Lighthouse),  Coruna. 


made  some  progress  in  population  and  wealth.     Unfortunately  the  entire  colonial 
empire  was  not  lost.     Cuba  and  the  Philippine  Islands  are  frequently  represented 


464 


SPAIN. 


as  adding  to  the  wealth  of  Spain,  and  huge  sums  have  certainly  been  paid  by 
them  into  the  treasury.  But  these  results  have  been  achieved  at  the  cost  of 
fearful  suifering  and  demoralisation  to  governors  and  governed,  and  unless  Spain 
adopts  the  colonial  system  of  England,  by  granting  self-government  to  colonies,  it 
will  to  a  certainty  lose  the  last  shreds  of  its  colonial  empire,  after  having  exhausted 
its  strength  in  vain  efforts  to  maintain  it. 

But  though  the  colonies  be  lost,  the  influence  of  Spain  upon  the  rest  of  the 
world  will  endure  for  centuries.     Spain  has  impressed  her  genius   upon  every 

Fig.  187. — RiA  DE  Vioo. 

Sonle  1  :  280,000. 


9°  :>.v  w.dfT^ 


I.Oll»\f 


■ia/.fl!oM  ,    -foc^'^ 


^a 


5  Miles. 


country  subjected  at  one  time  or  other  to  her  power.  Sicily,  Naples,  Sardinia, 
and  even  Lombardy  still  exhibit  traces  of  Spanish  influence  in  their  architecture 
and  customs.  In  Spanish  America  we  find  towns  inhabited  by  Indians  which 
are  quite  Spanish  in  their  aspect,  and  almost  resemble  detached  portions  of  Badajoz 
and  Yalladolid.  The  Indians  themselves  have  adopted  the  Castilian  tongue,  and 
with  it  Castilian  manners  and  modes  of  thought.  A  vast  territory,  twice  the  size 
of  Europe,  and  capable  of  supporiing  millions  of  inhabitants,  is  occupied  now  by 
Spanish-speaking  peoples. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION. 


465 


X. GrOVERNMENT     AND     ADMINISTRATION. 

Since  September,  1868,  when  a  revolution  upset  the  Government  of  Isabella  II., 
Spain  has  passed  through  a  series  of  revolutions  and  convulsions,  terminating  in 
December,  187-i,  in  the  accession  of  Alfonso  XII.,  a  son  of  Isabella.  Soon  after- 
wards the  revolt  in  the  Basque  provinces  raised  by  Don  Carlos,  the  "  legitimate  " 
king  of  the  country,  was  supj)ressed,  and  the  work  of  internal  organization  could 
begin.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  King  and  the  Cortes.  These  latter 
include  a  Senate  and  a  House   of  Deputies.     The  Senate  consists  of  hereditary 

Fig.  188. — Railroads  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 
Scale  1  :  10,.300,000. 


^^AVaiejicia- 

'^^ 

W' 

^^^{u;a/i/e 

fs 

^^afthaaena 

V 

^ 

members  (such  as  royal  princes  and  grandees),  of  life  members  chosen  by  the 
King,  and  of  senators  elected  by  corporations.  The  members  of  the  House  of 
Deputies  are  elected  for  five  years.  The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Senate 
are  appointed  by  the  King,  who  enjoys  the  right  of  dissolving  the  Cortes  on  con- 
dition of  fresh  elections  being  ordered  within  three  months. 

These  governmental  revolutions  scarcely  affected  the  administration  of  the 
country.  The  treasury  is  always  empty,  the  annual  receipts  do  not  suffice  to  pay 
the  interest  upon  the  national  debt,  taxes  have  increased,  the  conscription  demands 
more  men  than  ever,  and  the  schools  diminish  in  numbers.* 


*  Revenue  (1876-7),  £26,.'!00,069  ;  rstimated  expenditure,  £26,2ol,.518,  of  which  more  than  half  is  for 
army  and  navy  ;  national  debt,  £420,322,000. 


466 


SPAIN. 


The  political  and  administrative  divisions  of  the  country  have  remained  the 
same  since  18-Jl.  Spain  is  divided  into  forty-nine  provinces,  including  the 
Canaries.  Each  province  is  suhdivided  into  districts,  and  has  its  civil  governor. 
The  communes  are  governed  by  an  alcalde,  or  mayor,  assisted  by  an  ai/i(iitainiento,  or 
municipal  council,  of  from  four  to  twenty-eight  members.  The  judicial  adminis- 
tration is  modelled  on  that  of  France.  There  are  1),4UU  ju.stices  of  the  peace  (one 
for  each  commune),  about  500  inferior  courts,  15  courts  of  appeal,  and  a  supreme 
court  sitting  at  Madrid. 

For  military  purjwses  continental  Sp;iin  is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  each 


FiR.     18'.).  — FoHEIGN    COMMEUCE    Ol     Till-     IllKUIAN    1'eMNSII.A. 


KTW.UCr 


6  8     MUlions   of  Found 


Stenizi^, 


under  a  captain-general.  These  are  New  Castile,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Andalusia, 
Valencia  with  Miircia,  Galicia,  Granada,  Old  Castile,  Estremadura,  lUirgos, 
Navarra,  and  the  Basque  provinces.  The  Balearic  Isles,  the  Canaries,  Cuba, 
Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines  constitute  five  additional  districts.  Military 
service  is  compulsory,  but  substitutes  are  admitted  on  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom. 
The  annual  levy  varies  exceedingl}-,  and  as  many  as  80,000  men  are  officially  stated 
to  have  been  levied  in  a  single  year,  though  00,000  would  appear  to  be  the  utmost 
the  population  can  sujjply.  The  term  of  service  is  seven  years  in  the  cavalrj'  and 
artillery,  eight  years  in  the  infantry,  of  which  three  are  passed  in  the  "  provincial 
militia."     About   100,000  men  are  supposed  to  be  actually  under  arms  in  the 


GOVEBNMENT  AND  ADMINISTEATION. 


467 


peninsula,  130,000  are  on  furlough, -and  70,000  men  are  stationed  in  the  colonies, 
mostly  in  Cuba,  where  about  one- fourth  of  the  total  strength  jjerish  annually. 

•  The  principal  fortresses  are  St.  Sebastian,  Santoua,  and  Santander,  on  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  ;  Ferrol,  La  Corufia,  and  Yigo,  on  the  rias  of  Galicia  ;  Ciudad  Eodrigo, 
on  the  Portuguese  frontier ;  Cadiz  and  Tarifa,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar  ;  Malaga,  Cartagena,  Alicante,  and  Barcelona,  on  the  Mediterranean  ; 
Figueras,  Pamplona,  and  Zaragoza,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 

The  navy  consists  of  123  steamers,  propelled  by  engines  of  2-1,694  horse-power, 
armed  with  755  guns,  and  manned  by  14,000  sailors  and  5,500  marines.  Six 
of  these  vessels  are  ironclad  frigates.  The  number  of  superior  officers  is  exceed- 
ingly large,  and  their  salaries  weigh  heavily  upon  the  ti-easury. 

Fig.    190. — DiAOKAM    EXHIBITING    THE   ExTENT    OF    THE    C.\STILIAN    L.INGLAGE. 
Scjle  1  :  36,000^00. 


Officially  the  pri\-ilegcs  of  the  nobility  have  been  abrogated.  The  number  of 
"  noblemen  "  is,  perhaps,  larger  in  Spain  than  anywhere  else  in  Europe,  for  the 
population  of  entire  provinces,  such  as  the  Vascongadas  and  the  Asturias,  claims 
to  have  "blue  blood"  in  its  veins.  In  1787  no  less  than  480,000  "gentlemen" 
were  enumerated,  not  including  minors,  and  if  the  proportion  is  the  same  now, 
there  must  exist  at  the  least  3,000,000  Spaniards  who  claim  to  be  hidalgos,  or 
"  sons  of  somebody."  About  1,500  grandees  are  privileged  by  custom  to  remain 
covered  in  the  presence  of  the  King,  and  about  200  of  these  belong  to  the  highest 
rank.  All  of  these  do  not,  however,  owe  their  rank  to  birth,  for  many  plebeians, 
taking  advantage  of  the  financial  miseries  of  the  country,  have  succeeded  in  getting 
themselves  ennobled.  The  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  founded  in  1431  by  Philip 
the  Good,  is  one  of   the  distinctions  most   coveted  by  princes   and  diplomatists. 


468 


SPAIN. 


The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  that  of  the  State,  and  its  prelates  enjoy  great 
privileges,  but  all  other  confessions  are  supposed  to  be  tolerated.  The  schools, 
unfortunately,  still  remain  in  the  hands  of  ecclesiastics,  who  likewise  exercise  a 
censorship  with  respect  to  pieces  to  be  produced  on  the  stage.  Formerly  Spain 
was  the  most  priest-ridden  country  in  Europe.  At  the  close  of  last  century  there 
were  144,000  priests,  71,000  monks,  and  35,000  nuns,  but  only  34,000  merchants. 
"War  and  revolutions  played  havoc  with  the  conventual  institutions,  but  as  recently 
as  1835  they  still  harboured  50,000  inmates.  Subsequently  the  whole  of  them 
were  suppressed,  and  in  ISOO  the  last  Spanisli  monk  retired  from  the  Carthusian 
monastery  of  Granada  to  find  a  refuge  in  Belgium.  Since  then,  however,  the 
laws  of  the  land  have  again  been  relaxed  in  favor  of  monks  and  priests.  There 
are  9  archl)ishops  and  54  bishops. 


Area  and  Population  of  Spain  and  its  Colonies. 

Area. 
Sq.  m. 
Catalonia  (Cataluiia) : — 
Lerida  ....  4,77'5 
Gerona ....  2,272 
Barcelona  .  .  .  2,985 
TaiTagona      .     .     2,451 

Aragon  : — 

Iluesca ....     0,878 
Zuragoza    (Sara- 

gossa)     .     .     .     6,607 
Tcruel  ....     .5,491 

Xavarkaand  Basqie  Puov: 
congadas) : — 

Navarra     .     .     .  4,046 

Vizcaya  (Biscay)  849 

GuipOzcoa      .     .  728 

Alava    ....  1,205 

ASTUKIAS: — 
Oviodo  . 

Galicia  : — 

Orcnse  ....  2.739 

Pontfvedra     .     .  1,7.'!9 

La  Corufia      .     .  3,079 

Lugo     ....  3,787 

Total  Spain  192,959 


Area. 
Sq.  m. 

Population 

11870). 

Density. 

Xkw  Castile  (CastiUa) : — 

Madrid .     . 

.     .     2,997 

487,482 

162 

Toledo  .     . 

.     .     5,586 

342,272 

61 

Guadalajara 

.     .     4,870 

20S,638 

41 

Cuenca .      . 

.     .     6,725 

238,731 

35 

Ciudad  Real 

.     .     7,840 

264,649 

34 

Old  Castile  :- 

- 

Santandcr  . 

.     .     2,113 

241,581 

114 

Burgos  .     . 

.     .     5,650 

353,560 

62 

Logrofio     . 

.     .     1,945 

182,941 

94 

Avila     .     . 

.     .     29S1 

175,219 

60 

Segovia 

.     .     2.714 

150,812 

53 

Soria     .     . 

.     .     3,836 

158,699 

41 

Paloncia     . 

.     .     3,126 

184,668 

59 

VaUadoUd. 

.     .     3,043 

242,384 

80 

Leon  : — 

Salamanca 

.     .     4,940 

280,870 

57 

Zamora 

.     .     4,135 

250,968 

61 

Leon      .     . 

.     .     6,167 

350,992 

56 

Estrbm.vdvra  : 

— 

C&ceres 

.     .     8,013 

302,455 

34 

Badajoz 

.     .     8,687 

431,922 

49 

Andalusia  : — 

Almeria 

.     .     3,302 

361, .553 

no 

Cadiz     .     . 

.     .     2,809 

426,499 

152 

Cordova     . 

.     .     5,190 

382,652 

73 

Granada     . 

.     .     4,937 

485,346 

98 

Huelva .     . 

.     .     4,122 

196,j69 

48 

Jaen      .     . 

.     .     5,184 

392,100 

75 

Malaga.     . 

.     .     2,824 

505,010 

180 

Seville  .     . 

.     .     5,295 

515,011 

97 

Valencia:  — 

Castcllon    d( 

.     la 

Plana     . 

.     .     2,446 

296,222 

121 

Valencia    . 

.     .     4,352 

e65,141 

153 

Alicante     . 

.     .     2,098 

440,470 

210 

Mvrcia: — 

Albacete     . 

.     .     5,972 

220,973 

37 

Murcia .     . 

.     .     4,478 

439,067 

98 

Balearic  Isles 

: — 

Baleares     . 

.     .     1,860 

289,225 

155 

Population 

(1870). 

330,348 
325,110 
762.555 
350,395 


274,623 

401,894 
252,201 

NCEs  (Vas- 

318,687 
187,926 
180,743 
103,320 


402,796 
480,145 
630,.504 
475,836 

16,»35,506 


Africa  : — 
Canaries     .     . 
West  Coast    . 

America  : — 
Cuba     .     .    . 
Pueito  Rico    • 

Oceania  : — 
Philippines     . 
Carolines    .     . 
Pelew  Islands 
Marianas   .     . 

Total  Colonies 

Spain  and    ■{ 
Colonies    ) 


2,808  283,859 

850  35,000 

45.983  1,400,000 

3,596  625,000 

65,870  6,000,000 

534  18,800 

345  10,000 

417  8,000 


Density. 

69 
143 
256 
143 

47 

61 
46 


80 
221 
248 

86 


4,091         610,883        152 


120,403     8,380,659 
313,362   25,216,165 


147 
282 
210 
126 

87 


101 
41 


30 
173 


91 
35 
29 
19 

70 
80 


PORTUGAL.* 


I. — General  Aspects. 

lORTUGAL,  one  of  the  smallest  states  of  Europe,  was  nevertheless 
during  a  short  epoch  one  of  the  most  powerful. 

It  might  appear  at  the  first  glance  that  Portugal  ought  to  be  a 
member  of  a  state  including  the  whole  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  ; 
but  it  is  neither  to  chance  nor  to  events  purely  historical  that 
Portugal  owes  its  separate  existence.  The  country  is  one  by  its  climate,  fauna,  and 
vegetation,  and  the  inhabitants  dwelling  within  it  naturally  adopted  the  same  sort 
of  life,  nourished  the  same  ideas,  and  joined  in  the  same  body  politic.  It  was  by 
advancing  along  the  coast,  from  river  to  river,  from  the  Douro  to  the  Minho  and 
Tejo,  from  the  Tejo  to  the  Guadiana,  that  Portugal  constituted  itself  an  independent 
state. 

Soil  and  climate  mark  off  Portugal  very  distinctly  from  the  rest  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula.  Speaking  generally,  that  country  embraces  the  Atlantic  slopes  of  the 
plateau  of  Spain,  and  the  limit  of  the  heavy  rains  brought  by  westerly  winds 
coincides  very  nearly  with  the  political  boundary  between  the  two  countries.  On 
one  side  of  the  line  we  have  a  humid  atmosphere,  frequent  rains,  and  luxuriant 
forests ;  on  the  other  a  brazen  sky,  a  parched  soil,  naked  rocks,  and  treeless  plains. 
These  abundant  rains  convert  the  feeble  streams  flowing  from  the  plateau  into  great 
rivers.  The  natural  obstacles,  such  as  rapids,  which  obstruct  the  principal  amongst 
them,  are  met  with  near  the  political  frontier  of  the  country.  The  harbour  of 
Lisbon  was  the  kernel,  as  it  were,  around  which  the  rest  of  the  country  has  become 
crystallized.  Its  power  of  attraction  proved  equal  to  that  which  caused  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula  to  gravitate  towards  Madrid  and  Toledo. 

As  frequently  happens  where  neighbouring  nations  obey  different  laws  and 
are  made  to  fight  each  other  at  the  caprice  of  their  sovereigns,  there  is  no  love 
lost  between  Spaniards  and  Portuguese.  The  former,  being  the  stronger,  sneer  at 
"Portugueses  pocos  y  locos"  (small  and  crack-brained).  The  Portuguese  are  far 
more  demonstrative  in  giving  expression  to  their  aversion.     Formerly  "  Murderer 

*  Link  und  Hoffmannsegg,  "Voyage  en  Portugal;"  Minutoli,  "Portugal  nnd  seine  Kolonien  ; " 
Vogel,  "  Le  Portugal  et  ses  Colonies;"  Lady  Jackson,  "Fair  Lusitania;"  Latouche,  "Travels  in 
Portugal." 

34 


470 


PORTUGAL. 


of  the  Castilians  "  was  ii  favourite  sign-board  of  houses  of  entertainment,  and  the 
national  poetry  breathes  passionate  hatred  of  the  Spaniard.  This  animosity  nnist 
interfere  with  the  Iberian  union,  advocated  only  by  a  handful  of  people. 

Ancient  Lusitania  was  inhabited  by  Celtic  and  Iberian  tribes,  who  resisted  for 
a  considerable  time  the  conquering  arms  of  Rome.  Those  dwelling  near  the  coast 
had  been  subjected  to  the  influence  of  Greek,  Pha^nician,  and  Carthaginian 
colonists  ;  but  the  influence  exercised  by  the  Romans,  who  forced  their  language 
and  form   of  government  upon  the    people,   was  far   more  durable.      Suevi  and 

rig.  191. — Rainfall  of  the  Iukuian  Peninsula. 
Accordiat"  to  Jeline'i  and  Honn.     Scale  1  :  10,300,f»00. 


Visigoths  have  left  but  few  traces  of  their  presence.  The  Mohammedans  of 
various  races  have  largely  modified  the  blood  and  manners  of  the  inhabitants, 
especially  in  Algarve,  where  they  maintained  tliomselves  to  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  numerous  ruins  of  fortresses  existing  throughout  the 
country  bear  witness  to  the  severe  struggles  which  took  place  between  these  races 
before  uniformity  of  government  and  religion  was  established. 

The  Kings  of  Portugal,  taking  the  advice  of  the  Inquisition,  expelled  all  heretics. 
The  persecution  of  the  Moors  was  pitiless,  but  the  Jews  were  occasionally  granted 
a  respite.     The  Spanish  Jews  settled  near  the  frontier,  having  outwardly  embraced 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.  471 

the  Christian  religion,  were  permitted  to  remain ;  but  the  more  conscientious 
Jews  kept  true  to  their  faith,  and  carried  the  knowledge  they  possessed  to  other 
countries  of  Europe  and  to  the  East.  At  the  time  of  their  exile  they  were 
engaged  in  literature,  medicine,  and  law,  as  well  as  in  commerce ;  at  Lisbon  they 
had  founded  an  academy  of  high  repute ;  it  was  a  Jew  who  introduced  the  art  of 
printing  into  Portugal ;  and  Spinoza,  that  noble  and  powerful  thinker,  was  a  Jew 
of  Portuguese  extraction. 

But  the  Portuguese  have  not  only  the  blood  of  Arabs,  Berbers,  and  Jews  in 
their  veins,  they  are  likewise  much  mixed  with  negroes,  more  particularly  in  the 
south  and  along  the  coast.  The  slave  trade  existed  long  before  the  negroes  of 
Guinea  were  exported  to  the  plantations  of  America.  Damianus  a  Goes  estimated 
the  number  of  blacks  imported  into  Lisbon  alone  during  the  sixteenth  century  at 
10,000  or  12,000  per  annum.  If  contemporary  eye-witnesses  can  be  trusted, 
the  number  of  blacks  met  with  in  the  streets  of  Lisbon  equalled  that  of  the 
whites.  Not  a  house  but  had  its  negro  servants,  and  the  wealthy  owned  entire 
gangs  of  them.  The  immunity  of  Portuguese  immigrants  who  face  the  deadly 
climates  of  the  tropics  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  this  infusion  of  negro  blood,  but 
erroneously  as  we  think.  Most  of  these  immigrants  come  from  the  mountains  of 
the  north,  where  the  race  is  almost  pure  ;  and  if  the  Portuguese  become  accli- 
matized more  rapidly  than  individuals  of  other  nations,  they  owe  it  to  their  sobriety. 

At  the  present  day  it  is  the  Galicians  who  exercise  most  influence  upon  the 
population  of  Lusitania.  They  immigrate  in  large  numbers  to  Lisbon  and  other 
towns,  where  they  gain  their  living  as  bakers,  porters,  doorkeepers,  and  domestic 
servants.  Being  ridiculed  on  account  of  their  uncouth  language  and  rustic 
manners,  they  mix  but  little  with  the  rest  of  the  population.  Their  numbers, 
however,  are  ever  increasing,  and  their  thrift  and  industry  soon  place  them  in  a 
position  of  ease. 

The  mixture  of  these  diverse  elements  has  not  produced  a  handsome  race.  The 
Portuguese  possess  but  rarely  the  noble  mien  of  the  Spaniard.  Their  features, 
as  a  rule,  are  irregular,  the  nose  is  turned  up,  and  the  lips  are  thick.  Cripples 
are  rare  amongst  them,  but  so  are  tall  men.  Squat  and  short,  they  are  inclined  to 
corpulency.  The  women  cannot  boast  the  fiery  beauty  of  the  Spaniards,  but  have 
brilliant  eyes,  an  abundance  of  hair,  animated  features,  and  amiable  manners. 

Travellers  speak  highly  of  the  manners,  civility,  and  kindness  of  the  peasantry 
not  yet  contaminated  by  commerce.  The  cruelties  committed  by  Portuguese 
conquerors  in  the  Indies  and  the  New  World  have  given  the  nation  a  bad  reputa- 
tion, though,  as  a  rule,  the  Portuguese  has  compassion  for  all  sorts  of  suffering. 
He  is  a  gambler,  but  never  quarrels ;  he  is  fond  of  bull-fights,  but  takes  care  to 
wrap  up  the  bull's  horns  in  cork,  in  order  that  the  animal  may  be  saved  for  future 
contests  ;  and  he  is  exceedingly  kind  to  domestic  animals.  In  their  intercourse  the 
Portuguese  are  good-tempered,  obliging,  and  polished.  To  tell  a  Lusitanian  that 
he  has  been  "brought  up  badly  "  is  to  offend  him  most  seriously.  Their  oratory 
is  elegant,  though  ceremonious.  Even  the  peasants  express  themselves  with  a 
facility  and  command  of  words  remarkable  in  a  people  so  badly  educated.      Oaths 


472 


PORTUGAL. 


and  indecent  expressions  scarcely  ever  pass  their  nioutb,  and,  tliough  great  talkers, 
Fig.  192.-PouTUOiE8E  Types:    Peasa.vt  of  Ovak;  Woman  or  Leca  ;  Peasant  Woman  of  Ainrs. 


'TS.^'ilN 


^  "      ...  ■  •    .     ..''V  ::-^ 


>y|-^/ 


•'*"^v       '• 

^-^3^ 

,.f.'.''-^ 

■    .-      -* 

'<-^'pI--s> 

*'^£). 

. — >-'  ^ 

and  even  boasters,  they  are  most  guarded  in   their  conversation,     rortugal  has 


VALLEYS  OF  THE  MINHO,  DOUEO,  AND  MONDEGO.  473 

produced  great  orators,  and  one  of  her  poets,  Camoes,  is  amongst  the  most  illus- 
trious the  world  has  ever  seen.  On  the  other  hand,  Portugal  has  given  hirth 
to  no  great  artist,  for  Gran  Yasco  is  a  mythical  personage.  Camoes  himself  avows 
this  when  he  says,  "  Our  nation  is  the  first  because  of  its  great  qualities.  Our 
men  are  more  heroic  than  other  men;  our  women  better-looking  than  other  women ; 
and  we  excel  in  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  war,  excepting  in  the  art  of  painting." 

Portuguese  is  very  much  like  Castilian  as  far  as  root-words  and  general 
construction  are  concerned,  but  is  far  less  voluminous  and  sonorous.  Nasal  and 
hissing  sounds,  which  a  foreigner  finds  it  diflScult  to  pronounce,  abound,  but  there 
are  no  gutturals.  Arab  words  are  less  numerous  in  Portuguese  than  in  Castilian, 
but  the  Lusitanians,  as  well  as  the  Spaniards,  still  swear  by  the  god  of  the 
Mohammedans — Oxa}a  (Ojala)  ;  that  is,  "  If  Allah  wills  it." 

The  Portuguese  cannot  compare  in  numbers  with  the  other  nations  of  Europe, 
and  their  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  the  world  is  consequently  small.  At  one 
time  of  their  history,  however,  they  surpassed  all  other  nations  by  their  maritime 
enterprise.  The  Spaniards  certainly  shared  in  the  great  discoveries  of  the  fifteenth 
centur}-,  but  it  was  the  Portuguese  who  made  them  possible  by  first  venturing  to 
navigate  the  open  ocean.  It  was  a  Portuguese,  Magalhaes,  who  undertook  the 
first  voyage  round  the  world,  terminated  only  after  his  death.  A  similar  pre- 
eminence amongst  nations  will  never  be  met  with  again,  for  the  increased  facilities 
of  communication  exercise  a  levelling  influence  upon  all.  Portugal,  therefore,  can 
never  again  hope  to  resume  the  national  status  which  she  held  formerly,  but  her 
great  natural  resources  and  favourable  geographical  position  at  the  extremity  of 
the  continent  must  always  insure  her  an  honourable  place  amongst  them. 

II. — Northern  Portugal.     The  Valleys  of  the  Minho, 

DoURO,    AND    MoNDEGO. 

The  mountains  of  Lusitania  are  a  portion  of  the  great  orographical  system  of 
the  whole  peninsula ;  but  they  are  not  mere  spurs,  gradually  sinking  down  towards 
the  sea,  for  they  rise  into  independent  ranges ;  and  the  individuality  of  Portugal 
is  manifested  in  the  relief  of  its  soil  quite  as  much  as  in  the  history  of  its 
inhabitants. 

The  mountains  rising  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Portugal,  to  the  south  of 
the  Minho,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  outer  barrier  of  an  ancient  lake,  which 
formerly  covered  the  whole  of  the  plains  of  Old  Castile.  From  the  Pyrenees  to 
the  Sierra  de  Gata  this  barrier  was  continuous,  and  the  breaches  now  existing  date 
only  from  a  comparatively  recent  epoch,  and  are  due  to  the  erosive  action  of 
torrents.  The  most  considerable  of  these  breaches,  that  of  the  Douro,  could  have 
been  efiected  only  by  overcoming  most  formidable  obstacles. 

The  most  northern  mountain  mass  of  Portugal,  that  of  the  Peneda  of  Gavieiro 
(4,727  feet),  rises  abruptly  beyond  the  region  of  forest,  and  commands  the  Sierra 
Penagache  (4,065  feet)  on  the  Spanish  frontier  to  the  east,  as  well  as  the  hills  of 
Santa  Luzia  (1,814  feet)  and  others  near  the  coast.     Another  mountain  mass  rises 


474  PORTUGAL. 

imincdiiitely  to  the  south  of  the  gorge  through  which  the  Limia  pusses  after  leaving 
Spain.  This  is  the  Serra  do  Gerez  (4,815  feet),  a  range  of  twisted,  grotesquely- 
shaped  mountains,  the  onl}'  counterpart  of  which  in  the  peninsula  is  the  famous 
Serrania  de  Ronda.  This  range,  together  with  the  Larouco  (0,184  feet),  to  the 
cast  of  it,  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  western  extremity  of  the  Cautabrian  Pyrenees, 
and  like  them  it  consists  of  granitic  rocks. 

The  flora  of  these  northern  frontier  mountains  of  Portugal  much  resembles  that 
of  Galicia,  and  on  their  slopes  the  botanist  meets  with  a  curious  intermingling  of 
the  vegetation  of  France,  and  even  Germany,  with  that  of  the  Pyrenees,  Biscay,  and 
the  Portuguese  lowlands.  On  the  southern  summits,  however,  and  more  especially 
on  the  Serra  de  Marao  (4,6(55  feet),  which  forms  a  bold  promontory  between  the 
Douro  and  its  important  tributary  the  Tamega,  and  shelters  the  wine  districts 
of  Oporto  from  north-westerly  winds,  the  opportunities  for  examining  into  the 
arborescent  flora  are  but  few,  for  the  forests  which  once  clad  them  have  disap- 
peared. The  schistose  plateaux  to  the  east  of  them  and  to  the  north  of  the  Douro 
have  likewise  been  robbed  of  their  forests  to  make  room  for  vineyards.  Most 
wild  animals  have  disappeared  with  the  forests,  but  wolves  are  still  numerous,  and 
are  much  dreaded  by  the  herdsmen.  The  mountain  goat  (Capra  (egayrus),  which 
existed  until  towards  the  close  of  last  century  in  the  Serra  do  Gerez,  has  become 
extinct.  The  Serra  da  Cabreira  (4,196  feet),  to  the  east  of  Braga,  is  probably 
indebted  for  its  name  to  these  wild  goats. 

If  the  Serra  do  Gerez  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Pyrenean  system,  the  magnittcent  Serra  da  Estrella  (6,540  feet),  wiiicli  rises  be- 
tween the  Douro  and  Tejo,  is  undoubtedly  a  western  prolongation  of  the  great 
central  range  of  Spain  which  separates  the  plateaux  of  tlic  two  ("astiles.  Tliese 
"  Star  Mountains  "  are  attached  to  the  mountains  of  Spain  by  a  rugged  table- 
land, or  mesa,  of  comparatively  small  height.  The  great  granitic  Serra  da 
Estrella  rises  gently  above  the  broken  ground  which  gives  birth  to  the  Mondego. 
It  can  easily  be  ascended  from  that  side,  and  is  hence  known  as  the  Serra  Muma, 
"  the  tame  mountain."  On  the  south,  however,  above  the  valley  of  the  Zezere, 
the  slopes  are  abrupt  and  difficult  of  access,  and  are  known  for  that  reason  as  Serra 
Brava;  that  is,  "wild  mountain."  Delightful  lakelets,  similar  to  those  of  the 
Pyrenees  and  Carpathians,  arc  met  with  near  the  highest  summit  of  the  range, 
the  Malhao  de  Serra.  The  tops  of  the  Serra  da  Estrella  remain  covered  with  snow 
during  four  months  of  the  year,  and  supply  the  inhabitants  of  Lisbon  with  the 
ice  required  for  the  preparation  of  their  favourite  sherbet.  The  orographical 
system  of  the  Estrella  ends  with  the  Serra  de  LoumTo  (3,D40  feet),  for  the  hills 
of  Estremadura,  which  terminate  in  the  Cabo  da  Koca,  a  landmark  well  known  to 
mariners,  belong  to  another  geological  formation,  and  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
Jurassic  strata  overlying  the  cretaceous  formation. 

The  mountains  of  Beira  and  Entre  Douro  e  Minho  are  exposed  to  the  full 
influence  of  the  moisture-laden  south-westerly  winds,  and  the  rainfall  is  consider- 
able. The  rain  does  not  descend  in  torrents,  as  in  tropical  countries,  but  poure 
down  steadily.     It  is  more  al)undant  in  winter  and  spring,  but  not  a  month  passes 


VALLEYS  OF  THE  MINHO,  DOUEO,  AND  MONDEGO. 


475 


without  it.  Fogs  are  frequent  at  the  mouths  of  valleys  and  along  the  coast  as  far 
south  as  the  latitude  of  Coimbra.  At  that  place  as  much  as  sixteen  feet  of  rain 
has  fallen  in  a  single  year,  an  amount  oTily  to  be  equalled  within  the  tropics. 

The  humidity  of  the  air  accounts  for  the  great  equabilitj^  of  the  climate  of 
Northern  Portugal.  At  Coimbra  the  difference  between  the  coldest  and  warmest 
month  amounts  to  but  20*^  F.  Frosts  are  severe  only  on  the  plateaux  exposed  to 
the  north-easterly  winds,  and  the  heat  becomes  unbearable  in  deep  valleys  alone, 
where  the  air  cannot  circulate  freely.*     At  Penafiel,  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  are 


Fig.  193. — The  Valley  of  the  Limia,  or  Lima. 
Scale  I  :  300,000. 


5  Miles. 


thrown  back  by  the  rocky  precipices,  the  heat  is  almost  that  of  a  furnace.  This, 
however,  is  an  exception,  and  the  climate  generally  can  be  described  as  temperate. 
Running  water  is  abundant.  Camoes  has  sung  the  beauties  of  the  fields  of 
Coimbra  watered  by  the  Mondego,  the  charms  of  cascades  sparkling  amidst  foliage, 
and  the  purity  of  the  springs  bursting  forth  from  rocks  clad  with  verdure.  The 
Vouga,  the  affluents  of  the  Douro,  the  Ave,  Cavado,  and  Lima,  likewise  take  their 

*  Temperature  of  Coimbra  (according  to  Coello) : — Year,  61-1°  :  -n-inter,  52-2  ;  spring.  63  ;  summer, 
68-9,  autumn,  fi2-3  ;  coldest  month  (January),  ■50-2  ;  hottest  month  (July),  69-4  ;  difference,  19-2  F. 
Temperature  of  Oporto  (according  to  De  Luiz,  mean  of  eight  years): — Tear,  60'2  ;  winter,  oil; 
spring,  .58-6;  summer,  698;  autumn,  612;  coldest  month  (Januiiry),  50-2;  hottest  mouth  (August), 
yo-3;  difference,  20  1  F. 


47G 


PORTUGAL. 


Fig.    194. — Df.NE.S    OF   AVEIHO. 

Scale  1  :  400,000. 

-WIS' 


devious  courses  through  smiling  hmdscapes  whose  beautie.s  are  set  off  b}'  rocks  and 
mountains.  The  Lima,  whose  delights  might  well  cause  Roman  soldiers  to  forget 
the  rivers  of  their  own  country,  is  the  only  river  of  the  peninsula  still  in  a  state 
of  geological  transition.  All  others  have  drained  the  lakes  which  gave  birtli  to 
them,  but  in  the  case  of  the  Lima  that  old  lake  basin  is  still  occupied  by  a  swamp, 

known  as  Laguna  Beon,  or  Antela,  the 
only  remains  of  a  mountain-girt  inland 
lake  as  large  as  that  of  Geneva. 

The  current  of  the  rivers  of  Northern 
Portugal  is  too  great  to  permit  of  their 
being  utilised  as  high-roads  of  commerce. 
They  have  ports  at  their  mouths,  but  the 
Douro,  wliich  drains  nearly  a  si.\th  of  the 
Iberian  peninsula,  is  the  only  one  amongst 
them  which  facilitates  access  to  an  inland 
district.  Mariners  dread  to  approach  the 
coast  when  the  wind  blows  on  shore. 
Between  the  Minho  and  Cabo  Carvoeiro,  a 
distance  of  200  miles,  the  coast  presents 
features  very  much  like  those  of  the 
French  landes.  Its  original  indentations 
and  irregularities  have  been  obliterated 
by  barriers  of  sand.  The  lower  valley  of 
the  Vouga  was  formerly  an  inlet  of  the 
sea  extending  far  inland.  The  basin  of 
Aveiro  resembles  geologically  that  of 
Arcachon.  Its  waters  abound  in  fish,  but 
the  Douro  is  the  southernmost  river  of 
Europe  visited  by  salmon.  The  abun- 
dance of  life  in  certain  localities  of  it  is 
figuratively  expressed  by  a  Spanish  pro- 
verb, which  says,  "  The  water  of  the 
Douro  is  not  water,  but  broth." 

The  rectilinear  beach  of  Beira-mar  is 
lined  for  the  most  part  with  dunes,  the 
old  gulfs  behind  which  are  gradually 
being  converted  into  insalubrious  swamps, 
fringed  by  heath,  ferns,  strawberry-trees, 
and  broom,  whilst  the  neighbouring  forests  consist  of  oaks  and  pines.  Formerly 
these  dunes  invaded  the  cultivated  portions  of  the  country,  as  they  still  do  in  France, 
where  like  geological  causes  have  produced  like  results.  But  long  before  a  similar 
plan  was  thought  of  in  France  these  Portuguese  dunes  were  planted  with  pines, 
and  as  early  as  the  reign  of  King  Diniz  "the  Labourer,"  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  they  had  ceased  to  "  march." 


VALLEYS   OF   THE   MINHO,   DOURO,   AND   MONDEGO.  477 

Tlie  population  of  the  cultivable  portions  of  tlie  basins  of  tlie  Minlio  and  Douro 
is  very  dense,  and  in  order  to  maintain  themselves  the  inhabitants  are  forced  to 
work  zealously.  Their  country  is  the  most  carefully  cultivated  of  the  peninsula. 
In  a  large  measure  this  industry  is  due  to  the  fact  of  the  peasantry  being  the 
owners  of  the  land  they  cultivate,  or  at  least  affarudon — that  is,  copyholders — 
who  only  pay  a  few  shillings  annually  to  the  lords  of  the  manors.  Many  of 
the  peasants  are  wealthy,  and  the  women  are  fond  of  loading  themselves  with 
jewellery,  amongst  which  necklaces  made  in  the  Moorish  taste  are  most  pro- 
minent. The  cultivation  of  the  fields  is  attended  to  with  scrupulous  care  ;  and 
the  most  ingenious  methods  are  employed  for  the  irrigation  of  the  upper  slopes 
of  the  hills,  which  are  frequentlj'  cut  up  into  terraces,  or  geios.  These  Northern 
Portuguese  are  as  distinguished  for  moral  excellence  as  they  are  for  industry. 
Their  sweetness  of  disposition,  gaietj%  and  kindliness  are  the  theme  of  universal 
praise,  and  as  regards  their  love  of  dancing  and  music  they  are  veritable  Theo- 
critan  shepherds.  Challenges  in  iinprovised  verses  form  one  of  the  amusements 
of  young  men.  Nor  is  the  population  devoid  of  physical  beauty.  The  women 
of  Aveiro,  though  often  enfeebled  by  malaria,  have  the  reputation  of  being  the 
prettiest  in  all  Portugal. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  making  of  port  wine  constitute  the  principal 
branch  of  industry  of  the  country.  The  chief  vine-growing  district,  ordinarily 
known  as  Paiz  do  Viiiho,  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Douro,  between  the  Serra  de 
Marao  and  the  Tua,  and  is  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  rays  of  the  summer  sun. 
In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  cultivation  of  this  district  had  hardly 
begun.  The  English  had  not  then  learnt  to  appreciate  these  growths,  and  were 
content  with  the  various  Portuguese  wines  shipped  from  Lisbon.  It  was  only 
after  the  treaty  concluded  by  Lord  Methuen  in  1702  that  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  assumed  certain  dimensions  in  the  district  of  the  Douro,  and  ever  since  the 
reputation  of  port  has  been  on  the  increase.  The  Marquis  of  Pombal  foimded  a 
company  for  the  production  of  wine,  and  the  small  town  of  Pezo  da  Regoa,  on  the 
Corgo,  then  became  famous  for  its  wine  fairs,  at  which  fortunes  were  lost  and  won, 
and  a  town  of  wine  cellars  and  stores  sprang  up  opposite  the  town  of  Porto,  or 
Oporto,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  port  and 
sherry  have  kept  their  place  on  the  tables  of  English  gentlemen,  and  nearly  all  the 
wine  produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Douro  finds  its  way  to  England  or  to  British 
colonies.  Indeed,  up  to  1852  the  best  quality,  known  as  "factory  wine,"  could 
be  exported  to  England  alone.  Next  to  the  English  the  Brazilians  are  the  best 
customers  of  (_>porto  :  they  receive  nearly  1,000,000  gallons  of  wine  annually.* 

The  breeding  of  mules  and  fattening  of  Spanish  cattle  for  the  London  market 
yield  considerable  profit.  Early  vegetables  are  forwarded  not  only  to  London  but 
also  to  Bio  de  Janeiro.     Manufactures  were  already  of  some  importance  in  the 

*  Production  of  wine  in  Portugal  before  the  appearance  of  oidium,  in  1853,  105,600,000  gallons. 
Average  annual  produce  of  the  vineyards  of  Alto-Douro  (Oporto)  in  1848,  11,726,000  ;  in  1870,  11,371,000 
gallons.  Exports  to  England.  3,718,000  gallons;  Brazil,  994,000  gallons  In  1874  Oporto  alone  exported 
6,623,000  gallons,  or  more  than  ever  before. 


478 


PORTUGAL. 


Middle  Ages,  und  have  recently  been  much  developed  by  enterprising  En"-lish 
capitalists.  Oporto  has  cotton,  linen,  silk,  and  woollen  mills,  foundries  and  su<»ar 
refineries,  and  its  jewellers  and  glove-makers  enjoy  a  good  repute.  But  agricul- 
ture, industry  and  legitimate  commerce,  and  even  the  smuggling  carried  on  in 
the  frontier  district  of  Bragan(;a,  do  not  suffice  to  support  the  cver-incrcasin"- 
population,  and  thousands  etnigrate  annually  to  Lisbon  and  JJrazil. 

Northern  Portugal  may  be  described  as  the  cradle  of  the  existing  kingdom, 
and  it  was  Porto  Cale,  on  the  site  of  Villanova  de  Gaia,  the  southern  suburb 
of  Oporto,  which  gave  a  name  to  all  Lusitania.  At  Lamego,  to  the  south  of 
the  Douro,  the  Cortes  met,  according  to  tradition,  in  1143,  and  constituted  the 
new  kingdom  of  which  Oporto  became  the  capital.  When  the  country  recovered 
its  independence  after  the  short  dominion  of  Spain,  the  Dukes  of  Bragaura  were 

Fig.  195. — Opokto  and  the  Paiz  do  Vinho. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


invested  with  the  regal  power.  Though  Lisbon  occupies  a  more  central  position 
than  Oporto,  the  latter  frequently  takes  the  initiative  in  political  movements,  and 
the  success  of  any  revolution  is  said  to  depend  upon  the  side  taken  by  the  energetic 
population  of  the  north.  If  we  may  accept  the  estimate  of  the  Porfiienses,  they  are 
morally  and  physically  the  superiors  of  the  Lkbonemes.  They  alone  are  the  true 
sons  of  the  great  people  whose  vessels  ploughed  the  ocean  during  the  age  of  dis- 
coveries, and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  gait  is  more  determined,  their 
speech  and  their  glance  more  open,  than  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital. 
In  vulgar  parlance,  people  of  Oporto  and  Lisbon  are  known  as  tripeiros  and 
alfaninhoi ;  that  is,  tripe  and  lettuce  eaters. 

Porto,  or  0  Porto,  the  "Vovt"  jmr  excellence,  is  the  natural  capital  of  Northern 
Lusitania,  the  second  city  of  Portugal  on  account  of  its  population  and  commerce, 
the  first  in  manufactures.     As  seen  from  the  banks  of  the  Douro,  here  hardly 


iliiiiE:?.' 


II  'tll'S'l 


o 

Eh 
O 

O 


V.U,LEYS  OF  THE  MINHO,  UOUEO,  AND  MONDEGO.         479 

more  than  200  yards  in  width,  and  spanned  by  a  magnificent  railway  bridge,  it 
rises  like  a  double  amphitheatre,  whose  summits  are  crowned  by  the  cathedral 
and  the  belfry  ilos  Clerigos,  and  the  narrow  valley  separating  them  covered  with 
houses.  The  lower  town  has  broad  streets,  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles, 
but  the  streets  climbing  the  hills  are  narrow  and  tortuous,  and  even  stairs  have 
frequently  to  be  ascended  in  order  to  reach  the  more  elevated  quarters  of  the  town. 
Cleanliness  is  attended  to  throughout,  and  the  citizens  are  most  anxious  in  that 
respect  to  insure  the  praises  of  their  numerous  English  visitors.  Gaia,  a  long 
suburb,  occupies  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  It  abounds  in  factories  and  store- 
houses, and  its  vast  cellars  are  stated  on  an  average  to  contain  80,000  pipes  of  wine. 
Beautiful  walks  extend  along  the  river  bank  and  its  terraces,  and  the  long  reaches 
of  the  stream  are  covered  with  shipping,  and  fringed  with  gardens  and  villas.  The 
hills  in  the  distance  are  crowned  with  ancient  convents,  fortifications,  and  villages 
half  hidden  amongst  verdure.  Aviutes,  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  women,  who 
supply  the  town  daily  with  hroa,  or  maize  bread,  is  one  of  them.  Suburbs  extend 
along  both  banks  of  the  river  in  the  direction  of  the  sea.  The  river  at  its  mouth 
is  only  two  fathoms  in  depth  during  low  water,  and  dangerous  of  access  when  the 
wind  blows  from  the  west.  Even  at  Oporto  vessels  of  400  or  500  tons  are  exposed 
to  danger  from  sudden  floods  of  the  river,  which  cause  them  to  drag  their  anchors. 
The  port  of  the  Douro  has  therefore  to  contend  with  great  difficulties  in  its  rivalry 
with  Lisbon.* 

The  small  town  of  Siio  Joao  da  Foz,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Douro,  has  a  light- 
house, but  carries  on  no  commerce.  Near  it  are  Mattozinhos  and  Leca,  the  latter 
of  which  boasts  of  an  ancient  monastery  resembling  a  fortress,  and  is  much  frequented 
on  account  of  its  fine  beach  and  refreshing  sea  breezes.  Espinho,  to  the  south  of 
the  Douro,  is  another  favourite  seaside  resort,  in  spite  of  the  all-pervading  smell  of 
sardines.  The  small  ports  to  the  north  of  the  Douro  are  frequented  only  by  coasting 
vessels  or  by  seaside  visitors.  The  entrance  to  the  Minho  is  defended  by  the  castle 
of  Insua,  on  a  small  island,  as  its  name  implies,  and  by  the  insignificant  fortress  of 
Caminha.  The  river  is  accessible  only  to  vessels  drawing  less  than  six  feet.  The 
mouth  of  the  Lima,  though  even  more  difficult  of  access,  is  nevertheless  occupied  by 
a  town  of  some  importance — coquettish  Vianna  do  Castello,  beautifully  ensconced 
amidst  the  verdure  of  its  fertile  plain.  Other  towns  are  Espozende,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Cavado,  and  Villa  do  Conde,  at  that  of  the  Ave.  Formerly  most  of  the  vessels 
engaged  in  the  slave  trade  and  those  emplo3-ed  in  the  great  maritime  enterprises 
of  the  Portuguese  were  built  here,  and  it  still  boasts  of  a  few  ship-yards. 

Amongst  the  inland  towns  of  Entre  Douro  e  Minho  are  Ponte  de  Lima,  famous 
for  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding  country  ;  Barcellos,  overhanging  the  shadj- 
banks  of  the  Cavado  ;  and  Amarante,  celebrated  for  its  wines  and  peaches,  and  pi'oud 
of  a  fine  bridge  spanning  the  Taraega.  But  the  only  towns  important  on  account 
of  their  population  are  Braga  and  Guimaraes,  both  placed  on  commanding  heights 
overlooking  a  most  fertile  country.  Bi-aga  (Bracara  Augusta),  an  ancient  Konian 
colony,  the  capital  of  the  Galicians,  then  of  the  Suevi,  and  later  on  the  residence  of 

*  Imports  and  exports  about  £4,000,000. 


480 


ruRTUGAL 


the  Kiiiffs  of  Portugal,  became  the  priinatial  city  of  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  when 
the  two  kingdoms  were  temporarily  united  under  the  same  sovereign.  Hut  IJraga 
is  not  only  a  town  of  the  past,  it  is  even  now  a  bustling  place,  where  hats,  linens, 
arms,  and  beautiful  filigree  are  manufactured  for  exportation  to  the  rest  of  Portugal 
and  the  Portuguese  colonies.  Guimaraes  is  equally  as  interesting  as  Braga  on 
account  of  its  monuments  and  meditcval  legends.  Visitors  are  still  shown  the 
sacred  olive-tree  which  sprang  from  a  seed  placed  in  the  soil  by  King  Wamba, 
when    still    a    common    labourer ;    and   Affonso,   the  founder  of    the    Portuguese 


Fig.  196. — Sao  Joao  i>a  Foz  anii  the  Movth  of  the  Doi  ho. 


r 


-'^:i 


V 


.  f  ^t/t/ttj^m,' 


.^ff*>?^ 


■/ 


f  %         -^      (jHiJJ. 


n- 


monarchy,  was  born  in  the  old  castle.  Guimaraes  is  a  busy  manufacturing  town ; 
it  produces  cutlery,  hardware,  and  table-linen,  and  English  visitors  never  fail  to 
purchase  there  a  curiously  ornamented  box  of  prunes.  Near  it  are  much- 
frequented  sulphur  springs,  known  to  the  Romans  as  Aquw  Leiw.  But  the 
most  famous  mineral  springs  of  modern  Portugal  are  the  Caldas  do  Gerez,  in  a 
tributary  valley  of  the  Upper  Cavado. 

The  towns  of  Traz  os  Montes  and  Beira  Alta  are  too  far  removed  from  high- 
ways to  have  attracted  a  considerable  population.  Villa  Real,  on  the  Corgo,  is  thu 
busiest  place  of  Traz  os  Montes,  owing  to  the  vineyards  in  its  neighbourhood. 


VALLEYS  OF  THE  MINHO,  DOURO,  AND  MOXDEGO.  481 

Chaves,  an  old  fortress  near  the  Spanish  frontier,  boasts  of  one  of  those  Roman 
bridges  which  have  rendered  the  century  of  Trajan  famous :  it  was  formerly  noted 
for  its  mineral  springs  {Aqiue  Flacice).  Braganca,  the  old  provincial  capital,  has  a 
commanding  citadel,  and,  owing  to  its  geographical  position,  is  an  important  place 
for  smugglers,  the  legitimate  exports  fluctuating  regularly  with  the  customs  tarifF. 
It  is  the  most  important  place  in  Portugal  for  the  production  of  raw  silk.  Lameo-o, 
a  picturesque  town  to  the  south  of  the  Douro,  opposite  the  Paiz  do  Vinho,  enjoys 
a  great  reputation  for  its  hams ;  Almeida,  which  keeps  in  check  the  garrison  of 
Spanish  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  was  anciently  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  of  Portugal ; 
and  Yizeu  is  an  important  station  between  the  Douro  and  the  Mondego.  Its  fairs 
are  more  frequented  than  any  others  in  Portugal,  and  in  its  cathedral  may  be  seen 
the  famous  masterpiece  painted  by  the  mythical  Gran  Yasco.  The  herdsmen 
around  Yizeu  are  noted  for  their  strength  and  beaut}'.  Their  uncovered  heads 
and  bare  legs  give  them  an  appearance  of  savagery,  but  their  manners  are  as 
polished  and  dignified  as  those  of  the  rest  of  their  countrymen. 

Coimbra  {^minium),  in  Beira-mar,  is  the  most  populous  town  between  Oporto 
and  Lisbon.  It  is  known  more  especially  for  its  university,  whose  professors  and 
students  impart  to  it  the  aspect  of  a  mediaeval  seat  of  learning.  The  purest  Por- 
tuguese is  spoken  there.  The  environs  are  delightful,  and  in  the  botanical  garden 
the  plants  of  the  tropics  mingle  with  those  of  the  temperate  zones.  From  the  banks 
of  the  Mondego,  upon  which  the  city  is  built,  visitors  frequently  ascend  to  the  Qitinta 
das  Lngrimos  ("house  of  tears"),  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  the  beauteous  Inez 
de  Castro,  whose  death  was  so  cruelly  revenged  by  her  husband,  Peter  the  Judge. 

Few  countries  in  the  world  can  rival  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Mondego,  that 
"river  of  the  Muses"  held  dear  by  all  the  Lusitanians,  because  it  is  the  only  one 
which  belongs  to  them  exclusively.  Condeixa,  a  town  near  Coimbra,  fully 
deserves  to  be  called  the  "  Basket  of  Fruit,"  for  its  gardens  produce  most 
exquisite  oranges.  In  the  north  the  ruins  of  the  monasterj"-  of  Bussaco  occupy  a 
mountain  terrace  covered  with  a  dense  forest  of  cypresses,  cedars,  oaks,  elms,  and 
exotic  trees.  This  delightful  place  and  the  hot  springs  of  IjUso,  near  it,  are  a 
favourite  summer  residence  of  the  citizens  of  Lisbon  and  Coimbra. 

Figueira  da  Foz,  the  port  of  Coimbia,  is  well  sheltered,  but,  like  most  other 
ports  of  Northern  Portugal,  is  obstructed  by  a  bar  of  sand.  It  is  nevertheless 
much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels,  and  amongst  its  exports  are  the  wines  of 
Barraida.  Ovar  and  Aveiro,  in  the  "Portuguese  Netherlands,"  on  the  banks  of  a 
lagoon  separated  by  a  series  of  dunes  from  the  high  sea,  are  the  two  other  ports 
of  this  part  of  the  coast.  They  were  important  places  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  the  shifting  bars,  which  render  access  to  them  difficult,  have  put  a  stop  to  their 
prosperity.  The  seamen  of  these  two  places  have  a  high  reputation  for  daring. 
They  engage  in  sardine-fishing,  oyster-dredging,  and  the  manufacture  of  bay- 
salt.* 

•  Towns  of  over  5,000  inhabitants  in  Xorthem  Portugal  (1864)  : — Eiitre  Douro  e  Miiiho  :  Oporto, 
86,257 ;  Braga,  19,512  ;  Pavoa  do  Varzim,  10,1 10  ;  Guimarries,  7,865  ;  Villanova  de  Gaia,  7,517  ;  Vianna 
do   Castello,   6,049;    Mattozinhos,   5,089.       Tidz  os  Mantes:    Cha\es,   6,382;    Bragan<;a,   5,111:    Villa 


482 


PORTUGAL. 


JII. — TiiK  Vm.i.ey  of  the  Tkjo  (Tagus). 

The  lower  course  of  the  Tejo,  called  Tajo  in  Spain,  separates  Portugal  into  two 
portions  differing  much  in  their  general  aspect,  climate,  and  soil.  The  valley 
itself  is  a  sort  of  intermediary  between  the  north  and  south,  and  the  vast  estuary 
into  which  the  river  discharges  itself. 

Where  the  Tejo  enters  Portugal,  below  the  magnificent  bridge  of  Alcantara,  it 
is  still  hemmed  in  between  precipitous  banks,  and  is  neither  navigable  nor  available 
for  purposes  of  irrigation.     Having  traversed  the  defile  of  Villa  Velha  do  Rodao, 

Fip;.  197 — CoiMiiitA 


its  vallej'  gradually  widens,  and  after  having  received  its  most  considerable 
tributary,  the  Zezere,  it  becomes  a  tranquil  stream,  abounding  in  islands  and  sand- 
banks, and  is  navigable  during  the  whole  of  the  year.  Below  Salvaterra  the 
river  bifurcates,  its  two  branches  enclosing  the  marshy  island  of  Lozirias.  The 
vast  estuar}-  which  begins  below  this  island  is  an  arm  of  the  sea  rather  than  a 
river;  its  waters  are  saline,  and  between  Sacavem  and  Alhandra  there  are  salt- 

Ecal,  5,097.  Beirn :  Coimbra,  18,147;  Ovar,  10,.'?74 ;  Covilha,  9,022;  Lamego,  8,638;  Ilhavo,  8,215: 
JIurtoza,  7,666  ;  Vizeu,  6,815  ;  Castello  Branoo,  6,583  ;  Aveiro,  6,557  ;  Mira,  6,014  ;  Sourc,  5,855  ;  Lavos, 
5,837  ;  Miranda  do  C'orvo,  5,261 ;  I'aiao,  5,097. 


VALLEY  OF  THE  TEJO. 


483 


pans.     The  Tejo  affords  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  a  river  encroaching 
upon  its  western  bank,  which  is  steep  and  hilly,  whilst  the  left  bank  is  low. 

The  irregular  range  of  hills  which  forms  the  back-bone  of  the  peninsula 
enclosed  by  the  Lower  Tejo  and  the  ocean  is  attached  to  the  mountain  of  Estrella 
by  a  ravined  plateau  of  trifling  elevation,  crossed  by  the  railway  connecting  Coimbra 
with  Santarem.  From  the  summit  of  the  Serra  do  Aire  ("  wind  mountain,"  2,222 
feet)  we  look  down  upon  the  verdant  valley  of  the  Tejo  and  the  reddish-hued 
plains  of  Alemtejo  beyond  it.  Monte  Junto  (2,185  feet),  farther  south,  is  another 
commanding  summit.  The  rocky  promontory  of  Carvoeiro  is  joined  to  the  main- 
Fig.  198. — EsTL'AKY  OF  THE  TeJO  (TaGUS). 
Scale  1  :  580,000. 


39°  I 


iiUles, 


land  by  a  sandy  beach.  Upon  it  stands  the  little  fortress  of  Peniche,  whose 
inhabitants  lead  a  life  of  seclusion,  and  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  lace. 
A  submarine  plateau  connects  this  promontory  with  Berlinga  Island,  with  an  old 
castle  now  used  as  a  prison,  and  with  the  Farilhaos,  dreaded  by  mariners. 

The  hills  on  the  narrow  peninsula  to  the  north  of  Lisbon  are  of  small  height, 
but,  owing  to  their  rugged  character,  they  present  great  obstacles  to  intercom- 
munication. It  was  here  "Wellington  constructed  the  famous  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  which  converted  the  environs  of  Lisbon  into  a  vast  entrenched  camp.  To 
the  south  of  these  rise  the  beautiful  heights  of  Cintra,  celebrated  for  their  palaces, 
shady   valleys,  delightful  climate,  and   historical  associations.      Sheets  of  basalt, 


484  POKTUGAL. 

ejected  from  some  ancient  volcano,  cover  the  hills  between  Lisbon  and  Sacavem, 
and  the  great  earthquakes  of  1531  and  1755  prove  that  subterranean  forces  were 
then  not  quite  extinct.  The  second  of  these  earthquakes  was  probably  the  most 
violent  ever  witnessed  in  Europe.  The  very  first  shock  destroyed  3,850  hou.ses  in 
Lisbon,  burying  15,000  human  beings  beneath  the  ruins ;  a  minute  afterwards  an 
immense  wave,  nearly  forty  feet  in  height,  swept  off  the  fugitives  who  crowded 
the  quay.  Only  one  quarter  of  the  town,  that  anciently  inhabited  by  the  Moors, 
escaped  destruction.  The  Marquis  de  Pombal  erected  a  gallows  in  the  midst  of  the 
ruins  to  deter  plunderers.  From  the  focus  of  vibration  the  oscillations  of  the  soil 
were  propagated  over  an  immense  area,  estimated  at  no  less  than  1,000,000  square 
miles.  Oporto  was  destroyed  in  part,  tlic  harbour  of  xVlvor  in  Algarve  was  silted 
up,  and  it  is  said  that  nearly  all  the  largo  towns  of  Morocco  tumbled  into  ruins. 

The  gully  which  connects  the  open  ocean  with  the  inland  sea  of  Lisbon,  and 
through  which  the  Tejo  discharges  its  waters,  separates  the  cretaceous  hills  of 
Cintra  from  the  isolated  Serra  da  Arabida  (1,537  feet),  to  the  west  of  Setiibal, 
which  belong  to  the  same  geological  formation.  These  two  groups  of  hills  were 
probably  portions  of  one  range  at  a  time  when  the  Tejo  still  took  its  course  across 
what  are  now  the  tertiary  plains  of  Alemtejo,  and  reached  the  sea  much  farther  to 
the  south,  through  the  estuary  of  the  Sado. 

Lisbon  (Lisboa),  though  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  less  than  half  what  it 
was  in  the  sixteenth  century,  exhibits  no  trace  of  the  havoc  wrought  in  1755.  Even 
the  central  portions  of  the  town  have  risen  from  the  ruins,  and  huge  blocks  of 
houses,  imposing  by  their  size,  if  not  by  their  architecture,  have  taken  the  places 
of  the  older  structures.  The  present  city  extends  four  miles  along  the  Tejo,  but 
including  its  suburb.s,  between  Poco  do  Bis])0  and  the  Tower  of  ik-leni,  its  extent 
is  nine  miles.  The  city  stretches  inland  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles,  and, 
like  Rome,  is  said  to  be  built  upon  seven  hills.  A  beautiful  promenade  connects 
it  with  Belem.  As  seen  from  the  Tejo,  or  from  the  hills  opposite,  Lisbon,  with 
its  towers,  cupolas,  and  public  walks,  certainly  presents  a  magnificent  spectacle, 
and  there  is  some  truth  in  the  proverb  which  says — 

"  Que  nao  tem  visto  Liaboa,  Nao  tem  visto  cosa  boa  !  " 

("  WTio  has  not  seen  Lisbon  has  not  seen  a  thing  of  beauty.") 

Unfortunately  the  interior  of  the  superb  metropolis  does  not  correspond  with 
the  imposing  beauty  of  its  exterior.  Lisbon  has  a  noble  square,  called  Largo  do 
Coraercio  ;  it  has  all  the  various  buildings  which  one  expects  to  meet  with  in  the 
capital  of  a  kingdom  and  an  important  maritime  town  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
the  chapel  of  Sao  JoiJo  Baptista,  not  one  amongst  them  is  remarkable  for  its 
architecture.  The  only  important  structure  outside  the  city  is  the  famous 
aqueduct  Os  Arcos  das  Agoas,  which  was  built  by  Joao  V.,  the  JRei  Edificador, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  sustained  no  injury  during  the 
earthquake  of  1755.  On  approaching  the  city  it  crosses  a  valley  on  a  superb 
marble  bridge  of  thirty-five  arches,  the  highest  of  which  is  240  feet  in  height. 

Lisbon  is  relatively  poor  in  interesting  monuments,  but  few  towns  can  rival  it 
in  natural  advantages  of  soil,  climate,  and  geographical  position.      Its  situation  is 


o 

a 


VALLEY  OF  THE  TEJO. 


485 


most  central ;  its  harbour,  at  the  mouth  of  a  navigable  river,  is  one  of  the  most 
excellent  in  the  world  ;  and  its  entrance  can  be  easily  defended,  the  principal  works 
erected  for  that  purpose  being  Fort  Sao  Juliao  and  the  Tower  of  Bugio. 

Lisbon  is  important  not  only  as  regards  Portugal,  but  also,  on  account  of 
its  position,  with  reference  to  the  rest  of  Europe — nay,  of  the  entire  world. 
As  long  as  the  Mediterranean  was  the  theatre  of  human  history  it  remained  in 
obscurity,  but  no  sooner  had  mariners  ventured  beyond  the  columns  of  Hercules 
than  the  beautiful  harbour  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tejo  became  one  of  the  principal 
points  of  departure  for  vessels  starting  upon  voyages  of  discovery.     Lisbon  became 

Fig.  199. — Peniche  and  the  Berlingas. 
Scale  1  :  142,860. 


3,,    ^«   ,.» 


<>'  Mffit  I. 


'^    TaH'^ 


39": 


%. 


the  most  advanced  outpost  of  Europe  on  the  Atlantic,  for  it  offered  greater  facilities 
than  any  other  port  for  voyages  directed  to  the  Azores,  Madeii-a,  the  Canaries,  and 
the  western  coasts  of  Africa.  The  achievements  of  Portuguese  mariners  have  passed 
into  history.  Vast  territories  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe  became  tributary  to 
little  Portugal,  and  it  needed  the  epic  force  of  a  Camoes  to  celebrate  these  wonder- 
ful conquests. 

That  age  of  glory  lasted  but  a  short  time,  for  proud  Lisbon,  which  had  become 
known  to  Eastern  nations  as  the  "  City  of  the  Franks,"  as  if  it  were  the  capital  of 
Europe,  lost  its  pre-eminent  position  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
35 


480 


PORTUGAL. 


rortupal  ciipsized  suddenly,  like  a  small  biir<i;o  overcrowded  with  sails.  Crushed 
by  the  terrible  reign  of  Philip  II.,  enervated  by  luxury,  and  grown  disdainful  of 
honest  labour,  as  slaveholders  always  will,  Lisbon  was  constrained  to  see  much  of 
its  commerce  and  most  of  its  valued  colonies  pass  into  the  hands  of  Spaniards  and 
Dutchmen.  But,  in  spite  of  these  disasters,  Lisbon  is  still  a  commercial  port  of 
great  importance,  although  as  yet  no  direct  line  of  railway  connects  it  with  Madrid 
and  the  rest  of  Europe.  England  occupies  the  foremost  position  amongst  the 
customers  of  the  town,  and  the  Brazilians,  whose  severance  from  the  mother 
country  was  at  first  looked  upon  as  an  irremediable  disaster,  follow  next.*  Spain, 
though  it  borders  upon  Portugal  for  several  hundred  miles,  scarcely  enters  into 
commercial  relations  with  it.     Civil  wars  have,  however,  driven  many  Spanish 


Fier.  200. — Mouth  or  the  Tejo   (TAfius). 
."cole  1  :  182,4fio. 


!  Miles. 


exiles  to  Lisbon,  and  these  have  already  exercised  a  considerable  influence  upon 
manners.  Formerly  only  men  were  to  bo  seen  in  the  streets  of  Lisbon,  the  women 
being  cou  fined  almost  with  the  same  rigour  as  in  a  Mohammedan  cit}^  but  the 
example  set  by  Spanish  ladies  has  found  many  imitators  amongst  their  Portuguese 
sisters.  The  towns  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Lisbon  are  celebrated  for  their 
picturesque  beauties. 

Portuguese  Estremadura,  which  neither  suffers  from  northern  frosts  nor 
from  fogs  and  aridity,  can  boast  of  a  climate  approaching  that  of  the  fabled 
Islands  of  the  Happy.     At  Lisbon  snow,   or  "  white  rain,"  as  it  is  called,  falls 


•  In  1,S74  Lisbon  exported  5,900  tons  of  potatoes,  447,450  gallons  of  oUve  oil,  4,400,000  gallons  of 
wine,  157,200  bushels  of  salt,  200,000  tons  of  copper  ore,  figs,  almonds,  oranges,  &c. :  4,092  vessels  entered 
the  harbour. 


VALLEY  OF  THE  TEJO.  487 

rarely,  but  it  may  be  seen  glittering  on  the  summits  of  the  Serras  da  Estrella 
and  de  Lousfio.  Its  fall  near  the  sea-coast  is  looked  upon  as  an  evil  omen,  and 
a  heavy  snow-storm,  as  recently  as  last  century,  frightened  the  inhabitants  of 
Lisbon  to  such  an  extent  that  they  fancied  the  day  of  judgment  had  come,  and 
rushed  into  the  churches. 

The  regular  alternation  between  land  and  sea  breezes  is  likewise  an  advantage 
possessed  by  the  neighbourhood  of  Lisbon.  From  the  beginning  of  May  through- 
out the  fine  season  the  wind  blows  from  the  land  in  the  morning,  by  noon  it  has 
shifted  to  the  south,  in  the  evening  it  blows  from  the  west  and  north-west,  and 
during  the  night  from  the  north.  Hence  its  name  of  viento  roteiro;  that  is,  "  rotary 
■wind."  As  to  the  winds  forming  part  of  the  regular  system  of  atmospheric 
circulation,  they  blow  with  far  less  regularity.  The  polar  winds,  stopped  by  the 
transversal  mountain  ranges  of  the  country,  either  follow  the  direction  of  the 
coast  or  are  diverted  to  the  plateaux  of  Spain,  and  make  their  appearance  in 
Portugal  as  easterly  wdnds.  It  is  these  latter  which  render  the  summer  opj)res- 
sively  hot.  At  Lisbon  the  thermometer  rises  occasionally  to  100'^  F.,  and  in  1798 
even  104'^  were  observed.  Experience  has  taught  us  that  although  the  heat  at 
Kio  de  Janeiro  is  in  excess  of  that  of  Lisbon,  the  dog-days  at  the  latter  place  are 
more  unbearable.* 

The  vegetation  of  the  happy  district  where  the  climate  of  North  and  South 
intermingle  is  twofold  in  its  aspect.  The  date-palm  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
gardens  of  Lower  Estremadura ;  the  dwarf  palm  grows  in  the  open  air  along  the 
coast ;  the  agave  raises  its  candelabra-like  branches  as  on  the  coast  of  Mexico  ; 
the  camellias  are  more  beautiful  than  anywhere  else  in  Europe  ;  and  the  hedges  are 
composed  of  prickly  cacti  {Xopal),  as  in  Sicily  and  Algeria.  The  fruits  of  the 
Mediterranean  ripen  to  perfection  ;  and  even  the  mango  of  the  Antilles,  only 
recently  introduced,  has  found  a  congenial  climate.  Oranges  are  known  as  por- 
togalU  in  several  countries  as  far  as  Egypt,  as'-jf  the  inhabitants  ,ef  Pprtun'al 
had  been  the  first  to  whom  these  golden  apples  were  known ;  and  even  the  word 
chintarah,  or  chanfarah,  by  which  the  orange  is  known  in  some  parts  of  India,  is 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  name  of  the  Portuguese  town  of  Cintra. 

Belem  (Bethlehem)  is  the  nearest  of  the  suburban  towns  of  Lisbon,  being 
separated  from  it  merely  by  a  rivulet  named  Alcantara,  after  an  old  Moorish 
bridge.  It  is  the  first  place  beheld  by  a  mariner  approaching  Lisbon,  and  its 
square  tower,  built  by  King  John  the  Perfect,  is  seen  from  afar.  It  was  hence 
Vasco  da  Gama  started  upon  the  memorable  expedition  which  taught  the  Portu- 
guese the  road  to  India,  and  a  magnificent  monastery,  now  converted  into  an 
educational  institution,  was  built  in  commemoration  of  this  glorious  event. 

Oeiras,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small  rivulet  coming  down  from  the  heights  of 
Cintra,  defends  the  entrance  to  the  Tejo  by  means  of  Fort  Sao  Juliao  ;  Carcavellos, 
noted  for  its  wines,  lies  farther  on  ;  and  Casciies,  with  a  small  harbour  defended  b}' 
a  citadel,  brings  us  to  the  open  ocean.     The  coast  beyond  this  is  protected  by 

*  Moan  temperature  of  July,  QOe"  F.  ;   extremes  of  temperature,   27  5"  and   102'  F.  ;    cloudless 
days,  1.30 


488 


PORTUGAL. 


towers,  but  there  are  no  inhabitants.  The  hills  of  Cintru,  however  are  one  of 
the  most  populous  districts  of  the  country,  and  they  are  much  frequented  by 
foreigners.  Whether  we  follow  the  carriage  road  or  the  tramroad  from  Lisbon, 
we  pass  the  castles  and  villas  of  Bomfica,  the  royal  palace  of  Queluz,  and 
the  countrj-  scats  of  Bellas,  the  fountain  of  which  supplies  the  capital  with  water. 
Cintra  itself  is  surrounded  by  hotels  and  gardens.  On  a  hill  to  the  south 
of  it  stands  the  sumptuous  Castle  de  la  Penha,  whose  eccentricities  of  archi- 
tecture are  softened  down  by  luxuriant  masses  of  vegetation.  Strangers  likewise 
visit  the  ruins  of  an  old   Moorish  castle  and  the  caverns  of  the  "  Monastery  of 

Fig.  201. — Zones  of  Vegetation  in  I'oktigal. 
Scale  1  :  6,000,000. 


—  .  LtmiLf  ofAym^"  rf"  A'opai 

..  Dot*.  Trees 


irm  Miles. 


Cork,"  thus  named  because  its  walls  are  covered  with  cork  as  a  protection  against 
damp.  The  prospect  from  all  the  surrounding  heights  is  magnificent,  and  rao.st 
so  from  the  cliffs  terminating  in  the  famous  Cabo  da  Roca,  the  westernmost  point 
of  continental  Europe. 

The  city  of  Mafra  occupies  a  sterile  plateau  not  far  from  the  seaside  resort  of 
Ericeira.  Like  Cintra,  it  boasts  of  an  immense  palace,  the  Escorial  of  the  kings  of 
the  house  of  Braganca,  now  used  as  a  militarj'  school.  Joao  V.,  who  erected  this 
structure,  with  its  numerous  churches,  chapels,  and  cells,  expended  for  that 
purpose  all  the  coin  he  could  command,  and  when  he  died  there  was  not  enough 
money  left  in  the  treasury  to  pay  for  a  mass  for  the  repose  of  his  soul.      Far  more 


VALLEY  OF  THE  TEJO. 


489 


curious  tlian  this  immense  barrack,  with  its  5,200  windows,  is  the  forsaken 
monastery  of  AJcobaca,  about  sixty  miles  farther  north,  which  was  built  in  the 
twelfth  centurt'  to  commemorate  the  victories  over  the  Moors.  Near  it  stands 
the  monastery  bf  Batalha,  which  recalls  the  defeat  of  the  Castilians  in  the  plain  of 
Aljubarrota  in  l-'38o.  The  portals,  cloisters,  chapel,  and  chapter-room  abound 
in  sculptures  of  marvellous  finish,  though  of  doubtful  taste. 

Leiria,  the  town  nearest  to  Batalha,  occupies  a  fine  site  at  the  confluence  of  the 

Fig.  202. — Castle  de  la  Penh.ji  de  Cintka. 


rivers  Liz  and  Lena,  and  is  commanded  by  a  Moorish  castle,  the  old  residence  of 
King  Diniz  the  "  Labourer,"  who  planted  the  piiihnl  of  Leiria,  the  finest  forest 
in  Portugal.  After  a  long  period  of  decadence  this  portion  of  the  country  has 
entered  upon  a  new  epoch  of  activity.  At  Marinha  Grande,  near  it,  there  are  large 
glass-works,  which  communioate  by  rail  with  the  circular  harbour  of  Concha 
(shell)  de  Sao  Martinho. 

Thomar,  formerly  famous  on  account  of  its  monastery,  stands  on  the  eastern 


490  roRTUGAI,. 

slope  of  the  hills  commanding  the  plains  of  Batalha  and  Alcoba^a.  It  is  the 
capital  of  the  Knights  of  Christ,  to  whom  was  conceded  the  privilege  of  conquering 
the  Indies  and  the  New  World.  They  performed  great  deeds,  hut  in  the  end 
their  rapacity  led  to  the  decadence  of  their  native  countrj'.  Thomar  is  a  town  of 
cotton-mills  now,  but  commerce  is  more  active  in  the  places  on  the  Tejo,  and 
notably  at  Santarem,  which,  from  its  "marvellous"  hill,  looks  down  upon  the 
verdant  isles  of  the  river  and  the  plains  of  Alemtejo.  Santarem  and  the  neigh- 
bouring fortress  of  Abrantes  supply  Lisbon  with  vegetables  and  fruit,  and  the 
country  around  them  is  a  veritable  forest  of  olive-trees. 

The  sandy  soil  and  shallow  rivers  bounded  by  marshes  of  the  country  to  the 
south  of  the  Tejo  oppose  serious  obstacles  to  the  establishment  of  important  towns, 
and  if  it  were  not  for  the  vicinity  of  Lisbon  it  would  probably  be  uninhabited. 
Almada,  opposite  Lisbon,  Seixal,  Barreiro,  Aldea  Gallega,  and  Alcochete  are  mere 
suburbs  of  the  capital,  and  share  in  its  prosperity  or  adversity.  Setiibal,  or 
St.  Ives,  however,  which  lies  farther  to  the  south,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Sado,  and 
which  has  an  excellent  harbour,  suffers  from  too  great  a  proximity  to  Lisbon,  for 
Portugal  is  not  rich  enough  to  feed  two  ports  so  close  to  each  other.  Cezimbra, 
on  the  steep  coast  which  terminates  in  Cape  Espichel,  to  the  west  of  Setiibal,  is 
likewise  a  decayed  place,  and  Troja,  which  preceded  Setiibal  as  the  emporium  of 
the  Sado,  now  lies  buried  beneath  the  dunes.  Excavations  recently  made  on  its 
site  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  Roman  mosaics  and  of  a  street  laid  out,  perhaps, 
by  the  Phoenicians ;  and  Link,  the  botanist,  who  visited  the  spot  at  the  end  of  last 
century,  still  found  there  the  ruined  courts  of  Moorish  houses. 

Setiibal,  though  its  commercial  activity  is  very  much  inferior  to  that  of  Lisbon, 
still  exports  muscat  wines,  delicious  oranges,  and  salt  procured  from  the  ponds  in 
its  vicinity.*  The  sea  near  Setiibal  and  Cezimbra  abounds  in  fish  and  other 
marine  animals,  and  in  comparison  with  it  the  Mediterranean  and  Bay  of  Biscay 
may  almost  be  described  as  deserts.  Long  before  scientific  men  explored  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  the  fishermen  of  Setiibal  hauled  up  from  a  depth  of  300  fathoms 
immense  sharks.  Ordinary  fish  are  caught  in  myriads,  and  the  inhabitani;8  of 
Cezimbra  feed  their  pigs  upon  sardines.  When  Portugal  was  at  the  height  of 
its  commercial  prosperity  it  supplied  a  considerable  portion  of  Europe  with  fish, 
and  almost  enjoyed  a  monopoly  in  cod,  which  was  exported  even  to  Norway. t 

IV. — Southern  Portugal.    Alemte-io  and  Ai.oarve. 

The  mountains  beyond  the  Tejo  rarely  assume  the  aspect  of  chains.  For  the 
most  part  they  rise  but  little  above  the  surrounding  plateau.  This  region  is 
the  least  attractive  of  all  Portugal,  and  between  the  Tejo  and  the  mountains 
of  Algarve  there  are  only  plains,  monotonous  hills,  woods,  and  naked  landes. 
Human  habitations  are  few  and  far  between.     The  lowlands  along  the  Tejo  and 

•  In  1870  Portugal  produced  320.000  tons  of  .salt,  of  which  184,000  tons  were  from  SetOhal. 

t  Towns  of  Estrcmadura  ha%-ini,'  over  5,000  inhahitants  (1864)  :— Lisbon,  224,063;  !^et6bal,  13,134; 
Santarem,  7,820;  Torres  Xovas,  6,878  ;  Caparica,  6,311  ;  Palmella,  6,260;  Cezimbra,  5,797;  Abrantes, 
6,590;  Cartaxo,  5,218  ;  Louri<;al,  5,182. 


AXEMTEJO  AXD  ALGAEVE. 


491 


the  coast  are  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  fine  sand  resting  upon  clay,  and  they 
still  exhibit  clumps  of  maritime  pines  and  holm-oaks,  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
forests  which  formerly  covered  the  whole  of  the  country.  Farther  inland  we 
reach  the  great  landes,  or  chaniecas,  covered  with  an  infinite  variety  of  plants. 
There  are  heaths  growing  sometimes  to  a  height  of  sis  feet,  rock-roses,  juniper- 
trees,  rosemary,  and  creejping  oaks.  But  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  is  dreary, 
in  spite  of  the  white  and  yellow  flowers  which  cover  it  until  the  middle  of  winter, 

Pig.  203. — MONASTEKT    OF    THE    KxiGHTS    OF    ChRIST   AT   ThOMAR. 


for  there  are  hardly  any  cultivated  fields.  The  hills  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
micaceous  schists,  and  are  covered  with  a  monotonous  growth  of  labdanum-juelding 
rock-roses.  This  is  a  western  extension  of  the  zone  oijarales,  which  covers  so  many 
hundred  square  miles  of  the  Sierra  Morena  and  other  mountain  regions  of  Spain. 

The  Serra  de  Sao  Mamede  (3,363  feet),  on  the  confines  of  Portugal,  between 
the  valleys  of  the  Tejo  and  Guadiana,  is  the  highest  mountain  mass  of  Southern 
Portugal ;  but  its  granitic  ridges,  enclosing  narrow  valleys  between  them,  hardly 


4«J2 


PORTUGAL. 


rise  1,500  feet  above  the  general  level  of  tliu  plateau.  A  second  granitic  moun- 
tain mass  rises  to  the  south  of  the  depression  crossed  by  the  railway  from  Li.sbon 
to  Badajoz.  Tiiis  is  the  S^-rra  de  Ossa  (".',130  feet).  An  undulating  tract  of 
country  joins  it  to  other  scrras,  forming  steep  escarpments  towards  the  valleys  of 
the  Guadiaua  and  Sadiio,  and  the  monotonous  plain  known  as  Campo  de  IJeja 
(870  feet).  The  famous  Campo  de  Ourique  (700  feet),  upon  which  200,000 
Moors,  commanded  by  five  kings,  were  defeated  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  forms  a  southern  continuation  of  that  plain.  This  battle, 
and  the  massacres  which  succeeded  it,  converted  tlie  plains  to  the  south  of  the 
Tejo  into  deserts. 

The  hills  of  that  portion  of  Alemtejo  wliicli  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Guadiana 


Ficr.  204 — EsTiAUY  oi'  THE  Sado. 

Sciilp  I  :  arm.ono 


I  3racJirj  which  UTicorer 
at  loir    naier . 


ED  5.WJ 

l^>fj     Forests 


i  Milea. 


belong  to  the  system  of  the  Sierra  Morena  of  Spain.  The  river, which  separates 
them  from  the  hills  and  plateaux  of  the  west,  is  confined  in  a  deep  and  narrow 
gorge.  At  tlie  Pulo  do  Loho  ("  wolf's  leap  ")  it  still  descends  in  cataracts,  and 
becomes  navigable  only  at  Mortola,  thirty-seven  miles  above  its  mouth. 

The  hills  of  Southern  AJeratejo  and  Algarvc,  to  the  west  of  the  Guadiana,  are 
at  first  mere  swellings  of  the  ground  known  as  riimccuias,  or  "heights  of  land,"  but 
in  the  Serra  do  Malhao  (1,886  feet)  and  the  Scrra  da  Mezquita  they  attain  some 
height.  A  plateau,  traversed  by  the  upper  affluents  of  the  Mira,  joins  the  range 
last  mentioned  to  the  Serra  Caldeiiao  (I,27'J  feet),  supposed  to  be  named  after  some 
ancient  crater,  or  "  caldron,"  which  terminates,  to  the  north  of  Cape  Sines,  with 
the  Atalaya,  or  Sentinel  (1,010  feet).  The  principal  range  continues  towards  the 
west,  and  in  the  Serra  de  Monchique  (2,963  feet),  a  mountain  mass  filling  up  the 


ALEMTEJO  AND  ALGARVE. 


493 


south-western  corner  of  Portugal,  it  attains  its  culminating  point.  A  steep  ridge, 
known  as  Espinhaco  de  Cao  ("  dog's  back  "),  extends  from  the  latter  in  the  direction 
of  the  Capes  of  St.  Vincent  and  Sagres. 

The  latter  was  selected  by  Henry  the  Navigator  as  the  seat  of  the  naval  school 
founded  by  him,  and  from  its  heights  he  watched  for  the  return  of  the  vessels 
which  he  dispatched  on  exploratory  expeditions.  Associations  such  as  these  are 
far  more  pleasurable  than  those  connected  with  the  neighbouring  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
where  Admiral  Jervis,  in  1797,  destroyed  a  Spanish  fleet. 

The  hills  of  Sagres  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  the  subsidence  of  portions  of 

Fig.  205. — Sekka  1)E  Monchique  and  Promontory  of  Sagres. 
Scale  1  :  500,000. 


10  Miles. 


the  coast  of  Algarve  appears  to  prove  that  subterranean  forces  are  still  active. 
Wherever  this  subsidence  has  been  observed  the  coast  is  fringed  by  sand-banks, 
thrown  up  bj'  the  waves  of  the  sea,  the  channel  separating  them  from  the  main- 
land beinff  navigable  for  small  vessels. 

If  a  traveller  ascend  one  of  the  culminating  points  of  the  mountains  of  Algarve, 
he  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  remarkable  contrast  existing  between  the  districts 
to  the  north  and  south  of  him.  On  the  one  side  he  looks  down  upon  vast  soli- 
tudes resembling  deserts  ;  on  the  other  he  perceives  forests  of  chestnut- trees, 
numerous  villages,  towns  bordering  the  seashore,  and  fleets  of  fishing-boats  rocking 
upon  the  blue  waves.     The  contrasts  between  the  inhabitants  of  these  two  districts 


494 


PORTUGAL. 


are  scarcely  less  striking.  The  inhabitants  of  Alenitejo  are  the  most  .solemn  of 
Portuguese,  and  even  object  to  dancing.  Very  thinly  scattered  over  the  landes 
which  they  inhabit,  they  either  engage  in  agriculture  or  follow  their  herds  of  pigs 
and  sheep  into  the  forests  of  holm-oaks  and  thickets  of  rock- roses.  In  summer 
they  cross  the  Tejo  with  their  pig.<i,  and  pasture  them  in  tlic  mountains  of  Bcira. 
The  population  of  Algarve,  on  the  other  hand,  is  thrice  as  dense  as  that  of  Alem- 
tejo,  and  not  only  are  fields,  vineyards,  and  orchards  carefully  tended,  but  the  sea 
likewise  is  made  to  yield  a  portion  of  its  food.  The  contrast  between  the  two 
pro%nnces  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  most  of  the  great  battles  were 
fought  on  the  undulating  plains  of  Alemtejo.  When  the  Komans  hold  the  country 
Alemtcjo  supported  a  numerous  population,  as  is  proved  by  the  large  number  of 
inscriptions  found. 

Differences  of  altitude  and  geographical  position  sufficiently  account  for  the 


Fig.  206. — Geology  of  Algarte. 
Brale  1  :  1,600,000. 


~R-"*\mv~ 


Tertiary  ,  Alluvium, 


211  Miles. 


differences  of  climate  existing  between  the  two  provinces.  Alemtejo,  with  its 
monotonous  plains  and  stunted  vegetation,  is  almost  African  in  its  aspect,  whilst 
Algarve,  with  its  forests  of  olive-trees,  groves  of  date-palms,  agaves,  and  prickly 
cacti,  presents  us  with  tropical  features.  The  mean  temperature  near  the  coast  is 
probably  no  less  than  68''  F.  The  Serra  de  Monchique  bars  the  cool  winds  of  the 
north,  whilst  the  sandy  islands  fringing  a  portion  of  the  coast  keep  off  refreshing 
sea  breezes.  The  hottest  wind  of  all  is  that  which  blows  from  the  east.  It  is 
often  laden  with  fever- breeding  mia.smata,  and  a  proverb  says,  Ik'  Enpauha  iieiii  bom 
vento  nem  bom  casamento  :  "  Neither  good  winds  nor  good  weddings  are  bred  in 
Spain." 

Villanova  de  PortimiTo,  to  the  south  of  the  Serra  de  Monchique,  has  long  been 
looked  upon  as  the  hottest  place  in  Europe ;  there  are,  however,  several  localities 
in  Spain  which  rival  it  in  that  respect.     Thus  much  is  certain,  that  Algarve,  with 


ALEMTEJO  AND  ALGARVE.  495 

the  lower  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir  and  the  southern  coasts  of  Andalusia  and 
Murcia,  constitutes  the  most  torrid  portion  of  Europe.  The  Arabs  were  quite  right 
when  they  designated  Southern  Lusitania  and  the  opposite  shore  of  Morocco  by  the 
same  name  of  "  el  Gharb ; "  that  is,  the  two  Algarves,  or  "  eastern  districts." 
Portuguese  Algarve,  in  spite  of  the  conversion  of  its  inhabitants  to  Christianity, 
has  retained  its  ancient  Moorish  name;  and  the  Berber  and  Semitic  blood  is  very 
conspicuous  there. 

In  Upper  Alemtejo  there  are  but  few  towns,  and  these  would  be  altogether 
insignificant  if  it  were  not  for  the  overland  commerce  carried  on  with  Spain. 
Crato,  which  is  the  most  considerable  station  on  the  railway  which  joins  the  Tejo 
to  the  Guadiana,  and  its  neighbour  Portalegre,  were  formerly  important  stages  on 
the  great  overland  route.  Elvas,  farther  to  the  south,  is  surroimded  by  orchards, 
and  defended  by  forts  which  were  looked  upon  in  the  last  century  as  masterpieces 
of  military  architecture.  It  faces  the  Spanish  fortress  of  Badajoz,  as  well  as 
OHvenca,  which  was  assigned  to  Portugal  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  but  never 
surrendered  by  Spain.  Estremoz,  on  a  spur  of  the  Serra  de  Ossa,  is  famous 
throughout  Portugal  for  its  hi'icaros — elegantly  modelled  earthen  jars  which 
diffuse  a  sweet  odour.  Montemor  looks  down  from  its  hill  upon  vast  landes  and 
monotonous  woods.  Evora,  likewise  built  on  a  hill,  commands  an  extensive  plain. 
It  was  a  populous  place  during  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages  became  the  second  residence  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal.  There  exist  now  only 
a  Roman  aqueduct,  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Venus,  Corinthian  columns,  and  the 
remains  of  mediaeval  castles  to  remind  us  of  its  ancient  splendours. 

Beja,  the  ancient  Pax  Julia  or  Colonia  Paceiisis  of  the  Romans,  has  likewise 
lost  its  former  importance,  but  Minas  de  Siio  Domingos,  on  the  peninsula  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Guadiana  and  the  Chanza,  is  rapidly  increasing,  thanks  to 
its  mines  of  pyrites  of  copper  and  other  minerals,  which  are  being  worked  by  an 
English  company.  The  ore  is  conveyed  by  rail  to  Pomarao,  on  the  Guadiana,  and 
thence  on  barges  to  ViUa  Real  de  Santo  Antonio,  at  its  mouth,  formerly  a  mere 
fishing  village,  but  now  a  busy  port.  Castro  Marim,  where  the  expeditions  agaiast 
the  Moors  used  to  be  fitted  out,  is  close  to  it. 

Silves,  the  ancient  Moorish  capital  of  Algarve,  lies  in  the  interior  of  the  country, 
far  removed  from  the  present  highways  of  commerce.  Faro,  the  modern  capital, 
has  the  advantage  of  Ij'ing  on  the  seashore,  and  of  possessing  a  secure  harbour, 
whence  small  coasters  are  able  to  export  fruit,  tunny-fish,  sardines,  and  oysters. 
Tavira  possesses  the  same  advantages,  and  exports  the  same  articles :  it  is  said 
to  be  the  prettiest  town  of  Algarve.  Louie,  ia  a  delightful  inland  valley,  is  a 
pretty  place,  and,  when  invalids  have  learnt  the  road  to  Algarve,  may  obtain 
some  importance  as  a  winter  resort.  The  Caldas  (warm  baths)  de  Monchique  (600 
feet)  enjoy  a  world-wide  reputation  even  now,  not  only  because  of  their  efficacy,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  delicious  climate  and  charming  environs.  This  district  is  said 
to  produce  the  best  oranges  in  Portugal.* 

•  Towns  of  Southern  Portugal  having  over  5,000  inhabitants  (1864): — Alemtejo:   Evora,   11,965; 
Elvas,  11,0S6;  Estremoz,  7,274;  Beja,  7,060;  Portalegre,  6,731;  Serpa,  5,595;  M6uia,  5,489;  Castello 


49G 


PORTUGAL. 


V. — The  Present  and  Friiiuc  of  Portigal. 

Little  Portugal  no  longer  shares  with  her  neighbour,  Spain,  in  the  dominion  of 
the  world,  as  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  secrecy  observed  with  a  view  to  the 
retention  of  the  monopolj-  of  trade  with  countries  newly  discovered  proved  in  the  end 
most  injurious  to  Portugal.  Other  nations  appeared  upon  the  stage  which  the 
Portuguese  had  dreamt  of  occupying  for  ever,  and  though  the  latter  still  hold 
colonies  vastly  superior  in  area  to  the  mother  country,  this  is  nothing  in  comparison 
with  what  has  been  irretrievably  lost.  Vasco  da  Gama  discovered  the  ocean  high- 
road to  India,  but  the  few  settlements  which  Portugal  still  holds  tliere  she  owes  to 


Fig.  207.— Fauo  and  T.wiha. 

Scnli.'  1  :  ,T(X),IX)iJ. 


p 


>  Miiei 


the  favour  of  England.  In  the  JIalay  Archipelago  Portugal  has  been  supplanted 
almost  completely  by  the  Dutch,  and  Macao,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Canton  River, 
was  hardly  more  than  a  .slave  market  until  quite  recently,  from  which  Chinese 
"  emigrants  "  were  exported  to  Peru.  In  Africa  Portugal  holds  vast  possessions, 
if  we  are  to  believe  in  official  documents  and  maps,  but  in  reality  only  a  very 
small  tract  of  territory  is  under  the  dominion  of  the  Portuguese,  and  most  of 
the  commerce  is  carried  on  through  Dutch  and  other  foreign  houses.  As  to  Brazil, 
it  now  surpasses  the  mother  countrj'  in  population  and  wealth.     Madeira  and  the 

de  Vido,  .5,285;  Campo  Maior,  5,277.  A!flnrre  :  Louie,  12,150:  Tiivira,  10,90.3:  Faro,  8,361:  I.agos, 
7,771;  Olhao,  7,025;  Alportel.  6,043;  Villanova  de  Portimao,  5,531;  Sao  Bartholomeu  de  Mcssirea, 
5,318;  Monchique,  5,25 1  ;  Silves,  5,103. 


THE  PEESEXT  AND  FUTUEE  OF  POETUGAX,. 


497 


Azores,  the  first  conquests  made  by  Lisbon  navigators,  are  looked  upon  as  integral 
portions  of  Portugal ;  thej-  enjoy  the  same  rights,  and  are  quite  equal  to  it  in 
wealth.* 

When  Brazil  was  lost  to  Portugal  that  small  country  found  itself  in  a  position 
of  lamentable  prostration.  Exhausted  by  foreign  and  internecine  -wars,  its  finances 
utterly  ruined,  and  without  roads  to  enable  it  to  export  its  produce,  it  might  have 
disappeared  from  our  maps  without  any  interests,  except  those  of  a  few  English 
vine-growers  and  Spanish  smugglers,  being  afiected.  Even  in  1851  there  only 
existed  a  single  carriage  road  in  the  country,  namely,  that  which  connected  Lisbon 
with  the  royal  palace  at  Cintra.  Xo  attention  whatever  was  paid  to  education, 
and  about  a  generation  ago  a  girl  able  to  read  was  a  phenomenon.  At  the  same 
time  we  must  not  forget  that  these  illiterate  Portuguese  knew  how  to  discuss  a 

Fig.  208. — Geogrsphical  Extent  of  the  PoRTtGiESE  Langiage. 


subject  without  quarrelling,  had  great  command  of  their  language,  and  were 
able  even  to  improvise  verses  of  great  poetical  merit,  in  all  of  which  respects  they 
contrasted  favourably  with  the  peasantry  of  Northern  Europe. 

In  the  course  of  the  last  generation  education  has  made  much  progress  in 
Portugal ;  t  and  in  other  respects,  too,  the  country  has  gradually  assimilated  with  the 
rest  of  Europe.  Roads  and  railways  have  been  constructed,?  and  the  latter  connect 
Lisbon  not  only  with  the  leading  provincial  towns,  but  also  with  Spain.  The  com- 
merce with  the  latter  country  increases  regularly  wil  h  the  occurrence  of  civil  war, 
when  Portugal  profits  at  the  expense  of  the   Spanish  ports  of  the  Mediterranean. 

•  For  a  list  of  Portuguese  colonies  see  p.  .500. 

t  In  1874  there  were  2,649  elementary  and  middle-class  schools,  attended  by  122,004  pjpils,  besides 
a  university  and  nine  special  schools,  with  4,300  students. 

J  In  187.5,  2,237  miles  of  royal  high-roads,  600  miles  of  railroads. 


498 


rORTUGAL. 


r  ^^    fvi— 7^-*-*^    ■^,.>SB^ 


Much  of  the  ordinary  commerce  with  8p;iin  never  aj)pears  in  the  customs  registries, 
for  it  is  curried  on  by  smugglers,  who  gloi  y  in  evading  the  vigilance  of  the  frontier 
police. 

The  commerce  of  Portugal  has  increased  very  much  in  the  course  of  the  last 
thirty  years.  More  than  half  of  it  falls  to  the  share  of  Great  Britain,  a  circum- 
stance not  to  be  wondered  at  when  we  bear  in  mind  the  relative  geographical  posi- 
tion of  the  two  countries,  for  Portugal  lies  upon  the  direct  route  followed  by 

English   steamers  proceeding    to   the 
Fig.  209. — Teleokaph  kkom  Lisbo.n  to  Uio  hi;        -  . 

Janeiro.  Mediterranean,     \\  estern     Africa,     or 

Brazil.  The  assistance  which  England 
rendered  Portugal  during  the  penin- 
sular war  has  cemented  these  com- 
mercial bonds. 

The  commercial  relations  with 
Brazil,  now  joined  to  Lisbon  by  a 
submarine  cable,  are  likewise  the 
natural  result  of  the  relative  positions 
of  the  two  countries  and  of  the  common 
origin  of  their  populations.  Portugal, 
in  fact,  participates  in  every  progress 
made  by  its  old  colony,  and  its  com- 
merce will  assume  immense  propor- 
tions when  slavery  is  abolished  in 
Brazil,  when  the  solitudes  of  the 
Amazonas  resound  with  the  stir  of 
industrious  populations,  and  the  coasts 
of  the  Pacific  are  joined  to  the  Atlantic 
by  means  of  railways  crossing  the 
Andes.* 

But,  after  all,  it  will  be  Spain  with 
which  the  most  intimate  commercial 
relations  must  finally  be  established,  in  spite  of  national  prejudices  and  dynastic 
interests.  The  two  nations  will  in  the  end  become  one,  as  the  Aragonese  and 
Castilians,  the  Andalusians  and  Manchcgos,  have  become  one.  It  is  merely  a 
question  of  time  ;  but  who  can  doubt  that  community  of  industrial  and  social  relations 
will  lead  to  a  political  union.  We  only  trust  that  ttiis  union  may  be  brought 
about  without  a  resort  to  brute  force,  and  with  due  regard  to  special  interests. 


0~JOfJ 


Depths 


YI. GOVKRNMKNT    AND    ADMINISTRATION. 

PoRTiGAL  is  an  hereditary  and  constitutional  monarchy.      In  accordance  with  the 
Carta  de  Ley  of  1826,  as  revised  in  1852,  the  King  is  charged  with  the  executive, 

•  Value  cf  exports  and  imports  in  IS40,  f4,016,.320;  in  IS.56,  £8,127,400;  1875,  £12,916,020. 
The  commercial  marine  consisted  in  l8"-i  of  433  vessels  (inclusive  of  23  steamers),  measuring  111,260 
tons. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTEATION.  499 

and  shares  the  power  of  making  laws  with  two  chambers.  He  receives  a  civil  list  of 
£'144,000,  enjoys  the  income  from  certain  Crown  lands,  and  possesses  magnificent 
Crown  jewels,  amongst  which  the  "  diamond  of  Braganca  "  is  the  most  famous. 
In  default  of  male  heirs  the  crown  descends  in  the  female  line.  "  His  most  faith- 
ful Majesty  "  still  claims  to  be  "  King  of  the  two  Algarves,  Lord  of  Guinea  and  of 
the  Conquests."  The  seven  ministers  of  the  Crown  are  responsible  for  the  King's 
actions;  they  may  be  impeached  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  are  judged  by 
the  Chamber  of  Peers.  A  Privy  Council  of  an  indefinite  number  of  members, 
appointed  for  life,  advises  the  King  in  all  questions  of  administration.  The  heir 
presumptive  takes  part  in  its  deliberations  on  attaining  his  eighteenth  year. 

The  Chamber  of  Peers  consists  of  about  a  hundred  members,  some  of  them 
hereditary  and  others  appointed  by  the  King.  Its  meetings  are  presided  over  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elective,  and  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  budget  and  granting  of  sujjplies  are  specially  reserved  to  it.  All 
males  more  than  twenty-five  years  of  age  are  entitled  to  the  franchise  if  they  pay 
4s.  6d.  in  direct  taxes,  or  22s.  from  real  estate.  Graduates  of  universities,  certified 
teachers,  ofiicers,  and  priests  are  not  required  to  possess  any  property  qualification, 
and  they,  as  well  as  all  married  men,  become  enfranchised  on  completing  their 
twenty-first  j-ear.  All  electors  are  eligible  as  deputies  if  they  pay  18s.  in  direct 
taxes,  or  90s.  from  real  estate.  Every  25,000  inhabitants  are  represented  by  a 
deputy.  The  President  of  the  Chamber  is  selected  by  the  King  from  five 
candidates  presented  by  the  deputies.     The  latter  are  entitled  to  remuneration. 

For  judicial  purposes  the  country  is  divided  into  twenty-six  districts,  or 
comarcas,  with  eighty-five  courts.  There  are  courts  of  appeal  at  Lisbon  and 
Oporto,  and  a  supreme  court  at  Lisbon.  Parish  judges  {juiz  eleito),  elected  by  the 
people,  exercise  the  inferior  jurisdiction.  Juries  give  their  verdict  on  questions  of 
fact  in  civil  as  well  as  in  criminal  cases.  The  principal  codes  still  in  force  are  the 
"Codigo  Alfonsino"  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  "  Codigo  Manoelino "  (1513), 
and  the  "  Codigo  Filippino,"  introduced  by  Philip  lY.  of  Spain.  A  Commercial 
Code  was  published  in  1833. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  that  of  the  State,  but  Protestant  places  of 
■worship  are  sufiered  to  exist  in  the  seaports.  The  hierarchy  includes  a  patriarch 
residing  at  Lisbon,  two  archbishops  at  Braga  and  Evora,  and  fourteen  bishops. 
The  Inquisition  was  abolished  in  1821,  and  the  monasteries,  750  in  number,  as  well 
as  most  of  the  convents,  were  suppressed  in  1834,  and  their  revenues  confiscated 
for  the  benefit  of  the  State. 

The  army  numbers  1,650  officers  and  38,000  men,  of  whom  about  two-thirds 
are  under  colours  during  peace.  On  a  war  footing  it  is  to  be  raised  to  2,418 
■officers  and  70,687  men.  All  men  are  obliged  to  serve  either  in  the  army  or  in 
the  reserve,  and  exemption  can  no  longer  be  purchased.  The  fortresses  are 
numerous,  but  only  a  few  of  them  are  capable  of  being  defended  against  modern 
artillery.  The  most  important  are  Elvas,  Abrantes,  and  Yulenca,  near  the  Spanish 
frontier,  the  fort  of  Sao  Juliao  and  the  citadel  of  Peniche  on  the  coast.  The  navy 
no  longer  numbers  a  thousand  vessels,  as  it  did  when  King  Sebastian  started  for 


500 


PORTUG.VL. 


the  invasion  of  Morocco.  It  consists  now  of  twenty-seven  steamers,  including  an 
ironclad  corvette,  and  eleven  sailing  vessels,  manned  by  3,000  men  and  armed 
with  171  guns. 

The  public  revenue  approaches  £6,000,000  sterling,  and  ever  since  1834  there 
has  been  annually  a  deficit,  which  has  resulted  in  a  national  debt  of  more  than 
£80,000,000,  a  burden  almost  too  heavy  for  a  small  country  like  Portugal.  The 
revenue  is,  however,  increasing,  a  balance  between  income  and  expenditure  has 
been  established  within  the  last  year  or  two,  and  the  wretched  expedient  of 
deducting  from  o  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  salaries  of  Government  officials  could  be 
dispensed  with  for  the  first  time  in  1875. 


ProTinces. 
Entre  Douro  e  Minho 

Traz  OS  Monies 

Beira  Alta    .     . 

Beira  Baixa 

Estremuduiu     . 

Alemtejo      .     . 
Algarve  .     .     . 


Political  Divisions,  Area,  axo  PoruLATiox. 

Districts.  Area,  Sq.  Miles. 

I  Vianiia         .         .         .  SG4 

]  Bniga.          .          .          .  1.054 

(  Porlo  ....  903 

j  Villa  Real    .         .         .  1,718 

\  Bragan<;a     .          .          .  '2.573 

(  Aveiio          .         .         .  1,216 

Vizeu  ....  l,i<22 

!  C'oimtira       .         .         .  1.500 

f  GuarJa         .          .          .  2.148 

\  Castello  Branco   .         .  2,559 

'  8uiilarem     .         .         .  2,651 

(  Lisbon          .         .         .  2,936 

(  Portalegre  .         .         .  2.497 

ftvoia ....  2.740 

'  Bfja     ....  4,198 

I'aro    ....  1,875 


ation,  1874. 

Deiuity 

221,049 

256 

346.429 

329 

451,212 

500 

239,591 

140 

177,170 

— 

272,763 

69 

398,477 

207 

305,237 

i03 

234,912 

109 

178,703 

69 

194.944 

146 

217,316 

82 

491,205 

168 

109,192 

44 

112,477 

41 

154,327 

37 

193,877 

104 

Continental  Europe 


34,702 


4,298,881 


124 


CoLONL&L  Possessions. 


Azores 

Afuica  : — 

Madeira .... 

Cape  Verde  Island 

Senefjanibia    . 

St.  Thome  and  Principe 

Fort  Aj  luia 

Angola,  Bengnela.  and  Mossamedes 

Mo<,'ambique  and  Sofala 
Asia  :  — 

(jroa,  &c. 

Pamao  . 

Diu 

Timor  and  Kambing 

Macao 


Colonies 
Total,  Portugal  and  Colonies 


Aa^a,  Sq.  Miles. 
921 

310 

1,487 

27 

417 

13 

312,000 

40,000 

1,395 
30 

12 
5,527 


362,140 
396,842 


Populjition. 
60,072 

118,609 

90,704 

9,282 

31,692 

700 

2,000,000 

300,000 

474,234 
40,980 

12,303 
250,000 

71,834 

3,460.410 
7,759,291 


Density. 
65 

383 

61 

344 

75 

64 

6 

8 

339 

13.i6 

1025 

45 

47-223 


10 


20 


INDEX 


AbrSntes,  490 

Abruzzos,  26S 

Achelous,  48 

Adrianople,  106 

^gadian  Islands,  334 

^gean  Sea,  69,  95 

^gina,  56 

Mg'ium,  67 

^olian  Islands,  331 

-S^tolia,  53 

^toUko,  49,  i3, 

Aitone,  366 

Ajactio,  365,  369 

Albacete,  420 

Albania,  115 

Albanians,  44,   119,  120;  in  Italy, 

295 
Albano,  260 
Alcala,  393 
Alcantara,  391 
Alcoy,  420 
Alecsandria,  170 
Alemtejo,  490 
Algarre,  490 
Alhama.  422 
Alhambra,  407,  408 
Alicante,  417,  422 
AJmaden,  392 
Almagro,  391 
Almeida,  481 
Almeria,  412 
Alpheus,  61,  63 
Alps,  10 
Alpujarras,  397 
Amarante,  479 
Anadoli-kavak,  104 
Ancona,  282 
Andalusia,  394 
Andorra,  438 
Andros,  72 
Anio,  273 
Antequera,  412 
Antimilos,  71 
Antiparos,  71 
Apennines,  257 
Aquila,  284 
Aragon,  427 
Aragon  Steppes.  436 
Aran,  438 
Aranjuez,  393,  394 
Arcadia,  58,  65 
Arezzo,  252 


Argentaro,  Monte,  243 
Argolis,  59,  65 
Argos,  68 
Argostoli,  79 
Ariano,  305 
Armenians,  102 
Amo,  210 
Arosa,  459 
Arta,  Gulf  of,  48,  53 
Aspromonte,  288 
Astorga,  387 
Asturias,  448 
Ast\-pala3a,  94 
Athens,  54 
Athos,  Mount,  108 
Attica,  53 
Aveiro,  476,  481 
Ivila,  389 
Azcoitia,  447 
Azof,  Sea  of,  25 

Badajoz,  391 

Baeza,  407 

Balagna,  365 

Balearic  Islands,  423 — 427 

Balkans,  133 

Baragan,  159 

Barcellos,  479 

Barcelona,  436 

Bari,  306 

Barletta,  306 

Basque  P^o^'inces,  439 

Basques,  372,  442 

BasteUca,  366 

Bastia,  368 

Batalha,  489 

Batuecas,  387 

Bavona,  459 

Beja,  495 

Belem,  487 

Belgrad.  174 

Bellas,  4S« 

Benevento,  305 

Berda,  179 

Beriei,  193 

Berlingas,  483 

Bessarabia,  164 

Bidassoa,  437 

Bientina,  2l5 

Biguglia,  368 

Bilbao,  446 

Biscay,  Bav  of,  441 


Black  Sea,  25 
Boeotia,  53 
Bologna,  228 
Bolsena,  259 
Bomfica,  488 
Bonifacio,  369 
Bosnia,  127 
Bosphorus,  98 
Botoseini,  169 
Braga,  479 
Bragan(;a,  481 
Braila,  170 
Brenner,  222 
Brindisi,  306 
Bucharest,  168 
Bulgaria,  131 
Bulgarians,  138 
Bflrgos,  388 
Bussaco,  481 
Butrinto,  76 
Buyukdere,  103 

Cabo  da  Roca,  488 

C&ceres,  391 

Cidiz,  401,  410 

Calabria.  287,  295,  296,  308 

Calahorra,  448 

Calamata,  67 

Calata\-ud,  434 

Calvi,  369 

Caminha,  479 

Campania.  289 

Campo  doll'  Oro,  365 

Campo  de  Ourique,  492 

Candia,  90 

Canea,  92 

Cantabrian  Pyrenees,  451 

Capri.  302 

Capua,  304 

Carcavellos,  487 

Cardona,  431 

Carghese,  366 

Casabianda,  365 

Cascaes,  487 

Caserta,  304 

Casino,  304 

CasteUolUt,  431 

Castel-Gandolfo,  361 

Castiles,  377 

Castro  Marim,  495 

Catalonia,  427 

Catania,  320 


502 


INDEX. 


Catanzari,  309 

Celtiberiuns,  372 

Celts,  372 

Cephalonia,  78 

Ccphissiis,  SI 

CVrigo,  09 

Cezimbra,  490 

Chalcidicc,  107 

Chali'is,  70,  71 

Chaves,  -ISl 

Chiana,  244 

(/intra,  4«3 

Circassians,  142 

Citha;T<)n,  47 

Ciudaii  Keal,  391 

Civita  Veeehia,  281 

Coiiubra,  481 

Columbretes,  424 

Comaechio,  220 

Como,  198 

Constantinople,  88,  98,  150 

Copais,  51,  52 

Coreubion,  459 

C6rdova,  406,  408 

Corfu,  75 
Corinth,  57,  66 
Corsica,  363 
Corte,  366,  369 
Corunna,  459 
Cosenza,  309 
Cotrone,  309 
Cranz,  65 
Crato,  495 
Crete,  90 
Cuenca,  392 
Cyeludes,  70 
Cyllene,  57 
Cj-thera,  69 
Cythnos,  71 

Daimiel,  391 
Danube,  136,  159 
Dardani-Ues,  105 
Dedc  Apharh,  107 
Delos,  71,  74 
Delplii,  47 

Despcnaperros,  395,  396 
Dobnija,  134,  142 
Dodon'a,  118 
Doloniites.  192 
Dora  Baltea,  197 
D6uro,  473 
Drin,  115 
Drina,  174 
Duero,  383 
Durango,  447 
Durazzo,  125 

Ebro,  427 
Ebro  Delta,  432 
Ecija,  402 
Elba,  255 
Elche,  417 — 119 
Elcusis,  55 
Elis,  59 
El  Torcal,  398 
Elvas,  495 
Etna, -311 
Epakto,  53 
Epidaurus,  68 
Epirus.  115,  117 
Erasinus,  61 
Erj-manthus,  57 
Escorial.  393 
Espinho,  479 
Espozende,  479 
EstreUu,  483 


Estremadura,  377 
Estremoz,  495 
Etruscans,  248 
Eubii'a,  70,  71 
Euganean  Hills,  193 
Euripus,  70 
Eurotas,  62,  67 
I^Juskarians,  442 
Evora,  495 

Ealticeni,  169 
Farilhaos,  483 
Earo,  495 
Ferdinandea,  316 
Kerr.ua,  228 
Ferrol,  459 
Figucira  da  Foz,  481 
Fiumicino,  271,  273 
Florence,  251 
Foggia,  306 
Fontibre,  432 
Fueino,  262 
Fuenterrabia,  447 

Gaeta,  304 

Gaia,  479 

Galaxidi,  53 

(ialatz,  169 

(ialicia,  448 

tiallipoli,  106,  308 

Gastuni,  63,  64 

Gata,  .Sierra  de,  381 

Gaytanos,  399 

(ienoa,  234 

Gerania,  48 

Gerona,  437 

Gibraltar,  400,  413 

(Jibraltar,  Strait  of,  26 

Gijon,  459 

Gipsies,  373 

Girgenti,  329 

Giurgevo,  170 

Giurgiu.  170 

Golden  Horn,  98 

Golfolino  of  Arno,  240 

Granada,  4U7 

Grand  Paradis,  191 

Gr&o  de  Valencia,  424 

Gredos,  Sierra  de,  380 

Greece,  36 

Greeks  in  Turkey,  102,  114, 141, 153 

Guadalajara,  393, 

(iuadalaWar,  415,  417 

Guadalqui\"ir,  395,  399 

Guadarrama,  378 

(iuadiana,  395,  383 

(iubbio,  282 

Guernica,  447,  453 

Guetiiria,  447,  452 

Guimaraes,  479,  480 

GuipCizcoa,  446 

Gythion,  65 

Hagio  Rumeli,  91 

Helicon,  47 

Hellenes,  41 

Hellespont,  105 

Hercules,  Tower  of,  459,  463 

Hermopolis,  74 

Herzegovina,  127 

Huelva,  406 

Hvdra,  60 

Hylice,  51 

Hymettus,  48 

D)eria,  369 
Iberians,  372 


Ibiza,  425,  427 
He  Uousse,  369 
lUyria,  127 
Inibro,  96 
Insua,  479 
Ionian  Isles,  75 
Iri,  62 
Ischia,  291 
I  SCO,  200 
Isker,  132 
Ismail,  169 
Italy,  183 
Ithaca,  78 
Iviza,  425,  427 

■larama,  394 
Jaizquibel,  439,  445 
Jerez,  405,  410 
Jljear,  415,  417 

Katavothras,  48 
Kilia,  169 
Kraguyevatz,  174 
Kraina,  129 
Krushevatz,  173 
Kutzo-Wallachians,  44 

Laconia,  69 

La  Coruiia,  459 

Lago  Maggiore,  198 

I^agoons  of  Venice,  202,  2o7 

Ea  Mancha,  378,  385,  391 

Lamego,  478.  481      • 

Lamia,  56 

Laroueo,  480 

La\iriuni,  48 

Lebrija,  409 

Le<;a,  4  79 

Leeco,  308 

Leghorn,  255 

Leiria,  489 

Lininos,  97 

Lentini,  316 

Leon,  377,  387 

Lepanto,  53 

Ijcrida,  435 

I>eucadia,  77 

Lczirias,  4*12 

Liebana,  450 

Liguria,  230 

UiiiH,  475 

Linians,  161 

Limia,  475 

Linares,  405,  407 

Lipari,  331 

Lisbon,  484 

Livadia,  56 

Logroiio,  439,  448 

Lorca,  4 1 7 

Loreto,  283 

Louie,  495 

Lucca,  253 

Lugo,  459 

Lycaeus,  58 

llaccalubas,  317 
Macedonia,  98 
Madrid,  392,  393 
Maffia,  321 
Mafra,  488 
Magra,  254 
Mainotes,  43 
Majorca,  4'^5 
Malaga,  412 
Malaria,  247 
Malea,  57 
Mallorca,  425 


INDEX. 


503 


Malta,  335 

Malvoisie,  67 
Mancha  Real,  402 
Manfredonia,  306 
Man  tinea,  61,  62 
Mantua,  227 
Marathon,  36 
Marathonisi,  65 
Marchena,  409 
Marches,  257 
Maremma,  246 
Mariana,  367,  368 
Maritza,  136 
Marmara,  Sea  of,  104 
Marsala,  326 
Matapan,  59 
Mataro,  437 
Mattozinhos,  479 
Medina  del  Campo,  389 
Mediterranean,  23 
Megara,  56 
Mega-Spileon,  57 
Menorca,  426 
Merida,  391 
Merinos,  385 
Messenia,  65,  68 
Messina,  32<> 
Messina,  Strait  of,  309 
Meteora,  113 
Methone,  59 
MUan,  225 
MlIos,  72 
Minho,  455,  473 
Miiio,  455 
Minorca,  426 
Mirdits,  116,  123 
Missolonghi,  49,  53 
Mistra,  68 
Moldavia,  157 
Moncayo,  429 
Monchique,  495 
Mondego,  473 
Monjuich,  436 
Monserrat,  431 
Monte  Cinto,  363 
Monte  Gargano,  287 
Montemor,  495 
Montenegro,  179 
Monte  Pellegrino,  316 
Montepulciano,  253 
Monte  Viso,  189 
Montieri,  242 
Montilla,  409 
Moors  in  Spain,  372 
Morava,  127,  173 
Morea,  56 

Miircia,  413,  417—420 
Mycenas,  68 

Naples,  286,  300 
Narenta,  128 
Naupactus,  53 
Navarino,  67 
Kavarra,  439 
Navas  de  Tolosa,  395 
Naxos,  71,  74 
Nea  Kaimcni,  72 
Negroponte,  71 
Nemea,  68 
Nicosia,  326 
Nish,  143 
Noya,  459 
Numancia,  379 
Numantia,  387 

Oeiras,  487 
Okhrida,  116 


Olite,  448 
01iven(,'a,  495 
Olot,  437 
Olto,  158 

Olympus,  Mount,  110 
Oporto,  478 
Orense,  459 
Orezza,  368 
Orihuela,  417,  419 
Or\-ieto,  282 
Ostia,  271,  273 
Osuna,  409 
Otranto,  306 
Ovar,  481 
Oviedo,  459 

Paestum,  303 
Paiz  do  Vinho,  477 
Palatine  Hill,  277 
Palencia,  387 
Palermo,  322 
Palma,  429 
Pahnanova,  229 
Pamisus,  63 
Pantellaria,  334 
Parnassus,  47 
Pames,  47 
Pamon,  57 
Paros,  71 
Patones,  394 
Patras,  66 
Pelasgians,  41 
Peloponnesus,  56 
Pelorus,  315 
Penagache,  473 
Peiias  de  Europa,  449 
Peneus,  64,  113 
Penha  de  Cintra,  489 
Peniche,  483 
Pentelicus,  47 
Pergusa,  317 
Perugia,  ■J63,  282 
Pesaro,  2S3 
Pezo  da  Eegoa,  477 
Phanar,  102 
Phenea,  63 
Pheneus,  60 
Phigalia,  68 
Phlegrean  Fields,  290 
Phonia,  60 
Piave,  191,  205 
Pietra  M;ila,  194 
Pindus,  45,  1 16 
Pimatza,  63 
Pizzighettone,  360 
Plasencia,  391 
Po,  River,  210 
Po,  VaUey  of,  189 
Pomarao.  495 
Pompeii,  301 
Ponte  de  Lima,  479 
Pontevedra,  459 
Pontine  Marshes,  267 
Poros,  69 
Portalegre,  495 
Port  Mahon,  427 
Porto,  478 
Portugal,  469 
Potenza,  308 
Pozzuoli,  290 
Prato,  253 
Prevcsa,  125 
Prisrend,  125 
Procida,  291 
Pruth,  159 
Puigcerda,  435 
,    Pylos,  66 


PjTenees,  429 
Pyrgos,  67 
Pytiuses,  424,  425 

Queluz,  488 

Rascia,  129 

Ravenna,  228 

Reggio,  294,  309 

Reinosa  Pass,  454 

Reni,  169 

Reno,  208 

Rhium,  53 

Rhodope,  135 

Bias  of  Galicia,  454 

Rimini,  222 

Rioja,  448 

Rio  Tinto,  405 

Rivera,  230 

Rocca  d'Anfo,  360 

Rodosto,  108 

Roman  Campagna,  265 

Rome,  274 

Ronda,  413 

Rosas,  437 

Rota,  405 

Rumania  (Roumania),  166 

Rumanians,  162 

Rmnili-kavak,  104 

Ruphia,  63 

Sado,  492 

Sagres,  493 

Saguntum,  423 

Salamanca,  388,  389 

Salamis,  56 

Salerno,  302 

Saloniki,  109 

Salpi,  305 

Salvaterra,  482 

Samothrace,  96 

San  Fernando,  410 

SanlOcar,  400,  410 

San  Marino,  284 

Santa  Maura,  77 

Santander,  448,  458 

Santarem,  490 

Santiago  de  Compostela,  460 

Santoiia,  458 

Santorin,  72 

Sao  Joao  da  Foz,  479 

Saragossa,  434 

Sarayevo,  130 

Samo,  303 

Sciaeca,  330 

Scutari,  115,  125,  180 

ScjTOS,  7(t 

Sebino,  200 

Segovia,  389,390 

Segre,  431 

Segura,  416,  417 

Serbelloni,  201 

Serchio,  242,  253 

Serena,  391 

Sereth,  159 

Serra  da  Estrella,  474 

Serra  de  Monchique,  492 

Serra  do  Gerez,  474 

Servia,  172 

Ser^nans,  119 

Setfibal,  490 

Se^-iUe,  409 

Shil,  158 

Sicily,  309 

Sierra  Morena,  395 

Sierra  Nevada,  396 

Sil,  455 


604 


INDEX. 


Silves,  495 
Sobrarbo,  430 
Sofia,  143 
Soria,  o87 
Spain,  3(i'J 
Spaniards,  373 
Sparta,  ()8 
Sjiurtans,  05 
Spercliius,  50 
Spt'zia,  6il,  237 
Sphakiotes,  92 
Spoleto,  ^8  : 
Sporadcs,  70 
St.  Flonnt,  369 
Stroniboli,  333 
Strvinon,  13() 
St.Scljastiaii,  446 
StviHi)iialus,  f)l 
St!  Vnsti',  381 
Stvx,  5" 
Siilina,  138 
Suliotis,  119 
Svbaris,  308 
Sj-ra,  74 
Syracuse,  327 

Tafalla,  447 

Tagliamentn,  191,  205 

Tagus,  see  Tajo  and  Tejo 

Tajo,  383,  482 

Talavera  de  la  Roina,  391 

Taranto,  3U7 

Tarragona,  436 

Tavira,  495 

Tavogliere  of  Puglia,  286,  299 

Taygetus,  58 

Tojo,  482 

'IVmpe,  111 

Tcrni,  '270,  282 

Tharsis,  405 


Thasos,  94 
Thebes,  56 
Thcra,  72 
Tlicrapia,  103 
Tliermia,  71 
Thorino]ivlii',  50 
Tho».salv,"  98,  1 1 1 
Tlioinar,  489 
Thracia,  98 
Tiber,  257,  208 
Ticrra  de  ( 'anipos,  385 
Tirgovist,  170 
Tirnova,  1 33 
Tivoli,  271 
Toledo,  390,  393 
Tolosa,  447 
Topiuo,  209 
Torres  \'edras,  483 
Tortosa,  435 
Trajan's  Wall.  Ifil 
Tra'iii,  30G 

Transylvanian  Alps,  167 
Trapani,  326 
Trasiniono,  264 
Triolionis,  48 
Tripolis,  06 
Tripolitza,  06 
Trujilld,  391 
Tud.'l.i,  448 
Tui-in,  224 

Turk-ey  in  I'.urope,  87 
Turkish  Knipire,  151 
Turks,  147 
Tunm  Severinu,  170 
Tuscans,  248 
Tuscany,  239 
Tuy,  459 
Tyrrhenian  Sea,  24  S 

TTbeda,  407 


I'rbino,  283 
lltrcra,  409 

Valdeon,  450 

YaUloniello,  366 

Valencia,  413,  419,  422 

Valladolid,  388 

Vardar,  135 

Vendetta,  367 

Venice,  202,  207,  229 

Verbano,  197 

A'ergara,  447 

Verona,  229 

A'esuvius,  288,  291 

Vianna  do  Castello,  479 

Vigo,  459 

A'ilkof,  109 

Villa  do  Condc,  479 

Villanova  de  Portimao,  494 

Villa  lieal,  4H0 

Villa  Real  dc  Santo  Antonio,  496 

Vitosh,  132 

Vizeu,  481 

Vostitza,  67 

Vouga,  176 

Vulcano,  332 

Wallachians,  120,  162 

Yalomitza,    161 
Yanina,  116,  126 
Yassy,  168 
Yuruks,  107 

Zamora,  388 
Zante,  79 
Zaragoza,  434 
Zczcre,  482 
Zinzares,  114,  119 
Zvria,  57 


END   OF   VOL.   I. 


XK 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

305  De  Neve  Drive  -  Parking  Lot  17   •   Box  951388 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA  90095-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library  from  which  it  was  borrowed 


JAN1021MS' 


-^ 


-»      >;,> 


^.^^ 


LD2] 
(A281  . 


-*3r>  "ae* 


:>  :>  ^> 


>"5^t^>> 

:jfi» 

■iX>    •>    >_ 

-^■>i:>^ 

» 

_  ::3P.-  -• ' 

>^.^' 

"t  > 

.as>'  ->  ^ 

> 

■aK>     >  > 

>  >':r>- 

> 

?s>    ->  ' 

>  >^z>> 

>-, 

a>    .>  5 

>:>  ::» 

■j . 

ao     >5 

>  :>  3>" 

^■, 

£>     :>  ' 

J    .S»'-     i 

'j>      >  ^  .- 

5^'  -T»> 

"^     ^  >- 

>^    ^» 

>.  ' 

J>  .    ::>    ^.^ 

>:>  /^> 

>> 

'>  ■  ■^•'-34 

»    ^j.   -■ 

■-*  ^.-.^ 

>    ^:» 

*'■'      ; 

=.     o  '.  - 

->     ■   -Tt>    > 

"  J> 

>  ^  -  ^^ 

>^    r» 

>      >  ">. 

i»                3>       T^ 

^ 

^   ?  ^_ 

■»->.  ^r^ 


>iE» 

> 

^;^^ 

i> 

>  ■>:> 

~:> 

:>/^ 

^ 

-:>■& 

•  •:> 

Dl'SS» 

v:> 

►--» 

^j>     :_ 

:3  3> 

.^>  J 

>>3 

-->    .^^ 

■  ^  >     . 


:? 

»-> 

"> 

*   ;>  > 

> 

> 

> 

^? 

r:>i.o> 

7> 

3  ' 

>■  ■ 

as*     '3> 


